Theory of Structures I

CHAPTER 2

2. Loads on Structures

Determination of the loads that act on a structure, evaluation of critical force effects in the
member and dimensioning are the most difficult and yet important steps in the overall process
of design.

The loads that enter a system are of three different types. Concentrated loads (example a single
vehicular wheel load) are those that are applied over a relatively small area. Line loads are
distributed along a narrow strip of the structure. The weight of a member itself and the weight
of a wall or partition are examples of this type of load. Surface loads are loads that are
distributed over an area. The loads on a warehouse floor and the snow load on a roof are
examples of surface loads.

The loads that act on a structure can be grouped into three categories: dead loads, live loads, and
environmental loads. These categories can be further divided according to the specific nature of
the loading. Because the method of analysis is the same for each category of loading, all loads
could be combined before the analysis is performed. However, separate analyses for the
individual loading cases are usually carried out to facilitate the consideration of various load
combinations.

Furthermore loads can be classified based on:

• Direction:- Gravity/vertical and Lateral/horizontal loads
• Variation with time:- dead load (permanent) and Live Loads (Variable load)
• Structural Response:- Static(loads applied gradually) and dynamic (loads applied
over a short period of time and vary in magnitude with time)

2.1 Dead loads (Permanent load)

Dead loads are those that act on the structure as a result of the weight of the structure itself
and of the components of the system that are permanent fixtures. As a result,
dead loads are characterized as having fixed magnitudes and positions. Examples of dead
loads are the weights of the structural members themselves, such as beams and columns, the
weights of roof surfaces, floor slabs, ceilings, or permanent partitions, and so on.
The dead loads associated with the structure can be determined if the materials and sizes
of the various components are known. Some of standard material unit weights are shown in
Tables. (Refer ES EN-1, part 1- Loadings)

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 Table 2.1
Material Unit wt. (kN/m3)
Solid Brick 22
Hollow Concrete Block (HCB) 14-20
Trachyte (Masonry) 26
Concrete (with reinforcement) 25
Steel 77
Zigba (podacargus Gracillior) 6
PVC floor covering 16

2.2 Live (Variable) loads

In a general sense, live loads are considered to include all loads on the structure that
are not classified as dead loads. However, it has become common to narrow the definition of
live loads to include only loads that are produced through the construction, use, or occupancy
of the structure and not to include environmental.

These loads are dynamic in character in that they vary both in magnitude and position. Live loads
where the dynamic nature has significance because of the rapidity with which change in position
occurs are called moving loads, whereas live loads in which change occurs over an extended period
of time, or where there is the potential for change whether exercised or not, are referred to as
movable loads. Moving loads include vehicular loads on bridges or crane loads in industrial build-
ings. Another type of live load is a variable load or a time dependent load-that is, one whose
magnitude changes with time, such as a load induced through the operation of machinery.

2.2.1 Occupancy live loads

Occupancy live loads for buildings are usually specified in terms of the minimum values
that must be used for design purposes. Some representative values are given in Table 2.2.
(Refer ES EN-1, part 1- Loadings)

Table 2.2
Category Uniform Load (kN/m2)
Private dwelling 1.5
Bed rooms, class rooms, . . . 2.0
Offices, Café, . . . 3.0
Assembly halls, Cinema, . . . 4.0

2.2.2 Traffic Loads for Bridges

Bridges must be designed to support the vehicular loads associated with their functional use and
minimum loads are mandated for designed purposes. In the case of highway bridges, these loads
are specified in Bridge Design Manuals. The approach is to specify the weights and spacing of
axles and wheels for a design truck, a design tandem, and the design lane load. These loadings
provide for a set of concentrated loads (which represent a truck type loading) and a uniform
load (which simulates a line of vehicles).

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 2.2.3 Impact loads
Loads that are applied over a very short period of time have a greater effect on the structure than
would occur if the same loads were applied statically. The manner in which a load varies with
time and the time over which the full load is placed on the structure will determine the factor by
which the static response should be increased to obtain the dynamic response.

