Education in India

Education in India is primarily managed by state-run public education system, which fall under
the command of the government at three levels: central, state and local. Under various articles
of the Indian Constitution and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act,
2009, free and compulsory education is provided as a fundamental right to children aged 6 to
14. The approximate ratio of public schools to private schools in India is 7:5.

Education System
Up until 1976, education policies and implementation were determined legally by each of
India's constitutional states. The 42nd amendment to the constitution in 1976 made education a
'concurrent subject'. From this point on the central and state governments shared formal
responsibility for funding and administration of education. In a country as large as India, now
with 28 states and eight union territories, this means that the potential for variations between
states in the policies, plans, programs and initiatives for elementary education is vast.
Periodically, national policy frameworks are created to guide states in their creation of state-
level programs and policies. State governments and local government bodies manage the
majority of primary and upper primary schools and the number of government-managed
elementary schools is growing. Simultaneously the number and proportion managed by private
bodies is growing. In 2005-6 83.13% of schools offering elementary education (Grades 1–8)
were managed by government and 16.86% of schools were under private management
(excluding children in unrecognised schools, schools established under the Education
Guarantee Scheme and in alternative learning centers). Of those schools managed privately,
one third are 'aided' and two thirds are 'unaided'. Enrolment in Grades 1–8 is shared between
government and privately managed schools in the ratio 73:27. However in rural areas this ratio
is higher (80:20) and in urban areas much lower (36:66).
In the 2011 Census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for males and 65% for
females. National Statistical Commission surveyed literacy to be 77.7% in 2017–18, 84.7% for
male and 70.3% for female.This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53%
and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. India's improved education system is often
cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development.Much of the progress,
especially in higher education and scientific research, has been credited to various public
institutions. While enrolment in higher education has increased steadily over the past decade,
reaching a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of 26.3% in 2019,there still remains a significant
distance to catch up with tertiary education enrolment levels of developed nations,a challenge
that will be necessary to overcome in order to continue to reap a demographic dividend from
India's comparatively young population.
Poorly resourced public schools which suffer from high rates of teacher absenteeism may have
encouraged the rapid growth of private (unaided) schooling in India, particularly in urban areas.
Private schools divide into two types: recognized and unrecognized schools. Government
'recognition' is an official stamp of approval and for this, a private school is required to fulfill a
number of conditions, though hardly any private schools that get 'recognition' actually fulfill all
the conditions of recognition.
At the primary and secondary level, India has a large private school system complementing the
government run schools, with 29% of students receiving private education in the 6 to 14 age
group. Certain post-secondary technical schools are also private. The private education market
in India had a revenue of US$450 million in 2008, but is projected to be a US$40 billion market.
As per the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children between
the ages of 6–14 were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey to report enrolment
above 96%. India has maintained an average enrolment ratio of 95% for students in this age
group from year 2007 to 2014. As an outcome the number of students in the age group 6–14
who are not enrolled in school has come down to 2.8% in the academic year 2018 (ASER
2018).Another report from 2013 stated that there were 229 million students enrolled in
different accredited urban and rural schools of India, from Class I to XII, representing an
increase of 2.3 million students over 2002 total enrolment, and a 19% increase in girl's
enrolment. While quantitatively India is inching closer to universal education, the quality of its
education has been questioned particularly in its government run school system. While more
than 95 per cent of children attend primary school, just 40 per cent of Indian adolescents attend
secondary school (Grades 9–12). Since 2000, the World Bank has committed over $2 billion to
education in India. Some of the reasons for the poor quality include absence of around 25% of
teachers every day. States of India have introduced tests and education assessment system to
identify and improve such schools. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that India is
achieving only 79.0% of what should be possible at its level of income for the right to education.
Although there are private schools in India, they are highly regulated in terms of what they can
teach, in what form they can operate (must be a non-profit to run any accredited educational
institution) and all the other aspects of the operation. Hence, the differentiation between
government schools and private schools can be misleading. However, in a report by Geeta
Gandhi Kingdon entitled: The Emptying of Public Schools and Growth of Private Schools in
India, it is said that for sensible education-policy making, it is vital to take account of the various
changing trends in the size of the private and public schooling sectors in India. Ignoring these
trends involves the risk of poor policies/legislation, with adverse effects on children's education.
In January 2019, India had over 900 universities and 40,000 colleges. In India's higher
education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies
for the historically disadvantaged Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward
Classes. In universities, colleges, and similar institutions affiliated to the central government,
there is a maximum 50% of reservations applicable to these disadvantaged groups, at the state
level it can vary. Maharashtra had 73% reservation in 2014, which is the highest percentage of
reservations in India.

