Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits

Metals: They possess very low resistivity or high conductivity. ρ ≈ 10-2 - 10-8 Ωm, σ ≈ 102 - 10 8 Sm-1
Semiconductors: They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators.
ρ ≈ 10-5 - 106 Ωm, σ ≈ 10+5 - 10-6 Sm-1
Insulators: They have high resistivity or low conductivity. ρ ≈ 1011 - 1019 Ωm, σ ≈ 10-11 - 10-19 Sm-1
Types of Semiconductors: Types of semiconductors are given below:
(i) Elements Semiconductors: These semiconductors are available in natural elemental form, e.g. silicon and
germanium.
(ii) Compound Semiconductors: These semiconductors are made by compounding the metals, e.g. CdS,
GaAs, CdSe, InP, anthracene, polyaniline, etc.
Energy Band Theory: Discreet energy levels of electrons as proposed by Bohr is possible only for an isolated
atom. But in solid crystal, atoms are packed very closed to each other, electrons of the atoms interact with
each other, resulting to overlapping of energy levels. Hence the energy levels appear to as band of energies.
The energy band which is formed by the interaction of the valance energy levels is called the valence band.
The separate energy band formed by the interaction of unfilled energy levels is called the conduction band.
The two energy bands, (i.e., valance band and conduction band) are separated by a small energy gap, called
forbidden energy gap or simply energy gap. Normally all the valence electrons reside in the valence band
and the conduction band is remains completely empty. When the electrons cross the energy gap and
moved to the conduction band then those electrons can conduct electricity. And the corresponding empty
space formed in valance band is called a hole, which is passively charged. Presence of electrons in
conduction band and holes in valance band results to conduction of electricity in the solid.

Energy Band Gap The minimum energy required for jumping electrons from valence band to conduction
band is called energy band gap ( E g)
Fermi Energy It is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a material at absolute zero
temperature (i.e., 0K)
Differences between conductor, semiconductor, and insulator:
Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
The conduction band and valance The energy gap between The energy gap between
band overlap with each other. conduction band and valance band conduction band and valance
is less than 3 eV. band is less than 3 eV.
Can conduct electricity at any Can not conduct electricity at 0K Do not conduct electricity even at
temperature, even at 0K. but conductivity increases with rise high temperature.
in temperature.

Broad classification of Semiconductors:

(i) Intrinsic Semiconductors: It is a pure chip of silicon behaving as semiconductor without any significant
dopant species present in it, n e = n h = ni
where , n e and n h are number densities of electrons and holes respectively and ni is called intrinsic carrier
concentration.
(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductors: The semiconductor we get from pure semiconductor by adding calculated
amount of impurities to improve its conductivity is known as extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are basically of two types:
(a) n-type semiconductors
(b) p-type semiconductors
NOTE: Both the types of semiconductors are electrically neutral.
(a) n-type semiconductors: The extrinsic semiconductors obtained by doping pentavalent atom, like Arsenic
(As), Antimony (Sb), phosphorous (P) etc, to pure silicon or germanium crystal is called n-type
semiconductors. In n-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are electrons and minority charge
carriers are holes, i.e., n e > n h
Mechanism of conduction of electricity: Here, we dope Si or Ge with a pentavalent element, then four of its
electrons bond with the four silicon neighbours, while fifth remains very weakly bound to its parent atom.
The fifth electron of the impurity atom act as free electron and conduct electricity on biasing.
Formation of n-type semiconductor is shown below:

At equilibrium condition, n e nh=ni2

Mechanism of conduction of electricity in terms energy band:
In a n – type semiconductor a donor energy level of donor atoms is formed just below the bottom
of conduction band when a pentavalent element is doped with a pure silicon chip. As the temperature rises,
fifth electron of donor jumps to the conduction band along the electron from the valance band. As a result,
the concentration of electron in conduction band is greater than the concentration of holes in the valance
band. These electron in conduction band acts as the majority charge carrier and hole in the valance band
acts as the minority carriers and conduct electricity when biased the semiconductor chip.

In p-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge carriers are electron i.e., n e
< n h.
Mechanism of conduction of electricity: In a p-type semiconductor, doping is done with trivalent impurity
atoms, i.e., those atoms which have three valence electrons in their valence shell. These three electrons
form bond with three neighbouring silicon atoms. A vacant is created in the fourth covalent bond, acting as
the positive charge carrier called ‘hole’ and conduct electricity on biasing.
Formation of p-type semiconductor is shown below:
At equilibrium condition, n e nh=ni2
Mechanism of conduction of electricity in terms energy band:
In a p – type semiconductor an acceptor energy level of acceptor atoms is formed just above the
top of valance band when a trivalent element is doped with a pure silicon chip. As the temperature rises,
electron from the valance band jumps to the acceptor level jumping to the conduction band. As a result, the
concentration of holes in the valance band is greater than the concentration of electron in conduction.
These holes in the valance band acts as the majority charge carrier and electron in conduction band acts as
minority carriers and conduct electricity when biased the semiconductor chip.

