ASTM D6431-18

Standard Guide for Using the Direct Current Resistivity Method for Subsurface Site
Characterization

Significance and Use

5.1 Concepts—The resistivity technique is used to measure the resistivity of subsurface materials.
Although the resistivity of materials can be a good indicator of the type of subsurface material
present, it is not a unique indicator. While the resistivity method is used to measure the resistivity
of earth materials, it is the interpreter who, based on knowledge of local geologic conditions and
other data, must interpret resistivity data and arrive at a reasonable geologic and hydrologic
interpretation.

5.2 Parameter Being Measured and Representative Values:

5.2.1 Table 1 shows some general trends for resistivity values. Fig. 2 shows ranges in resistivity
values for subsurface materials.

5.6.2 Schlumberger Array—The Schlumberger array consists of unequally spaced in-line electrodes
(Fig. 3), where AB > 5 MN. The formula for calculating apparent resistivity from a Schlumberger
measurement is:

Equation D6431-18_2

where:

AB = distance between current electrodes, and

MN = distance between potential electrodes.

5.6.3 Dipole-Dipole Array—The dipole-dipole array consists of a pair of closely spaced current
electrodes and a pair of closely spaced potential electrodes (Fig. 3). The formula for calculating
apparent resistivity from a dipole-dipole measurement is:

Equation D6431-18_3
where:

na = distance between innermost electrodes measured as a number (n) of a-spacings,

and

a = distance between the current electrodes and also the potential electrodes.

5.6.4 Comparison of the Arrays:

5.6.4.1 Schlumberger Arrays:

(1) Schlumberger arrays are less susceptible to contact problems and the influence of nearby
geologic conditions that may affect readings. The method provides a means to recognize the
effects of lateral variations and to partially correct for them.

(2) Schlumberger arrays are slightly faster in field operations since only the current electrodes
must be moved between readings.

5.6.4.2 Wenner Arrays:

(1) The Wenner array provides a higher signal to noise ratio than other arrays because its potential
electrodes are always farther apart and located between the current electrodes. As a result, the
Wenner array measures a larger voltage for a given current than is measured with other arrays.

(2) This array is good in high-noise environments such as urban areas.

(3) This array requires less current for a given depth capability. This translates into less severe
instrumentation requirements for a given depth capability.

5.6.4.3 Dipole-Dipole Arrays:

(1) Relatively short cable lengths are required to explore large depths.
(2) Short cable lengths reduce current leakage.

(3) More detailed information on the direction of dip of electrical horizons is obtainable.

5.6.5 Other Arrays—There are several other arrays: Lee-partitioning array (Zohdy et al (2)), square
array (Lane et al (11)), gradient array (Ward (2)) and pole-dipole (Ward (5)) and automated data
acquisition and imaging systems that are not discussed in this guideline.

5.7 Sounding (Depth) Measurements—Sounding measurements are one of the most widespread
uses for the resistivity technique. Soundings provide a means of measuring changes of electrical
resistivity with depth at a single location. Several measurements are made with increasing
electrode spacings. As the spacing of the electrodes is increased, there is an increase in the depth
and volume of material measured (Fig. 4). The center point of the array remains fixed as the
electrical spacing is increased.

FIG. 4 Increased Electrode Spacing Samples Greater Depth and Volume of Earth (from Benson et
al, (8))

Increased Electrode Spacing Samples Greater Depth and Volume of Earth (from Benson et
al, )Increased Electrode Spacing Samples Greater Depth and Volume of Earth (from Benson et al, )

5.7.1 Sounding measurements result in a series of apparent electrical resistivity values at various
electrode spacings. These apparent resistivity values are plotted against electrode spacing using a
log-log scale (Fig. 5) and are interpreted using inversion techniques to derive true resistivity and
thickness of subsurface layers.

FIG. 5 Resistivity Sounding Curve (from Benson et al, (8))

Resistivity Sounding Curve (from Benson et al, )Resistivity Sounding Curve (from Benson et al, )

5.7.2 Successive electrode spacings should be (approximately) equally spaced on a logarithmic

scale. Normally, 3 to 6 data points per decade should be measured. A resistivity sounding curve
obtained from measurements of a uniform layered medium should follow a smooth curve, (Fig. 5).
By using six points per decade, noise is generally less significant and a smooth sounding curve may
be obtained. Data should be plotted in the field to ensure that an adequate number of noise-free
measurements are made.
5.7.3 The depth of penetration for an inhomogeneous stratified earth depends upon the electrode
separation and the resistivities of the earth's layers. In general, the overall array length could be
many times the exploration depth.

5.8 Profiling Measurements—A series of profile measurements along a line is used to assess lateral
changes in subsurface conditions at a given depth (Fig. 6). Electrical resistivity profiling is
accomplished by making measurements with fixed electrode spacing and array geometry at
several stations along a profile line (Fig. 7). A single profile measurement results in an apparent
electrical resistivity value at a station. Several profiles over an area can be used to produce a
contour map of changes in subsurface conditions (Fig. 8). These apparent resistivity profiles or
maps cannot be interpreted in terms of layer resistivity values without sounding data or other
additional information.