History
Early education in India commenced under the supervision of a guru or preceptor after
initiation. The education was delivered through Gurukula. The relationship between Guru and
his Shishya (students /disciples) was a very important part of the education.Takshasila (in
modern-day Pakistan) is one of the example of ancient higher learning institute in India from
possibly 8th century BCE, however, it is debatable whether it could be regarded a university or
not in modern sense, since teachers living there may not have had official membership of
particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and
residential quarters in a Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda university in eastern India.
Nalanda was the oldest university-system of education in the world in the modern sense of
university. There all subjects were taught in the Pali language.
Secular institutions cropped up along Buddhist monasteries. These institutions imparted
practical education, e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning centres became increasingly
visible from the period between 500 BCE to 400 CE. The important urban centers of learning
were Nalanda (in modern-day Bihar) and Manassa in Nagpur, among others. These institutions
systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics
such as Buddhist Páli literature, logic, páli grammar, etc. Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher, was
among the most famous teachers, associated with founding of Mauryan Empire.]
Shramanas and Brahmanas historically offered education by means of donations, rather than
charging fees or the procurement of funds from students or their guardians. Later, stupas,
temples also became centers of education; religious education was compulsory, but secular
subjects were also taught. Students were required to be brahma Caris or celibates. The
knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of society had to perform.
Arts, crafts, Ayurveda, architecture were taught
With the advent of Islam in India the traditional methods of education increasingly came under
Islamic influence. Pre-Mughal rulers such as Qutb-ud-din Aybak and other Muslim rulers
initiated institutions which imparted religious knowledge.Scholars such as Nizamuddin Auliya
and Moinuddin Chishti became prominent educators and established Islamic
monasteries.Students from Bukhara and Afghanistan visited India to study humanities and
science. Islamic institution of education in India included traditional madrassas and maktabs
which taught grammar, philosophy, mathematics, and law influenced by the Greek traditions
inherited by Persia and the Middle East before Islam spread from these regions into India.A
feature of this traditional Islamic education was its emphasis on the connection between science
and humanities.
British rule and the subsequent establishment of educational institutions saw the introduction of
English as a medium of instruction. Some schools taught the curriculum through vernacular
languages with English as a second language. The term "pre-modern" was used for three kinds
of schools – the Arabic and Sanskrit schools which taught Muslim or Hindu sacred literature and
the Persian schools which taught Persian literature. The vernacular schools across India taught
reading and writing the vernacular language and arithmetic.British education became solidified
into India as missionary schools were established during the 1820s.
Educational stages

School education

Education in India is a Concurrent List subject, that is both the Indian central government, and
the state governments have responsibility for enacting and implementing education policy. The
central board and most of the state boards uniformly follow the "10+2" pattern of education. In
this pattern, study of 10 years is done in schools and 2 years in Junior colleges (Maharashtra) or
Higher Secondary Schools (most other states), and then 3 years of study for a bachelor's
degree. The first 10 years are further subdivided into 8 years of elementary education (5 years
Primary School and 3 years Middle School), 2 years of Secondary education followed by 2 years
of Higher Secondary Schools or Junior colleges. This pattern originated from the
recommendation of the Education Commission of 1964–66.
There are two types of educational institutions in India, 1) Recognized institutions – primary
school, secondary school, special schools, intermediate schools, colleges and universities who
follow courses as prescribed by universities or boards and are also open for inspection by these
authorities, 2) Unrecognized Institutions, which do not fulfill conditions as stated for the
recognized ones.

Administration

Policy

Education policy is prepared by the Central Government and State Governments at national
and state levels respectively. The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for
environment awareness, science and technology education, and introduction of traditional
elements such as Yoga into the Indian secondary school system. A significant feature of India's
secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the
society. Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational
training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based
vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing. A
significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) which is
the most recent initiative of Government of India to achieve the goal of universalisation of
secondary education (USE). It is aimed at expanding and improving the standards of secondary
education up to class X.
Curriculum and school education boards
National Skill Development Agency (NSDA)'s National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF), is
a quality assurance framework which grades and recognises levels of skill based on the learning
outcomes acquired through both formal or informal means.
School boards set the curriculum, conduct standardised exams mostly at 10th and 12th level to
award the school diplomas. Exams at the remaining levels (also called standard, grade or class,
denoting the years of schooling) are conducted by the schools.

