PHY109 Unit4 Quantum Mechanics 1

PHY109: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit IV: Quantum Mechanics
October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

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“The discovery of quantum mechanics was nearly a total surprise. It

described the physical world in a way that was fundamentally new. It
seemed to many of us a miracle.”
Eugene Wigner

Content 3
 Introduction
 Particle Nature of light

 Photoelectric effect
 Wave nature of light

 de Broglie matter waves, Phase velocity, Group velocity
 Heisenberg uncertainty principle
 Wave function and its significance
 Schrodinger equation: time dependent and time independent
 Particle in one dimensional box

Introduction 4
At the end of the nineteenth century, physics consisted essentially of classical mechanics, the theory of
electromagnetism, and thermodynamics.
Classical mechanics: describes the dynamics of material bodies. seemed that all known
Electromagnetism: study of electricity, magnetism and optics physical phenomena
Thermodynamics: explains the interactions between matter and radiation. could be explained !
In the beginning of the twentieth century, classical physics was seriously challenged by two major domains:
Relativistic domain: Einstein’s theory of relativity (1905) showed that the validity of Newtonian mechanics fails at
speeds comparable to that of light (c = 3×108 m/s).
Microscopic domain: Classical physics fails to explain several phenomena: blackbody radiation, the photoelectric
effect, atomic stability, and atomic spectroscopy.

Timeline 5
Particle aspect of waves; that is, the concept that waves exhibit particle behavior at the microscopic scale. At this
scale, classical physics fails not only quantitatively but even qualitatively and conceptually.
 1900: Max Planck introduced the concept of the quantum of energy (energy exchange between an
electromagnetic wave of frequency and matter occurs only in integer multiples of hv) and explained the
phenomenon of blackbody radiation.
 1905: Einstein explained the photoelectric effect using the concept of photon (light itself is made of discrete
bits of energy or tiny particles), which was unsolved since its first experimental observation by Hertz in 1887.
 1913: Neil Bohr introduced a model of Hydrogen atom: atoms can be found only in discrete states of energy
and the emission or absorption of radiation by atoms takes place only in discrete energy states. This work
provided a satisfactory explanation to several outstanding problems such as atomic stability and atomic
spectroscopy.
 1923: Compton demonstrated corpuscular aspect of light. By scattering X-rays with electrons, he confirmed
that the X-ray photons behave like particles.

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Wave aspect of light; that is, the concept that waves exhibit particle behavior at the microscopic scale. At this scale,
classical physics fails not only quantitatively but even qualitatively and conceptually.
1923: de Broglie postulated that material particles exhibits wave behavior.
1927: Davisson and Germer confirmed de Broglie postulate by showing interference patterns (a property of
waves) of electrons (matter).
1925: Heisenberg formulated matrix mechanics to describe atomic structure; expressing dynamical quantities
such as energy, position, momentum and angular momentum in terms of matrices, he obtained an eigenvalue
problem that describes the dynamics of microscopic systems: foundation of quantum mechanics.
1926: Schrödinger describes the dynamics of microscopic matter by means of a wave mechanics: a
generalization of the de Broglie postulate, called the Schrödinger equation. Schrödinger obtained a differential
equation: foundation of quantum mechanics.
1927: Max Born proposed his probabilistic interpretation of wave mechanics: he took the square moduli of the
wave functions that are solutions to the Schrödinger equation and he interpreted them as probability densities.
Dirac suggested a more general formulation of quantum mechanics which deals with abstract objects such as
kets (state vectors), bras, and operators: foundation of quantum mechanics.
Photoelectric effect 7
particle nature of light
Evac
Evac
Ec
W
EF W
EF
Ev
Band diagram for
Band diagram for metal
semiconductor
Metal Cs Li Ca Cu Ag Pt
Work function 1.9 2.3 3.2 4.7 4.7 6.4
work function (W) = hv0 = Evac - EF (eV)
Photon characteristics 8
• Photon: a quantum of electromagnetic radiation.

• Energy
𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝜈𝜈
𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑐𝑐/𝜆𝜆
𝐸𝐸(𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒) = 1240/𝜆𝜆(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)
• Momentum
𝑝𝑝 = 𝐸𝐸/𝑐𝑐
𝑝𝑝 = ℎ𝜈𝜈/𝑐𝑐
• Rest mass (m0)= zero.