For building occupancy loads, the minimum design loads normally include adequate allowance
for ordinary impact conditions. However, provisions must be made in the structural design for
uses and loads that involve unusual vibrations and impact forces. One situation in which an
impact effect (IM is defined as the dynamic load allowance) is applied for moving vehicular
loads on a highway bridge.

2.3 Environmental loads

Structures experience numerous loading conditions as a result of the environment in which they
exist. These are Snow and Ice Loads, Roof loads, Wind loads and Earthquake Loads.

2.3.1 Snow and Ice Loads

The procedure for establishing the static snow loads on a building is normally based on
ground snow loads and an appropriate ground-to-roof conversion.

The distribution of snow on a roof is complex, and many different approaches are used.
Factors considered in calculating snow and ice loads are location, exposure factor, thermal
factor, the effects of unloaded portions of roof, unbalanced or nonuniform loads on various
roof configurations, drifting, sliding snow, and extra loads induced by rain on snow.

Snow loads are not normally considered in bridge design because they are usually small
when compared with other loadings on the structure. However, ice loads can be appreciable
on bridge structures. The icing not only creates loads on the structure but also increases the
member sizes, which, in turn, increases the magnitude of the wind induced loads.

2.3.2 Rain loads

Roof loads that result from the accumulation of rainwater on flat roofs can be a serious
problem. This condition is produced by the ponding that occurs when the water
accumulates faster than it runs off, either because of the intensity of the rainfall or because
of the inadequacy or blockage of the drainage system. The real danger is that as ponding
occurs the roof deflects into a dished configuration, which can accommodate more water,
and thus greater loads result.

The best way to prevent the problem is to provide a modest slope to the roof (0.25 in. per ft
or 2cm. per m or more) and to design an adequate drainage system. In addition to the
primary drainage, there should be a secondary system to preclude the accumulation of
standing water above a certain level.

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2.3.3 Wind loads
The wind loads that act on a structure result from movement of the air against the ob-
structing surfaces. Wind effects induce forces, vibrations, and in some cases instabilities in
the overall structure as well as its non-structural components. These wind effects depend on
the wind speed, mass density of the air, location and geometry of the structure, and
vibrational characteristics of the system.

The design wind pressure that is used to establish the wind load on a structure is directly
related to velocity pressure (q) and is given by:
1 2
q= pv
2
Where p is the mass density of air, and v is the wind velocity.

Wind Forces According to ES EN-1, 1995

Wind Pressure: The external and internal wind pressures are given as:
We = q ref ce ( z e )c pe

Wi = q ref ce ( z e )c pi

Where q ref is the reference wind pressure; We and Wi are the external and internal pressures;
ce(ze) and ce(zi) are the external and internal exposure coefficients; cpe and cpi are the external
and internal pressure coefficients.

Reference Wind Pressure: The reference wind pressure is given by:

1 2
q ref = pv ref
2
Where p is air density and vref is the reference wind velocity.
The air density is a function of altitude and depends on the temperature and pressure to be
expected in the region during storms. A temperature of 200C has been selected as
appropriate for Ethiopia and the variation of mean atmospheric pressure with altitude is
given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Values of air Density, p
Site Altitude (m) 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Above Sea Level

Air density, p 1.20 1.12 1.06 1.00 0.94

(kg/m3)

Reference Wind Velocity: The reference wind velocity is taken as 22m/s.

Exposure Coefficient: takes into the account the effects of terrain, topography, and
elevation.
Ce(z) =fn (terrain category, topographic coefficient, elevation)

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Terrain Category: The terrain category attempts to take into account the effect of the land
coverage, and is given below. The terrain type is classified into 4 groups as follows:
Category I: Lakes with at least 5 km fetch upwind and smooth flat country without
obstacles.
Category II: Farmland with boundary hedges, occasional small farm structure,
houses or trees
Category III: Suburban or industrial areas and permanent forests.
Category IV: Urban areas in which at least 15% of the surface is covered with
buildings and their average height.