• National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT): The NCERT is the apex
body located at New Delhi, Capital City of India. It makes the curriculum related matters
for school education across India.The NCERT provides support, guidance and technical
assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of
education policies.There are other curriculum bodies governing school education system
specially at state level called SCERTs.
• State government boards of education: Most of the state governments have at least one
"State board of secondary school education". However, some states like Andhra Pradesh
have more than one. Also the union territories do not have a board. Chandigarh, Dadra
and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, and Lakshadweep and Puducherry Lakshadweep
share the services with a larger state. The boards set curriculum from Grades 1 to 12 for
affiliated schools. The curriculum varies from state to state and has more local appeal
with examinations conducted in regional languages in addition to English – often
considered less rigorous than national curricula such as CBSE or ICSE/ISC. Most of these
conduct exams at 10th and 12th level, but some even at the 5th and 8th level.
• Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE): The CBSE sets curriculum from Grades 9
to 12 for affiliated schools and conducts examinations at the 10th and 12th levels.
Students studying the CBSE Curriculum take the All India Secondary School Examination
(AISSE) at the end of grade 10 and All India Senior School Certificate Examination
(AISSCE) at the end of grade 12. Examinations are offered in Hindi and English.
• Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE): CISCE sets curriculum
from Grades 1 to 12 for affiliated schools and conducts three examinations, namely, the
Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE – Class/Grade 10); The Indian School
Certificate (ISC – Class/Grade 12) and the Certificate in Vocational Education (CVE –
Class/Grade 12). CISCE English level has been compared to UK's A-Levels; this board
offers more choices of subjects. CBSE exams at grade 10 and 12 have often been
compared with ICSE and ISC examinations. ICSE is generally considered to be more
rigorous than the CBSE AISSE (grade 10) but the CBSE AISSCE and ISC examinations are
almost on par with each other in most subjects with ISC including a slightly more rigorous
English examination than the CBSE 12th grade examination. The CBSE and ISC are
recognised internationally and most universities abroad accept the final results of CBSE
and ISC exams for admissions purposes and as proof of completion of secondary school.
• National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS): The NIOS conducts two examinations,
namely, Secondary Examination and Senior Secondary Examination (All India) and also
some courses in Vocational Education. National Board of education is run by
Government of India's HRD Ministry to provide education in rural areas and challenged
groups in open and distance education mode. A pilot project started by CBSE to provide
high class affordable education, provides education up to 12th standard. Choice of
subjects is highly customisable and equivalent to CBSE. Home-schooled students usually
take NIOS or international curriculum examinations as they are ineligible to write CBSE or
ISC exams.
 • Hindu, vedic & sanskrit education: The Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Veda Sanskrit
Shiksha Board (MSRVSSB) is a national-level school education board which grants the
Veda Bhushan (10th) and Veda Vibhushan (12th) certificates to students of affiliated
schools. MSRVSSB certificates are accredited by the Association of Indian Universities
(AIU) and AICTE as the recognised qualifications for admission into other tertiary
institutions for a higher degree. Along with the modern subjects, the students are also
taught Hindu scriptures, vedas, upnishads, ayurveda and sanskrit. Govt of India has
granted legal authority to MSRVSSB to affiliate and recognise vedic and sanskrit schools
run by other organisations. MSRVSSB is run by the Maharishi Sandipani Rashtriya Ved
Vidya Pratishthan (MSRVVP), which already runs several vedic school and MSRVSSB also
accrredits schools run by other organisations.
• Islamic madrasah: Their boards are controlled by local state governments, or
autonomous, or affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband or Darul Uloom Nadwtul Ulama.
• Autonomous schools: Such as Woodstock School, Sri Aurobindo International Centre of
Education Puducherry, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula.
• International Baccalaureate (IB) and Cambridge International Examinations (CAIE): These
are generally private schools that have dual affiliation with one of the school education
board of India as well as affiliated to the International Baccalaureate (IB) Programme
and/or the Cambridge International Examinations (CAIE).
• International schools, which offer 10th and 12th standard examinations under the
International Baccalaureate, Cambridge Senior Secondary Examination systems or under
their home nations school boards (such as run by foreign embassies or the expat
communities).

Midday Meal Scheme

School lunch at Raika Primary School in Gujarat

The Midday Meal Scheme is a school meal programme of the Government of India designed to
improve the nutritional status of school-age children nationwide,by supplying free lunches on
working days for children in primary and upper primary classes in government, government
aided, local body, Education Guarantee Scheme, and alternative innovative education centres,
Madarsa and Maqtabs supported under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, and National Child Labour
Project schools run by the ministry of labour.Serving 120,000,000 children in over 1,265,000
schools and Education Guarantee Scheme centres, it is one of the largest in the world.
With the twin objectives of improving health and education of the poor children, India has
embarked upon an ambitious scheme of providing mid day meals (MDM) in the government
and government-assisted primary schools. The administrative and logistical responsibilities of
this scheme are enormous, and, therefore, offering food stamps or income transfer to targeted
recipients is considered as an alternative.
In a welcome move, Government of India made special allocations for Midday Meal Scheme
during nationwide lockdown and school closure period of COVID-19 to continue nutrition
delivery to children. However, many experts have differing opinions on ground level
implementation of MDM amid pandemic and its actual benefit delivered to school children.[

Teacher Training

In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration) and NCTE
(National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education
system and teacher accreditation.