Particle Nature of light 9
Particle: a localized object carries volume, density, mass, momentum, energy etc.
Photoelectric effect: When light of energy greater than work function of a metal incident of the metal surface,
the electrons (photoelectron) are ejected from the metal surface.
The photoelectric effect provides a direct confirmation for the energy quantization of light.
• 1887: Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect: electrons were observed to be
ejected from metals when irradiated with light.
• In 1905, Einstein explained the photoelectric effect using Planck’s quantization
rule.
Planck’s postulate: Planck considered that the energy exchange between
radiation and matter must be discrete. The energy of the radiation (of
frequency 𝜈𝜈) emitted by the oscillating charges must come only in integer
multiples of h
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝜈𝜈 Photoelectric effect
𝜈𝜈 is frequency of light, n = number of photons = 0, 1, 2…….

Work function: Energy required to remove electron from a metal surface. 10
It is energy difference of vacuum level and Fermi level.
If energy of photon (ℎ𝜈𝜈) < W, no electron will be emitted.

If energy of photon (ℎ𝜈𝜈) > W, electron will be emitted and the excess energy will be kinetic energy of the
photoelectron. The kinetic energy can be written as:
1
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. = 𝑚𝑚v 2 = ℎ𝜈𝜈 − 𝑊𝑊 = ℎ𝜈𝜈 − ℎ𝜈𝜈0
2
K. E. is the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons, m is the mass of the electron, v is the velocity of the electron, 𝜈𝜈 is
frequency of light, 𝜈𝜈0 =W/h is the threshold frequency (minimum frequency required to eject electron from the metal), W is
work function of the metal and h is Planck’s constant (6.63×10-34 Js).
Stopping potential (VS): at which all of the electrons will be turned back before
reaching the collector (anode); hence the flow of photoelectric current ceases
completely at VS.
𝑒𝑒𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. = ℎ𝜈𝜈 − 𝑊𝑊
Experimental setup of photoelectric effect

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Experimental observation:
 Regardless of the radiation’s intensity, if 𝜈𝜈 < 𝜈𝜈𝑡𝑡𝑡 ; 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0 i.e. no
electron can be emitted.
 No matter how low the intensity of the incident radiation,

electrons will be ejected instantly the moment the frequency of
the radiation exceeds the threshold frequency.
 At any frequency above the threshold frequency, the number of

electrons ejected increases with the intensity of the light but does
not depend on the frequency of light.
 The kinetic energy (maximum energy similarly stopping potential)

of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency but not on the
intensity of the beam; the kinetic energy of the ejected electron
increases linearly with the incident frequency.
Thus, the photoelectric effect provides an evidence for the corpuscular (particle) nature of the light (electromagnetic radiation).
Practice problems 12
The unit of Planck’s constant is

a) J/s
b) Js
c) s/J
d) Hz
Which of the following is a characteristics of the photon

a) 𝑚𝑚0 = 0
b) 𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝜈𝜈
ℎ𝜈𝜈
c) 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐

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Which of the following gives the unit of momentum

a) ℏ𝑘𝑘
b) ℎ/𝜆𝜆
c) Both of these
d) None of these
Which of the following phenomena does not explain the particle aspect of light
a) Photoelectric effect
b) Compton Effect
c) Scattering
d) Interference

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The correct form of photoelectric equation is (Ek=kinetic energy,𝜙𝜙0 = work function)

a) Ek = hν − ϕ0
b) Ek = hν + ϕ0
c) Ek = hν0 + ϕ0
d) None of these
Which of the following is true for the photoelectric effect if 𝜐𝜐 is the velocity of the ejected
electron and 𝜈𝜈 is the frequency of incident radiation.
a) υ ∝ ν
b) υ ∝ ν/2
c) υ ∝ ν3
d) υ ∝ ν
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• The work function of a material is W. The longest wavelength which would be able to eject the
electron is
a) 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐/𝑊𝑊
b) 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐/ℎ𝑊𝑊
c) 𝜆𝜆 = ℎ/𝑊𝑊
d) None of these
• Is it possible to eject an electron from a metal surface having work function 4.8 eV with an
incident radiation of wavelength 500 nm?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Data Insufficient
d) None of these