FIG. 6 Profiling to Assess Lateral Changes (from Zohdy et al, (12))

Profiling to Assess Lateral Changes (from Zohdy et al, )Profiling to Assess Lateral Changes (from
Zohdy et al, )

FIG. 7 Stations Along a Profile (from Benson et al, (8))

Stations Along a Profile (from Benson et al, )Stations Along a Profile (from Benson et al, )

FIG. 8 Apparent Resistivity Contour Map (from Zohdy et al, (12))

Apparent Resistivity Contour Map (from Zohdy et al, )Apparent Resistivity Contour Map (from
Zohdy et al, )

5.8.1 Vertical soundings are used to determine the appropriate electrode spacing for profiling.
Small electrode spacings can be used to emphasize shallow variations in resistivity that may affect
the interpretation of deeper data. Spacing between measurements controls the lateral resolution
that can be obtained from a series of profile measurements.

Scope

1.1 Purpose and Application:

1.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the
assessment of the electrical properties of subsurface materials and their pore fluids, using the
direct current (DC) resistivity method. Measurements of the electrical properties of subsurface
materials are made from the land surface and yield an apparent resistivity. These data can then be
interpreted to yield an estimate of the depth, thickness, voids, and resistivity of subsurface
layer(s).

1.1.2 Resistivity measurements as described in this guide are applied in geological, geotechnical,
environmental, and hydrologic investigations. The resistivity method is used to map geologic
features such as lithology, structure, fractures, and stratigraphy; hydrologic features such as depth
to water table, depth to aquitard, and groundwater salinity; and to delineate groundwater
contaminants. General references are, Keller and Frischknecht (1),2 Zohdy et al (2), Koefoed (3),
EPA(4), Ward (5), Griffiths and King (6), and Telford et al (7).

1.1.3 This guide does not address the use tomographic interpretation methods, commonly
referred to as electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) or electrical resistivity imaging (ERI). While
many of the principles apply the data acquisition and interpretation differ from those set forth in
this guide.

1.2 Limitations:

1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the Direct Current Resistivity Method. It does not address
in detail the theory, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are
included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended
that the user of the resistivity method be familiar with the references cited in the text and with
the Guide D420, Practice D5088, Practice D5608, Guide D5730, Test Method G57, D6429, and
D6235.

1.2.2 This guide is limited to the commonly used approach for resistivity measurements using
sounding and profiling techniques with the Schlumberger, Wenner, or dipole-dipole arrays and
modifications to those arrays. It does not cover the use of a wide range of specialized arrays. It
also does not include the use of spontaneous potential (SP) measurements, induced polarization
(IP) measurements, or complex resistivity methods.

1.2.3 The resistivity method has been adapted for a number of special uses, on land, within a
borehole, or on water. Discussions of these adaptations of resistivity measurements are not
included in this guide.
1.2.4 The approaches suggested in this guide for the resistivity method are the most commonly
used, widely accepted and proven; however, other approaches or modifications to the resistivity
method that are technically sound may be substituted if technically justified and documented.

1.2.5 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not
recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience
and should be used in conjunction with professional judgements. Not all aspects of this guide may
be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the
standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should
this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word
“Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved
through the ASTM consensus process.

1.3 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of
measurement are included in this standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not
be regarded as nonconformance with this test method.

1.4 Precautions:

1.4.1 It is the responsibility of the user of this guide to follow any precautions in the equipment
manufacturer's recommendations and to consider the safety implications when high voltages and
currents are used.

1.4.2 If this guide is used at sites with hazardous materials, operations, or equipment, it is the
responsibility of the user of this guide to establish appropriate safety and health practices and to
determine the applicability of regulations prior to use.

1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its
use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and
environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized
principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of
International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization
Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Norma ASTM D6431-18

Guía estándar para utilizar el método de resistividad de corriente continua para la caracterización
del sitio subterráneo

significado y uso

5.1 Conceptos: la técnica de resistividad se utiliza para medir la resistividad de los materiales del
subsuelo. Aunque la resistividad de los materiales puede ser un buen indicador del tipo de
material presente en el subsuelo, no es un indicador único. Si bien el método de resistividad se
utiliza para medir la resistividad de los materiales terrestres, es el intérprete quien, basándose en
el conocimiento de las condiciones geológicas locales y otros datos, debe interpretar los datos de
resistividad y llegar a una interpretación geológica e hidrológica razonable.

5.2 Parámetro que se está midiendo y valores representativos:

5.2.1 La Tabla 1 muestra algunas tendencias generales para los valores de resistividad. La figura 2
muestra rangos de valores de resistividad para materiales del subsuelo.