Levels of schooling

Pre-primary education

Indian pre-primary school children (Divine Orchids International Preschool, Jawhar)

 Anganwadi centre at Velhe, Pune district, 2019

The pre-primary stage is the foundation of children's knowledge, skills and behaviour. On
completion of pre-primary education, the children are sent to the primary stage but pre-primary
education in India is not a fundamental right. In rural India, pre-primary schools are rarely
available in small villages. But in cities and big towns, there are many established players in the
pre-primary education sector. The demand for the preschools is growing considerably in the
smaller towns and cities but still, only 1% of the population under age 6 is enrolled in preschool
education.
• Play group (pre-nursery): At playschools, children are exposed to a lot of basic learning
activities that help them to get independent faster and develop their self-help qualities
like eating food themselves, dressing up, and maintaining cleanliness. The age limit for
admission into pre-nursery is 2 to 3 years. Anganwadi is government-funded free rural
childcare & Mothercare nutrition and learning program also incorporating the free
Midday Meal Scheme.
• Nursery: Nursery level activities help children unfold their talents, thus enabling them to
sharpen their mental and physical abilities. The age limit for admission in nursery is 3 to 4
years.
• Lower Kindergarten: It is also called the junior kindergarten (Jr. kg) stage. The age limit
for admission in LKG is 4 to 5 years.
• Upper Kindergarten: It is also called the senior kindergarten (Sr. kg) stage. The age limit
for admission in UKG is 5 to 6 years.
LKG and UKG stages prepare and help children emotionally, mentally, socially and physically to
grasp knowledge easily in the later stages of school and college life. A systematic process of
preschool education is followed in India to impart knowledge in the best possible way for a
better understanding of the young children. By following an easy and interesting curriculum,
teachers strive hard to make the entire learning process enjoyable for the children.
Primary education

Indian school-children at a school in Jodhpur, Rajasthan

School children of Nuchhungi English Medium School Hnahthial, Mizoram

The primary education in India is divided into two parts, namely Lower Primary (Class I-V) and
Upper Primary (Middle school, Class VI-VIII). The Indian government lays emphasis on primary
education (Class I-VIII) also referred to as elementary education, to children aged 6 to 14 years
old.Because education laws are given by the states, duration of primary school visit
alterbetween the Indian states. The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to
ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions. ] However, both free education
and the ban on child labour are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social
conditions.80% of all recognised schools at the elementary stage are government run or
supported, making it the largest provider of education in the country.
However, due to a shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from
massive gaps including high pupil to teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor levels
of teacher training. Figures released by the Indian government in 2011 show that there were
5,816,673 elementary school teachers in India.As of March 2012 there were 2,127,000
secondary school teachers in India.Education has also been made free[57] for children for 6 to 14
years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act 2009.
There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District
Education Revitalisation Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalise
primary education in India by reforming and vitalising the existing primary education
system.85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15% was
funded by the states.The DERP, which had opened 160,000 new schools including 84,000
alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million
children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programs. "Corruption hurts
the poor disproportionately – by diverting funds intended for development, undermining a
government's ability to provide basic services, feeding inequality and injustice, and
discouraging foreign investment and aid" (Kofi Annan, in his statement on the adoption of the
United Nations Convention against Corruption by the General Assembly, NY, November 2003).
In January 2016, Kerala became the 1st Indian state to achieve 100% primary education
through its literacy programme Athulyam.
This primary education scheme has also shown a high gross enrolment ratio of 93–95% for the
last three years in some states.Significant improvement in staffing and enrolment of girls has
also been made as a part of this scheme. The scheme for universalisation of Education for All is
the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world.
Enrolment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low.

Secondary Education

Secondary school students in a chemistry lab at a school in Odisha

Independence Day celebration at a school in Baranagar

Secondary education covers children aged 14 to 18, a group comprising 88.5 million children
according to the 2001 Census of India. The final two years of secondary is often called Higher
Secondary (HS), Senior Secondary, or simply the "+2" stage. The two-halves of secondary
education are each an important stage for which a pass certificate is needed, and thus are
affiliated by central boards of education under HRD ministry, before one can pursue higher
education, including college or professional courses.
UGC, NCERT, CBSE and ICSE directives state qualifying ages for candidates who wish to take
the standardised exams. Those at least 15 years old by 30 May for a given academic year are
eligible to appear for Secondary board exams, and those 17 by the same date are eligible to
appear for Higher Secondary certificate board exams. It further states that upon successful
completion of Higher Secondary, one can apply to higher education under UGC control.
Secondary education in India is examination-oriented and not course-based: students register
for and take classes primarily to prepare for one of the centrally-administered examinations.
Secondary school is split into 2 parts (grades 9–10 and grades 11–12) with a standardised
nationwide examination at the end of grade 10 and grade 12 (colloquially referred to as "board
exams"). Grade 10 examination results can be used for admission into grades 11–12 at a
secondary school, pre-university program, or a vocational or technical school. Passing the
grade 12 board examination leads to the granting of a secondary school completion diploma,
which may be used for admission into vocational schools or universities in the country or the
world.
Most schools in India do not offer subject and scheduling flexibility due to budgeting
constraints (for example, students in India are often not allowed to take Chemistry and History
in grades 11–12 as they are part of different "streams"). Private candidates (that is, not studying
in a school) are generally not allowed to register for, and take board examinations, but there
are some exceptions such as NIOS.
Students taking the grade 10 examination usually take five or six subjects: Two languages(at
least one of them being English/Hindi), Mathematics, Science(often taught as three separate
disciplines: physics, chemistry and biology; but assessed as a single subject), Social
Sciences(consisting of four components: history, geography, economics and political science),
and one optional subject depending on the availability of teachers. Elective or optional subjects
often include computer applications, commerce, painting, music and home science.
Students taking the grade 12 examination usually take five or six subjects with English or the
local language being compulsory. Students re-enrolling in most secondary schools after grade
10 have to make the choice of choosing subjects from a "core stream" in addition to the
language: Science (Mathematics, Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Computer Science,
Biotechnology, Physical Education), Commerce (Accountancy, Business Studies, Economics,
Entrepreunership, Informatics Practices), or Humanities (History, Political Science, Sociology,
Psychology, Geography, Legal Studies, Fine Arts, Music, Dance) depending on the school.
Students with the Science stream study mathematics up to single-variable calculus in grade 12.
Most reputable universities in India require students to pass college-administered admissions
tests in addition to passing a final secondary school examination for entry into a college or
university. School grades are usually not sufficient for college admissions in India. Popular
entrance tests include JEE, NEET and the recent CUET.