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• The work function of sodium metal is 2.3 eV. What is the closest value of the longest
wavelength of light that can cause the photoelectric emission from the sodium?
a) 539.7 nm
b) 402.1 nm
c) 513.6 nm
d) None of these

Wave Nature of particle 17
Wave: is delocalized (diffusive) and characterized by amplitude, wavelength, frequency, momentum, energy etc.
The wavelength of a photon of light (wave) can be expressed as:

ℎ
𝜆𝜆 =
𝑝𝑝
𝜆𝜆 and p is wavelength and momentum of light.
de Broglie wavelength: wave nature associated with a moving body (particle) of mass m and velocity v (for
v<<c):
ℎ ℎ
𝜆𝜆 = =
𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑝𝑝 = ℏ𝑘𝑘
2𝜋𝜋 ℎ
k is wavevector = and ℏ=
𝜆𝜆 2𝜋𝜋

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de Broglie’s idea was confirmed experimentally in 1927 by Davisson and Germer, and later by Thomson,
who obtained interference patterns with electrons.
Relationship between the wavelength of de Broglie wave and energy:
ℎ 1
Electron with kinetic energy E, 𝜆𝜆 = ; where 𝐸𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑚v 2
2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
ℎ
Electron under electric potential V, 𝜆𝜆 = ; where 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Electron at temperature T,
ℎ
𝜆𝜆 =
3𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
1 3
where 𝐸𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑚v𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
2
= 𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
2

de Broglie waves (matter waves) 19
Water waves represents variation of height of the water surface

Sound waves represents variation of pressure in the medium
Light waves represents variation of electric and magnetic fields
Matter waves represents variation in position and momentum; given as
Ψ = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡)
2𝜋𝜋
where, 𝑘𝑘 = and 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜆𝜆
𝜔𝜔
Phase velocity (𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 ): the ratio, at which a wave propagates. The phase velocity of wave associated with
𝑘𝑘
the moving particle at velocity (V) is related as:
𝑐𝑐 2
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 =
𝑉𝑉
Vp (phase velocity) is greater than c (speed of light)!

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Group velocity (Vg): The wave corresponds to a moving body may not be a single wave. The wave associated with
such moving body is group of waves (wave packet or wave group) and corresponding velocity is group velocity.
𝑑𝑑𝜔𝜔
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Superposition of individual waves of different wavelengths forms a wave group.

• If the velocity of the superposing waves are equal then the velocity of the wave group (Vg) is same i.e. phase
velocity (Vp).
• If the velocity of the superposing waves are different then the wave group travels with a velocity (Vg) different
from the phase velocity (Vp).
• The de Broglie wave group associated with a moving body travels with the same velocity as the body, Vg = V.
Relation between group velocity and phase velocity:

𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 + 𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘
or
𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 − 𝜆𝜆
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

• The concept of matter wave was given by

a) Heisenberg
b) Davisson and Germer
c) Luis de-Broglie
d) Erwin Schrodinger
• The existence of matter wave was experimentally proved by

a) Raman Effect
b) Davisson-Germer experiment
c) Michelson-Morley experiment
d) Luis de-Broglie

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• De-Broglie hypothesis is concerned with

a) Wave nature of radiation.
b) Wave nature of all material particles
c) Wave nature of electron only
d) Wave nature of alpha-particle only.
• One of the wave constituting the matter wave follows the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘).
What is the phase velocity of the wave?
a) 𝜔𝜔/𝑘𝑘
b) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
c) 𝜔𝜔2 /𝑘𝑘
d) 𝑘𝑘/𝜔𝜔