Note: (i) Minimum energy required to create a hole-electron pair is, h ν > E g where, E g is energy band gap.
(ii) Electric current, I = e A (n e v e + n h v h) where, A is area of cross-section v e and v h are speed of electron and
hole respectively.
v
(iii) Mobility of charge carries, μ =
E
1
(iv) Electrical conductivity is, σ = = e ( μe ne + μ h nh ), where n e and n h are concentration of electron and hole
ρ
respectively and μe ∧μh are mobilities of electron and hole.
P - N Junction: A p-n junction is an arrangement made by growing a p – type semiconductor and n – type
semiconductor side by side on the same silicon chip.
Formation of Depletion Region in p-n Junction: When a p – type semiconductor and n – type
semiconductor is grown side by side on the same silicon chip, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p —> n)
and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n —> p), due to the concentration gradient set up across the p –
n junction diode. As a result, a space charge region is formed across the junction. This space charge region
on either side of the junction together is known as depletion region, as the region is depleted of mobile
charge carriers. Width of depletion region is of the order of 10-6 m. The potential difference developed
across the depletion region is called the potential barrier, as it opposes further diffusion of charges across
the junction.

Semiconductor Diode/P-N Junction Diode: A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic
contacts provided at the ends as shown in figure for the application of an external voltage.
A p – n junction diode is represented as in figure below

The direction of arrow indicates the conventional direction of current through the diode (when the diode is
under forward bias).
Biasing of Diode: The process of connecting the terminals of a diode to a voltage source to make the
current to flow through it is called biasing of diode.
(i) Junction diode is said to be forward biased when the positive terminal of the external battery is
connected to the p-side and negative terminal to the n-side of the diode.
(ii) Junction diode is said to be reversed bias when the positive terminal of the external
battery is connected less to the n - side and negative terminal to the p - side of the diode.
The graphical relations between voltage applied across p-n junction and current flowing through the
junction are called I-V characteristics of junction diode.
Forward Biasing and Characteristic Curve: The circuit diagram and I-V characteristics of a forward biased diode is
shown below:

Circuit diagram of forward biasing of p – n diode. Characteristic Curve of forward biasing of p – n diode.
Reverse Biasing and Characteristic Curve: The circuit diagram and I-V characteristics of a reverse biased
diode is shown below.

Circuit diagram of reverse biasing of p – n diode. Characteristic Curve of reverse biasing of p – n diode.
Characteristics of an ideal diode are as follows:
(i) For an ideal diode, resistance in forward bias is zero and resistance in reverse bias is infinity.
(ii) An ideal diode conducts in forward bias and does not conduct in reverse bias.
(iii) The DC resistance of a junction diode, r DC = V/I and
(iv) The dynamic resistance of junction diode, r AC = ∆V/∆I
Diode as Rectifier: The process of converting alternating voltage/current into direct voltage/current is
called rectification. Diode is used as a rectifier for converting alternating current/voltage into direct
current/voltage.
There are two ways of using a diode as a rectifier i.e., Half-Wave Rectifier and Full-Wave Rectifier
Its working based on the principle that junction diode offers very low resistance in forward bias and very
high resistance in reverse bias.
Application of Diode as a Half-Wave Rectifier:
The signal to be rectified is connected to the primary coil of a transformer and the rectified signal is
obtained across the load resistance R L connected in series with a diode ‘D’. Let for the positive half cycle of
AC input in the primary coil, an emf induced in the secondary coil makes the end S1 positive and the end S2
negative, so that the diode is forward biased. Thus, the diode conducts and corresponding output signal is
obtained at the output. And for the negative half cycle, the induce emf makes the end S1 negative and the
end S2positive, so that the diode is reverse biased. Thus, the diode does not conduct and no output signal is
obtained at the output. Hence, AC is converted by diode into unidirectional pulsating DC. This action is
known as half-wave rectification.
Circuit diagram of p-n junction diode as half-wave rectifier and the input & output signals are shown below:

The input and output wave forms of a half – wave rectifier.

Application of Diode as a Full-Wave Rectifier:
In the full-wave rectifier, two p-n junction diodes, D1 and D2 are used. The circuit diagram or full-
wave rectifier is shown below:
The signal to be rectified is connected to the primary coil of a transformer and the rectified signal is
obtained across the load resistance R L connected to the output of a centre tap transformer as shown in
figure.

Let for the positive half cycle of AC input in the primary coil, an emf induced in the secondary coil makes the
end ‘A’ positive and the end ‘B’negative, so that the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased.
Thus, the diode D1conducts and corresponding output signal is obtained at the output. And for the negative
half cycle, the induce emf makes the end ‘A’ negative and the end ' B ' positive, so that the diode D1 is
reverse biased and D2 is forward biased. Thus, the diode D2conducts and corresponding output signal is
obtained at the output in the same direction as obtained for positive half cycle. Hence, AC is converted by
the diodes into unidirectional pulsating DC. This action is known as full-wave rectification.
 The input and output wave forms of a full – wave rectifier.
Note: The pulse frequency of a half-wave rectifier is equal to frequency of AC. And the pulse frequency of a
full-wave rectifier is double to that of AC.
How to obtain pure dc from the pulsating obtained as the output of a full wave rectifier?
Ans: Steady dc output can be obtained from the pulsating output voltage of a full wave rectifier by
connecting a capacitor across the output terminals parallel to the load R L. One can also use an inductor in
series with R L for the same purpose. Since these additional circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple and
give a pure dc voltage, so they are called filters.
A full wave rectifier with capacitor filter

The inpute and output voltage of pure dc obtained from AC signal

Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor

Density of electrons is equal to the density of holes Density of electrons is not equal to the density of
holes

Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high

Dependence on temperature only Dependence on temperature as well as on the

amount of impurity

No impurities Trivalent impurity, pentavalent impurity