Types of schools

Government schools

The majority of Indian children attend government run schools. Education is free socially and
economically for children until the age of 14. An Education Ministry data from 2017 showed that
65.2% (113 million,) of all school students in 20 states attend government schools (c.
2017).These include schools runs by the state and local government as well as the central
government. Example of large center government run school systems are Kendriya Vidyalaya in
urban areas, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya for the gifted students, Kasturba Gandhi Balika
Vidyalaya for girls belonging to vulnerable SC/ST/OBC classes, and Indian Army Public Schools
run by the Indian Army for the children of military personnel.
Kendriya Vidyalaya project, was started for the employees of the central government of India,
who are deployed throughout the country. The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya
project in 1965 to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the
same pace regardless of the location to which the employee's family has been transferred.

Government aided private schools

Nutan Marathi Vidyalaya, One of the oldest schools in Pune run by a government aided charitable trust

These are usually charitable trust run schools that receive partial funding from the government.
Largest system of aided schools is run by D.A.V. College Managing Committee.

Private schools (unaided)

Delhi Public School, Azaad Nagar, Kanpur

 The Doon School

According to a survey an estimate, 29% of Indian children were privately educated in 2014.With
more than 50% children enrolling in private schools in urban areas, the balance has already
tilted towards private schooling in cities; and, even in rural areas, nearly 20% of the children in
2004-5 were enrolled in private schools.

La Martiniere Calcutta, a private school in Kolkata

Most middle-class families send their children to private schools,mostly in their own city, but
also at boarding schools. Private schools have been established since the British Rule in India
and St George's School, Chennai is the oldest private school in India. At such schools, the
medium of education is often English, but Hindi and/or the state's official language is also
taught as a compulsory subject. Pre-school education is mostly limited to organised
neighbourhood nursery schools with some organised chains. Montessori education is also
popular, due to Maria Montessori's stay in India during World War II. In 2014, four of the top ten
pre-schools in Chennai were Montessori.
Many privately owned and managed schools carry the appellation "Public", such as the Delhi
Public Schools, or Frank Anthony Public Schools. These are modelled after British public
schools, which are a group of older, expensive and exclusive fee-paying private independent
schools in England.
According to some research, private schools often provide superior results at a multiple of the
unit cost of government schools. The reason being high aims and better vision. However, others
have suggested that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families, a selective
being only a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored Court orders for their regulation.
Research with children from the same family, in which one child attends private school and the
other receives a government education, has found barely any difference in their attainment.
This has led some analysts to argue that the better test scores achieved by private schools in
general is primarily a result of 'background advantages' enjoyed by privately educated children
because they tend come from wealthier families than their government-educated peers. Such
advantages may, for example, include having more educational resources at home.
In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer
extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama.The
pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for government schools)
and more teachers in private schools are female.There is some disagreement over which
system has better educated teachers. According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of
untrained teachers (para-teachers) is 54.91% in private, compared to 44.88% in government
schools and only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive in-service training compared to
43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most
schools make profit.However, the number of private schools in India is still low – the share of
private institutions is 7% (with upper primary being 21% secondary 32% – source: fortress team
research). Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government
schools are free. A study found that 65% school-children in Hyderabad's slums attend private
schools.

National schools

Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School

• Atomic Energy Central School (established in 1969)

• Bal Bharati Public School (established in 1944)
• Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (established in 1938)
• Chinmaya Vidyalaya (established in 1965)
• DAV Public School (established in 1886)
• Delhi Public School (established in 1949)
• Indian Army Public Schools (established in 1983)
• Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya (established in 1986)
• Kendriya Vidyalaya (established in 1963)
• Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan (established in 1958)
• Railway Schools in India (established in 1873)
• Ramakrishna Mission Schools[76][77][78][79] (established in 1922)
• Ryan International Schools (established in 1976)
• Sainik School (established in 1960)
• Saraswati Shishu Mandir (established in 1952)
 • Seth M.R. Jaipuria Schools (established in 1992)
• Vivekananda Vidyalaya (established in 1972)
• Vivekananda Kendra Vidyalaya (established in 1977)
• Waldorf Schools (India) (established in 2002)

International schools

As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed India as having 410
international schools.ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes
an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school,
primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country,
or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-
medium curriculum other than the country's national curriculum and is international in its
orientation."This definition is used by publications including The Economist.