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• The relation between group velocity (𝜐𝜐𝑔𝑔 ) and phase velocity (𝜐𝜐𝑝𝑝 ) is given by
𝑑𝑑𝜐𝜐𝑝𝑝
a) 𝜐𝜐𝑔𝑔 = 𝜐𝜐𝑝𝑝 − 𝜆𝜆 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝑑𝑑𝜐𝜐𝑝𝑝
b) 𝜐𝜐𝑔𝑔 = 𝜐𝜐𝑝𝑝 − 𝜆𝜆 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
c) 𝜐𝜐𝑔𝑔 = 𝜐𝜐𝑝𝑝2 − 𝜆𝜆 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
d) 𝜐𝜐𝑔𝑔 = 2𝜐𝜐𝑝𝑝 − 𝜆𝜆 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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• The momentum of a particle according to de-Broglie formula can be written as (k is the wave
vector of the wave associated)
a) ℏ𝑘𝑘
b) ℏ/𝑘𝑘
c) ℏ/𝜆𝜆
d) None of these
• The group velocity is

a) Equal to the phase velocity
b) Equal to the light velocity
c) Equal to the particle velocity
d) None of these

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• The velocity of matter wave is

a) > 𝑐𝑐
b) = 𝑐𝑐
c) < 𝑐𝑐
d) None of these
• If the kinetic energy of a particle is E, then the de-Broglie wavelength is expressed as

a) 𝜆𝜆 = ℎ/ 3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
3
b) 𝜆𝜆 = ℎ/ 2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
c) 𝜆𝜆 = ℎ/ 5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
d) 𝜆𝜆 = ℎ/ 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

26
• A material particle is in thermal equilibrium at temperature T. The wavelength of de-Broglie

wave associated with it is
a) ℎ/ 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
b) ℎ/ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
c) ℎ/ 3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
d) ℎ/ 4𝜋𝜋 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
• The wavelength associated with an electron accelerated through a potential difference of V

volts is
a) 12.27/ V Å
b) 12.27/ V nm
c) 13.27/ V Å
d) 13.27/ V nm

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• An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100 volts. The de-Broglie

wavelength associated is
a) 1.227 Å
b) 1.227 nm
c) 5 m
d) None of these

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 28
Precise determination of position and momentum simultaneously of a moving particle is not possible.
It has a fundamental limit.
The position of the narrow de Broglie wave can be measured precisely but wavelength (and
consequently momentum) can not be measured precisely
The wavelength (and consequently momentum) of de Broglie wave can

be measured precisely but position can not be measured precisely
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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: it is impossible to measure position and momentum simultaneously

to an arbitrary accuracy
ℎ
∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑝𝑝 ≥
4𝜋𝜋
where, ∆𝑥𝑥 and ∆𝑝𝑝 are the uncertainties in the measurement of position along x-axis and x-component of
the momentum of a particle.
For three dimension motions:

ℎ ℎ ℎ
∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 ≥ , ∆𝑦𝑦∆𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 ≥ and ∆𝑧𝑧∆𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 ≥
4𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋
Other forms of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:
ℎ ℎ
∆𝐸𝐸∆𝑡𝑡 ≥ and ∆𝜃𝜃∆𝐿𝐿 ≥ ; E, t, 𝜃𝜃 and L are energy, time, angle and angular
4𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋
momentum respectively.

• Find the correct relation regarding the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

ℎ
a) Δ𝐸𝐸 × Δ𝑡𝑡 ≥
4𝜋𝜋
ℎ
b) Δ𝑝𝑝 × Δ𝑥𝑥 ≥
4𝜋𝜋
ℎ
c) ΔL × Δ𝜃𝜃 ≥
4𝜋𝜋
d) All of them
• What is the uncertainty associated with momentum, when position is measured with absolute
accuracy
a) 0
b) ∞
c) h/2π
d) h/4π
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• The Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle predicts

a) Non-existence of electron inside the nucleus
b) Zero point energy
c) Finite spectral width
d) All of them
• Which of the following is true for the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

ℎ
a) Δ𝐸𝐸 × Δ𝑡𝑡 ≥
4𝜋𝜋
ℎ
b) Δ𝐸𝐸 × Δ𝑥𝑥 ≥
4𝜋𝜋
ℎ
c) Δt × Δ𝐸𝐸 ≤
4𝜋𝜋
d) None of them

32
• The non-existence of the electron in the nucleus is an application of

a) Schrodinger equation.
b) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
c) Planck’s radiation law.
d) Photoelectric effect.
• The uncertainty in the location of a particle is equal to its de-Broglie wavelength. What is the
uncertainty in the velocity?
a) Δ𝜐𝜐 = 𝜐𝜐 2 /4𝜋𝜋
b) Δ𝜐𝜐 = 𝜐𝜐/4𝜋𝜋
c) Δ𝜐𝜐 = 1/4𝜋𝜋
d) None of these