5.6.2 Conjunto de Schlumberger: el conjunto de Schlumberger consta de electrodos en línea

espaciados de manera desigual (Fig. 3), donde AB > 5 MN. La fórmula para calcular la resistividad
aparente a partir de una medición de Schlumberger es:

Ecuación D6431-18_2

dónde:

AB = distancia entre electrodos de corriente, y

MN = distancia entre electrodos potenciales.

5.6.3 Conjunto dipolo-dipolo. El conjunto dipolo-dipolo consta de un par de electrodos de

corriente estrechamente espaciados y un par de electrodos de potencial estrechamente
espaciados (Fig. 3). La fórmula para calcular la resistividad aparente a partir de una medición
dipolo-dipolo es:

Ecuación D6431-18_3
dónde:

na = distancia entre los electrodos más internos medida como un número (n) de espacios a, y

a = distancia entre los electrodos de corriente y también los electrodos de potencial.

5.6.4 Comparación de los Arrays:

5.6.4.1 Matrices de Schlumberger:

(1) Los conjuntos de Schlumberger son menos susceptibles a problemas de contacto y a la

influencia de condiciones geológicas cercanas que pueden afectar las lecturas. El método
proporciona un medio para reconocer los efectos de las variaciones laterales y corregirlos
parcialmente.

(2) Los arreglos de Schlumberger son ligeramente más rápidos en operaciones de campo ya que
solo se deben mover los electrodos de corriente entre lecturas.

5.6.4.2 Matrices Wenner:

(1) El conjunto Wenner proporciona una relación señal-ruido más alta que otros conjuntos porque
sus electrodos potenciales siempre están más separados y ubicados entre los electrodos actuales.
Como resultado, el conjunto Wenner mide un voltaje mayor para una corriente determinada que
el que se mide con otros conjuntos.

(2) Esta matriz es buena en entornos con mucho ruido, como las zonas urbanas.

(3) Esta matriz requiere menos corriente para una capacidad de profundidad determinada. Esto se
traduce en requisitos de instrumentación menos severos para una capacidad de profundidad
determinada.

5.6.4.3 Conjuntos dipolo-dipolo:

(1) Se requieren longitudes de cable relativamente cortas para explorar grandes profundidades.

(2) Las longitudes de cable cortas reducen las fugas de corriente.

(3) Se puede obtener información más detallada sobre la dirección de buzamiento de los
horizontes eléctricos.

5.6.5 Otras matrices: existen otras matrices: matriz de partición Lee (Zohdy et al (2)), matriz
cuadrada (Lane et al (11)), matriz de gradiente (Ward (2)) y polo-dipolo (Ward (5)) y sistemas
automatizados de adquisición de datos e imágenes que no se tratan en esta guía.

5.7 Mediciones de sondeo (profundidad). Las mediciones de sondeo son uno de los usos más
extendidos de la técnica de resistividad. Los sondeos proporcionan un medio para medir los
cambios de resistividad eléctrica con la profundidad en un solo lugar. Se realizan varias mediciones
con espaciamientos crecientes entre electrodos. A medida que aumenta el espaciado de los
electrodos, aumenta la profundidad y el volumen del material medido (Fig. 4). El punto central de
la matriz permanece fijo a medida que aumenta el espaciado eléctrico.

HIGO. 4 Muestras de mayor espacio entre electrodos Mayor profundidad y volumen de la Tierra
(de Benson et al, (8))

Muestras de mayor espaciado entre electrodos, mayor profundidad y volumen de la Tierra (de
Benson et al,) Muestras de mayor espaciado entre electrodos, mayor profundidad y volumen de la
Tierra (de Benson et al,)

5.7.1 Las mediciones de sondeo dan como resultado una serie de valores de resistividad eléctrica
aparente en varios espaciamientos de electrodos. Estos valores de resistividad aparente se trazan
frente al espaciado de los electrodos usando una escala logarítmica (Fig. 5) y se interpretan
usando técnicas de inversión para derivar la resistividad y el espesor reales de las capas del
subsuelo.

HIGO. 5 Curva de sondeo de resistividad (de Benson et al, (8))

Curva de sondeo de resistividad (de Benson et al,) Curva de sondeo de resistividad (de Benson et
al,)
5.7.2 Los espaciamientos sucesivos de los electrodos deben ser (aproximadamente) igualmente
espaciados en una escala logarítmica. Normalmente, se deberían medir de 3 a 6 puntos de datos
por década. Una curva de sondeo de resistividad obtenida a partir de mediciones de un medio en
capas uniforme debe seguir una curva suave (Fig. 5). Utilizando seis puntos por década, el ruido es
generalmente menos significativo y se puede obtener una curva de sonido suave. Los datos deben
trazarse en el campo para garantizar que se realice un número adecuado de mediciones sin ruido.

5.7.3 La profundidad de penetración para una tierra estratificada no homogénea