Home-schooling

Home-schooling in India is legal, though it is the less explored option, and often debated by
educators. The Indian Government's stance on the issue is that parents are free to teach their
children at home, if they wish to and have the means. The then HRD Minister Kapil Sibal has
stated that despite the RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her children to
school, the government would not interfere.

Non-governmental work in education

NGO work in Indian education broadly spans four areas – piloting approaches to multigrade
teaching, making improvements to learning environments, teacher training and support, and
creating stronger school-community links.
NGO involvement in education has been crucial in delivering targeted action to under
resourced communities, such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, the urban poor, children
engaged in child labor, children with disabilities, etc. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
recognized the role played by NGOs in ensuring access to education, particularly for students
with disabilities. NGOs contributed to SSA by either leading advocacy movements for persons
with disabilities or providing various types of assistance in rural settings for children with
disabilities.
Under the SSA, NGOs also engaged in collaboration with the state to reach children excluded
from mainstream education, including migrant children, child laborers, dropouts, children living
in areas with civil instability and girls. There are 79,960 registered NGOs working in the areas of
education and literacy.Partnerships under the SSA can occur through funding by Central and
State governments, funding activities by identified National and State Resource Institutions or
through participation in community activities of various Village Education Committees.
Grassroots education NGOs often deliver services via local governing institutions such as the
Panchayati Raj and emphasize community participation in ensuring quality.The Mamidipudi
Venkatarangaiya Foundation (MVF), established in 1991 to address literacy among child
laborers utilized Parent Teacher Associations to disburse seed money for the program under
the supervision of the village Panchayat, which then took issues of staffing shortage and
insufficient infrastructure to the State Government. The Pratham Educational Initiative in Delhi
and Mumbai works with the Integrated Child Development Scheme to set up and provide
support to community-run pre-school centers or balwadis. Under the Namma Shaale project in
Karnataka, the Azim Premji Foundation identified seven key stakeholders (children, teachers,
parents, School Development and Monitoring Committees, Community Based Organizations,
Gram Panchayats, and education managers) in their work to establish a framework of school-
community leadership.
NGOs also work with the State to enable teacher training. There have been a number of NGO
partnerships with local District Institute of Educational Training. The Rishi Valley Institute for
Educational Resources (RIVER) has worked with school districts in many Indian states to provide
multi-grade, multi-level training approaches catering to the needs of remote one-room
schools.The Eklavya Foundation in Madhya Pradesh has been working with the State Council for
Education Research and Training since 1987 to train teachers in making learning a joyful
experience by emphasizing skill development and practical learning in the sciences.
NGOs have historically been associated with non-formal education (NFE) programs, both in
providing alternative pedagogical approaches as well as substitutes to mainstream
education.The Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti, for instance, emphasizes "science and literacy for
national integration and self-reliance" and uses approaches such as the Gyan Vigyan Vidyalayas
to encourage long-term engagement in literacy.
Studies in NGO involvement in education have criticized the adoption of NGO models into
formal schooling as low-cost options that require institutional mechanisms to avoid
undermining the State's financial responsibility in providing elementary education. The cost‐
effectiveness of NGO programs has yet to be determined. In studies that demonstrate that
NGOs are more cost-effective in the Global South, there have been concerns raised that this is
accomplished by cutting ethical corners, such as underpayment of NGO workers

Higher education

University of Calcutta, established on 1857, was the first multidisciplinary and secular Western-style institution in Asia
 Computer class at a college in Kolkata

Students may opt for vocational education or university education.

Vocational education

India's All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) reported, in 2013, that there are more
than 4,599 vocational institutions that offer degrees, diploma and post-diploma in architecture,
engineering, hotel management, infrastructure, pharmacy, technology, town services and
others. There were 1,740,000 students enrolled in these schools.Total annual intake capacity for
technical diplomas and degrees exceeded 3.4 million in 2012.According to the University
Grants Commission (UGC) total enrolment in Science, Medicine, Agriculture and Engineering
crossed 65 lakh in 2010. The number of women choosing engineering has more than doubled
since 2001.

Tertiary education

Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, Kolkata

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

 Forest Research Institute

After passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the Standard 12 examination), students may
enroll in general degree programmes such as bachelor's degree (graduation) in arts,
commerce or science, or professional degree programme such as engineering, medicine,
nursing, pharmacy, and law graduates.India's higher education system is the third largest in the
world, after China and the United States. The main governing body at the tertiary level is the
University Grants Commission (India) (UGC), which enforces its standards, advises the
government, and helps co-ordinate between the centre and the state up to Post graduation and
Doctorate (PhD). Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions
established by the University Grants Commission.