Properties of wave function 33
Wave function (Ψ): the quantity whose variations make up matter waves.
𝛹𝛹is complex: 𝛹𝛹 = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 => A, B can be positive, negative or zero; 𝛹𝛹 does not represent any physical quantity.
𝛹𝛹 2
= 𝛹𝛹 ∗ 𝛹𝛹 (square of modulus of 𝛹𝛹) is always positive quantity and real quantity; {where 𝛹𝛹 ∗ = 𝐴𝐴 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖}.
𝛹𝛹 2 represents the probability density. Thus, the probability of finding a particle between x1
and x2, moving in along x-axis is given by:
𝑥𝑥2
𝑝𝑝 = � 𝛹𝛹 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥1
If the particle is in three dimension then probability:

𝑟𝑟2
𝑝𝑝 = � 𝛹𝛹 2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑟𝑟1
Properties of a well behaved wave function 34
• Ψ must be continuous and single-valued everywhere.
𝑑𝑑Ψ 𝑑𝑑Ψ 𝑑𝑑Ψ

• Derivatives of Ψ , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 must be continuous and single-valued everywhere.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧
• Ψ must be normalizable, which means that Ψ must go to 0 as x → ∞, y → ∞ and z → ∞ such

that ∫ Ψ 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 over all space be a finite constant.
• Normalization: A wave function is normalized if,
∞
∫−∞ Ψ 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1; for one dimension
∞
∫−∞ Ψ 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1; for three dimension

Examples of wave function 35
• Well-behaved wave functions
• Not well-behaved wave functions

Schrodinger’s equation 36
• Time dependent Schrodinger’s equation:
ℏ2 𝜕𝜕 2 Ψ 𝜕𝜕Ψ
− 2
+ 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 Ψ = 𝑖𝑖ℏ
2𝑚𝑚 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖
(𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥−𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡)
where, Ψ = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 ℏ is a position and time dependent wave function and V(x) is potential
energy.
• For a particle moving in 3 dimensions:
ℏ2 𝜕𝜕 2 Ψ 𝜕𝜕 2 Ψ 𝜕𝜕 2 Ψ 𝜕𝜕Ψ
− 2 + 2 + 2 + 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 Ψ = 𝑖𝑖𝑖
2𝑚𝑚 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

37
• Time independent Schrodinger’s equation (Steady state equation):
ℏ2 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜓𝜓
− 2
+ 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 𝜓𝜓 = 𝐸𝐸𝜓𝜓
2𝑚𝑚 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝑖𝑖
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
where,𝜓𝜓 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 ℏ is a position dependent wave function, E is energy.
• For a particle moving in 3 dimensions:
ℏ2 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜓𝜓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜓𝜓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜓𝜓
− 2
+ 2
+ + 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 𝜓𝜓 = 𝐸𝐸𝜓𝜓
2𝑚𝑚 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2

Particle in an infinite potential well (box) 38
• The infinite potential well is defined as:
∞, 𝑥𝑥 < 0
𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 = � 0, 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝐿𝐿
∞ 𝑥𝑥 > 𝐿𝐿
Infinite potential well
• Solving Schrodinger’s differential equation for V(x)=0 to obtain energy and wave function of the particle
trapped in the box, 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝐿𝐿
𝜕𝜕 2 𝜓𝜓 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
+ 2 𝜓𝜓 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 ℏ
• The boundary conditions used to solve the Schrodinger’s equation are:

𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 = 0 = 0 and 𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿 = 0 i. e. the wave function 𝜓𝜓 vanishes at the walls of the potential well.

39
• The wave function of the particle is for nth state is given by:
2 𝑛𝑛𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜓𝜓 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
• The energy of the particle is for nth state is given by:
𝑛𝑛2 𝜋𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛 =
2𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿2
• The momentum of the particle is for nth state is given by:
𝑛𝑛𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 =
𝐿𝐿
where n, m, L are quantum number, mass of the particle, length of the box.
The value of n is 1, 2, 3,…….