Topography Coefficient: The topography coefficient Ct accounts for the increase in mean
wind speed over isolated hills and escarpments and mountainous regions. It is defined by:
Ct =1 for Φ<0.05
Ct =1+2SΦ for 0.05≤Φ<0.3
Ct = 1+0.6S for Φ>0.3
Where: S is a factor to be obtained by interpolation from the value of s=1.0 at the
crest of a hill or escarpment and the value of S=0 at the boundary on the
topography affected zone, Φ is the upwind slope in the wind direction.

Factor S : Cliffs and escarpments

Factor S: Hills and ridges

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 Pressure Coefficient: The shape factor takes into account the effect of shape of structure on
the pressure distribution.

The external pressure coefficients cpe for buildings and individual parts of building depend
on the size of the loaded area A. They are given for loaded area A of 1m2 and 10m2 in the
relevant tables for the appropriate building configuration as cpe.1 and cpe.10, respectively.
For areas between 1m2 and 10m2, values are obtained by linear interpolation. That is:
Cpe =cpe.1 for A≤1m2
Cpe = cpe.1 +( cpe.10 - cpe.1)log10A for 1m2<A<10m2
Cpe = cpe.10 for A≥10m2
The values of pressure coefficient are applicable to buildings.

Values of external pressure coefficients for different cases are given in Table A.1 to
Table A.5 of ES EN-1.

2.3.4 Earthquake Loads

A common dynamic loading that structures must resist is that associated with earthquake
motions. Here, loads are not applied to the structure in the normal fashion. Instead, the base
of the structure is subjected to a sudden movement. Since the upper portion of the structure
resists motion because of its inertia, a deformation is induced in the structure. This
deformation, in turn, induces a horizontal vibration that causes horizontal shear forces
throughout the structure.

It results from the acceleration of the supporting earth. Movement of the ground during EQ
in the direction parallel to the ground surface has the most damaging effect on structures.
The resulting earthquake loads are dependent on the nature of the ground movement and the
inertia response characteristics of the structure. The computation of lateral loads due to EQ
and load distribution to various levels of a building frame as of EBCS-8, 1995 (Ethiopian
Building Code Standards part 8- Design of structures for Earthquake Resistance) is
presented below.
Fb = S d (T1 ).W

S d (T1 ) = α β γ

Where: Fb = Total lateral load on the structure (seismic base shear)

S d (T1 ) = Ordinate of the design spectrum
T1 = Fundamental period
W = Seismic dead load DL (+25% for storage and warehouses)
α = α0 I, ( α is the ratio of the design bedrock acceleration to the acceleration
of gravity, g)
I = importance of a structure
β = 1.25 S 2 / 3 ≤ 2.5 ( β is the design response factor)
T
γ= accounts the ductility level (behavior factor)

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 α 0 = Bed rock acceleration for the site
S = Site coefficient.
T1 = C1 H 3 / 4 ; C1 = 0.075 H = height of the building above base in m

⎧0.085, for steel moment resisting frames

⎪
C1 = ⎨0.075, or for RC moment resisting frames, and eccentrically braced frames
⎪0.050, for other buildings
⎩

Thus, the total lateral load distributed to various level of the building frame is given by the
Ft formula.
(Fb − Ft ) wi hi
Fi = hi = height of each floor level
∑w h i i

Ft = 0.07 T1 F6

wi = Weight of the structure at each floor level

Therefore, Fi at level i distributed in accordance with mass distribution on that level.

The parameters α 0 , I, S and γ are obtained as follows.

i) Bed rock acceleration ( α 0 )

Areas are sub divided into seismic zones depending on the local hazard.
Zone 4 3 2 1
α0 0.1 0.07 0.05 0.03