All India Institute of Medical Sciences Delhi

As of 2012, India has 152central universities, 316 state universities, and 191 private universities.
Other institutions include 33,623colleges, including 1,800 exclusive women's colleges,
functioning under these universities and institutions,and 12,748 Institutions offering Diploma
Courses. The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and technology.Indian
educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of technology institutes.Distance
learning is also a feature of the Indian higher education system.The Government has launched
Rashtriya Uchchattar Shiksha Abhiyan to provide strategic funding to State higher and technical
institutions. A total of 316 state public universities and 13,024 colleges will be covered under it.
Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and National
Institutes of Technology (NITs) have been globally acclaimed for their standard of under-
graduate education in engineering. Several other institutes of fundamental research such as the
Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS), Tata
Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Harish-Chandra Research Institute (HRI), Jawaharlal
Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Indian Institute of Science Education
and Research (IISER) are also acclaimed for their standard of research in basic sciences and
mathematics. However, India has failed to produce world class universities both in the private
sector or the public sector.
Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their
pupils, India is also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective
of making easy money. Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard
to extirpate the menace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation
or recognition. Indian Government has failed to check on these education shops, which are run
by big businessmen & politicians. Many private colleges and universities do not fulfil the
required criterion by the Government and central bodies (UGC, AICTE, MCI, BCI etc.) and take
students for a ride. For example, many institutions in India continue to run unaccredited courses
as there is no legislation strong enough to ensure legal action against them. Quality assurance
mechanisms have failed to stop misrepresentations and malpractices in higher education. At
the same time regulatory bodies have been accused of corruption, specifically in the case of
deemed-universities.In this context of lack of solid quality assurance mechanism, institutions
need to step-up and set higher standards of self-regulation.
Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of disrepair...In almost half the districts in the
country, higher education enrollments are abysmally low, almost two-third of our universities
and 90% of our colleges are rated as below average on quality parameters... I am concerned
that in many states university appointments, including that of vice-chancellors, have been
politicised and have become subject to caste and communal considerations, there are
complaints of favouritism and corruption.
— Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2007

Gujarat National Law University, Gandhinagar

The Government of India is aware of the plight of higher education sector and has been trying
to bring reforms, however, 15 bills are still awaiting discussion and approval in the
Parliament.One of the most talked about bill is Foreign Universities Bill, which is supposed to
facilitate entry of foreign universities to establish campuses in India. The bill is still under
discussion and even if it gets passed, its feasibility and effectiveness is questionable as it misses
the context, diversity and segment of international foreign institutions interested in India.One of
the approaches to make internationalisation of Indian higher education effective is to develop a
coherent and comprehensive policy which aims at infusing excellence, bringing institutional
diversity and aids in capacity building.
Three Indian universities were listed in the Times Higher Education list of the world's top 200
universities – Indian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Management, and Jawaharlal
Nehru University in 2005 and 2006.Six Indian Institutes of Technology and the Birla Institute of
Technology and Science—Pilani were listed among the top 20 science and technology schools
in Asia by Asiaweek.The Indian School of Business situated in Hyderabad was ranked number
12 in global MBA rankings by the Financial Times of London in 2010 while the All India Institute
of Medical Sciences has been recognised as a global leader in medical research and
treatment.[119] The University of Mumbai was ranked 41 among the Top 50 Engineering Schools
of the world by America's news broadcasting firm Business Insider in 2012 and was the only
university in the list from the five emerging BRICS nations viz Brazil, Russia, India, China and
South Africa. It was ranked at 62 in the QS BRICS University rankings for 201 and was India's 3rd
best Multi-Disciplinary University in the QS University ranking of Indian Universities after
University of Calcutta and Delhi University.In April 2015, IIT Bombay launched the first U.S.-India
joint EMBA program alongside Washington University in St. Louis.

Technical education

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli

From the first Five-year Plan onwards, India's emphasis was to develop a pool of scientifically
inclined manpower. India's National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body for
regulation and development of higher technical education, which came into being as the All
India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in 1987 through an act of the Indian parliament.At
the central level, the Indian Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institute of Space Science and
Technology, the National Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Information
Technology are deemed of national importance.
The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and National Institutes of Technology (NITs) are
among the nation's premier education facilities.
 Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

The UGC has inter-university centers at a number of locations throughout India to promote
common research, e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New
Delhi.Besides there are some British established colleges such as Harcourt Butler Technological
Institute situated in Kanpur and King George Medical University situated in Lucknow which are
important centre of higher education.
In addition to above institutes, efforts towards the enhancement of technical education are
supplemented by a number of recognised Professional Engineering Societies such as:
1. Institution of Engineers (India)
2. Institution of Civil Engineers (India)
3. Institution of Mechanical Engineers (India)
4. Institution of Chemical Engineering (India)
5. Institution of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineers (India)
6. Indian Institute of Metals
7. Institution of Industrial Engineers (India)
8. Institute of Town Planners (India)
9. Indian Institute of Architects
that conduct Engineering/Technical Examinations at different levels (Degree and diploma) for
working professionals desirous of improving their technical qualifications.
The number of graduates coming out of technical colleges increased to over 700,000 in 2011
from 550,000 in FY 2010. However, according to one study, 75% of technical graduates and
more than 85% of general graduates lack the skills needed in India's most demanding and
high-growth global industries such as Information Technology. These high-tech global
information technologies companies directly or indirectly employ about 2.3 million people, less
than 1% of India's labour pool. India offers one of the largest pool of technically skilled
graduates in the world. Given the sheer numbers of students seeking education in engineering,
science and mathematics, India faces daunting challenges in scaling up capacity while
maintaining quality.