Discussion 40
• The ground state of the particle in an infinite potential well (box) is n=1.
The corresponding wave function, energy and momentum are:
2 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋2 ℏ2 𝜋𝜋𝜋

𝜓𝜓 1 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 , 𝐸𝐸1 = and 𝑝𝑝1 =
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 2𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿
• The first excited state of the particle in an infinite potential well (box) is
n=2. The corresponding wave function, energy and momentum are:
2 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋2 ℏ2 2𝜋𝜋𝜋

𝜓𝜓 2 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 , 𝐸𝐸1 = and 𝑝𝑝1 =
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 2𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿
Wave function (𝜓𝜓) and probability
density ( 𝜓𝜓 2 ) in state n=1 (ground
• The dimension of wave function is inverse of square root of length of the state), n=2 (first excited state) and n=3
box. (second excited state).
• The dimension of probability density 𝜓𝜓 2 is inverse of length of the box.

Discussion 41
• The antinodes (max. amplitude) of 𝜓𝜓 2 represents that the

probability of finding the particle is maximum.
• For the ground state (n=1), the probability is maximum at x=L/2.
• For the first excited state (n=2), the probability is maximum at

x=L/4 and x=3L/4.
• For the first excited state (n=2), the probability is zero at x=L/2.
• The number of nodes (where probability density 𝜓𝜓 2 = 0) nth

state equal to n-1. Example: for n=1, nodes=0; n=2, nodes=1 at
x=L/2; n=3, nodes=2 at x=L/4 and x=3L/4. Hence, this gives an Probability density ( 𝜓𝜓 2 ) in state n=1
idea of interpreting 𝜓𝜓 2 or 𝜓𝜓 for any nth state of a particle (ground state), n=2 (first excited state)
trapped in an infinite potential well (box). and n=3 (second excited state).

Bibliography 42
Text Books:
ENGINEERING PHYSICS, Hitendra K Malik And A K Singh, Mcgraw Hill Education, First Edition,
(2009).
Further readings:
QUANTUM MECHANICS: CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS, Nouredine Zettili, Second Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., (2009).
CONCEPTS OF MODERN PHYSICS, Arthur Beiser, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Sixth Edition,
(2003)*.
*most of the figures have taken from this book.

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PHY109: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Unit IV: Quantum Mechanics

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

“The discovery of quantum mechanics was nearly a total surprise. It

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

 Particle Nature of light

 Wave nature of light

 Heisenberg uncertainty principle

 Wave function and its significance

 Schrodinger equation: time dependent and time independent

 Particle in one dimensional box

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

particle nature of light

• Photon: a quantum of electromagnetic radiation.

• Rest mass (m0)= zero.

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

𝜈𝜈 is frequency of light, n = number of photons = 0, 1, 2…….

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

It is energy difference of vacuum level and Fermi level.

If energy of photon (ℎ𝜈𝜈) < W, no electron will be emitted.

𝑒𝑒𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. = ℎ𝜈𝜈 − 𝑊𝑊

Experimental setup of photoelectric effect

 No matter how low the intensity of the incident radiation,

 At any frequency above the threshold frequency, the number of

 The kinetic energy (maximum energy similarly stopping potential)

The unit of Planck’s constant is

Which of the following is a characteristics of the photon

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

Which of the following gives the unit of momentum

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

The correct form of photoelectric equation is (Ek=kinetic energy,𝜙𝜙0 = work function)

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

The wavelength of a photon of light (wave) can be expressed as:

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

Relationship between the wavelength of de Broglie wave and energy:

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

Water waves represents variation of height of the water surface

Matter waves represents variation in position and momentum; given as

Vp (phase velocity) is greater than c (speed of light)!

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

• Superposition of individual waves of different wavelengths forms a wave group.

Relation between group velocity and phase velocity:

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

• The concept of matter wave was given by

• The existence of matter wave was experimentally proved by

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

• De-Broglie hypothesis is concerned with

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

• The group velocity is

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

• The velocity of matter wave is

• If the kinetic energy of a particle is E, then the de-Broglie wavelength is expressed as

October 9, 2020 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Quantum Mechanics

• A material particle is in thermal equilibrium at temperature T. The wavelength of de-Broglie

• The wavelength associated with an electron accelerated through a potential difference of V