Open and distance learning

At the school level, Board of Open Schooling and Skill Education, Sikkim (BOSSE), National
Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) provides opportunities for continuing education to those
who missed completing school education. 1.4 million students are enrolled at the secondary
and higher secondary level through open and distance learning.In 2012 various state
governments also introduced "State Open School" to provide distance education.
At higher education level, Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) co-ordinates
distance learning. It has a cumulative enrolment of about 1.5 million, serviced through 53
regional centres and 1,400 study centres with 25,000 counselors. The Distance Education
Council (DEC), an authority of IGNOU is co-coordinating 13 State Open Universities and 119
institutions of correspondence courses in conventional universities. While distance education
institutions have expanded at a very rapid rate, but most of these institutions need an up
gradation in their standards and performance. There is a large proliferation of courses covered
by distance mode without adequate infrastructure, both human and physical. There is a strong
need to correct these imbalances.

Online education

Online education in India started during the COVID-19 pandemic. However only a small
proportion of the Indian population has access to online education. The Ministry of Human
Resource Development (MHRD) recently launched the 'Bharat Padhe Online'. The Indian
government has imposed one of the longest school closures globally as it suffered through
multiple waves of the COVID-19 pandemic. These school closures have revealed the inequities
between urban and rural populations, as well as between girls and boys, in adapting to online
learning tools.

Deaf education in India

History of education in India for the DHH population

India is very diverse with eight main religions, hundreds of ethnic groups, and 21 languages
with hundreds of dialects. This diversity has made it difficult to educate deaf or hard of hearing
(DHH) people in India for generations.

There is a history of educating the deaf in India, however, there is no single clear approach to
their education. This stems from conditions, some similar to those faced around the world, and
others unique to India. For example, prior to independence of India, there were not clear laws
and protections for the disabled.Since independence, advancements have been made for
rights of the disabled, but this has not fully tackled the issue.
Pre-independence there were only 24 schools for the deaf in India, and all of these used an oral
approach.The belief was that using sign language would hinder advancements of hearing and
speaking in deaf children.Additionally, there was no single Indian sign language, so signs
would differ depending on where the school was located.
Post-independence, there are more services and resources available for DHH people, however,
challenges with education remain. There are organizations around the country that work to
advance the spread and quality of education for the deaf.

Education for DHH children

Oralism and the use of sign language are two competing approaches to education for DHH
people. While oralism dominates in India, which is an approach that encourages speaking and
hearing, it is usually not realistic for DHH children.
There is an Indian Sign Language, however, it is not formally recognized by the government
and it is not complete or comprehensive. It varies around the country and is not encouraged by
professionals and educators. Beliefs of the past that the use of sign language will hinder the
potential advancements of hearing and speaking in DHH children remain. In recent years, there
has been a notion to encourage the use of sign language in India and teach it in schools. In
2017, the first ISL dictionary was released.
Due to these challenges and beliefs associated with sign language, education for DHH people
in India often focuses on teaching children to hear, speak, and read lips, this is known as an oral
approach.
In India there are regular schools and special schools. Special schools provide education for
children with different disabilities. Special schools can be beneficial to DHH children, and
provide a better education than they would receive in a regular school. However, these schools
aren't available for every deaf child. Sometimes they are located too far from a child's home.
Another reason a child may have to attend a regular school is if they receive hearing
technology. Since India focuses on hearing and speaking for the deaf, hearing technology is
encouraged. Once a child receives hearing technology it is believed that they can attend
regular schools. Even with hearing technology, DHH children still need special education in
order to succeed. This puts them at a significant disadvantage in regular school and can cause
them to fall behind academically, linguistically, and developmentally. For these reasons, many
deaf children receive poor education or no education at all, causing the illiteracy rate of deaf
children to rise.
Education in India in regular schools and deaf schools has problems. Even in deaf schools, sign
language isn't usually taught and used. Some use a small amount of sign language but all of the
deaf schools in India use or claim to use an oral approach. Some deaf schools secretly teach
sign language due to the stigma and beliefs surrounding the use of sign language, and
disability in general, in India. Children in deaf schools have to try to learn by hearing or reading
lips and writing. In hearing schools, the children have to do the same. There are no special
accommodations. Additionally, there aren't any teachers that use sign language in regular
schools (maybe a few in deaf schools), and there aren't any interpreters.
There are a couple of hundred deaf schools in India and vocational training is becoming more
common for DHH people.
Higher education

There are no deaf colleges or universities in India. A person's education ends with grade
school- where they likely weren't able to learn. With lack of education, DHH people then have a
very difficult time finding a job.
There is one interpreter in one college in India, Delhi University

Literacy

Literacy in India grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period.