1 s2.0 S2352484723014579 Main

Energy Reports 10 (2023) 3474–3493
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr
Review article
Solar energy status in the world: A comprehensive review

Hamed H. Pourasl a, *, Reza Vatankhah Barenji b, *, Vahid M. Khojastehnezhad a
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Cyprus International University, Nicosia, TRNC, Via Mersin 10, Turkey
b
Department of Engineering, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The utilization of renewable energy as a future energy resource is drawing significant attention worldwide. The
Solar energy potential contribution of solar energy (including concentrating solar power (CSP) and solar photovoltaic (PV) power) to
Solar resource assessment global electricity production, as one form of renewable energy sources, is generally still low, at 3.6%. However, it
PV
has firmly established itself among other renewable energy technologies, comprising nearly 31% of the total
Concentrating solar power
installed renewable energy capacity in 2022, making it the second most installed renewable energy resource
behind hydropower energy. The present review study, through a detailed and systematic literature survey,
summarizes the world solar energy status along with the published solar energy potential assessment articles for
235 countries and territories as the first step toward developing solar energy in these regions. A comparison of
the solar power status among countries and territories has been provided, considering their concentrated solar
power and PV installed capacities for each continent. Although there has been a significant increase of
approximately 22% in global solar energy installed capacity between 2021 and 2022, the literature survey re
veals that clear gaps still exist in the field of solar energy. In the next three decades, the solar PV field can
advance to become the second prominent generation source by constructing more solar farms, allowing countries
to generate approximately 25% of the world’s total electricity needs by 2050.
1. Introduction solar energy is the second most installed renewable energy technology,
following hydropower technology with 1392 GW. (IRENA, 2023).
The rapid depletion of fossil fuels, which accounts for nearly 80% of The global installed solar capacity over the past ten years and the
global energy consumption, demands an urgent need for research aimed contributions of the top fourteen countries are depicted in Tables 1 and 2
at finding sustainable and renewable energy alternatives (Tester et al., (IRENA, 2023). Table 1 shows a tremendous increase of approximately
2012). Solar, hydropower, geothermal, biomass, and wind energy 22% in solar energy installed capacity between 2021 and 2022. While
sources have been proposed and widely studied (Mohammed et al., China, the US, and Japan are the top three installers, China’s relative
2013; Al-Ali and Dincer, 2014; Singh and Nachtnebel, 2016; Bahrami contribution accounts for nearly 37% of the entire solar installation in
et al., 2017; Bahrami and Okoye, 2018; Okoye et al., 2018; Bahrami 2022. Fig. 1 illustrates the contribution of energy sources to both elec
et al., 2019a; Bahrami et al., 2019b; Teimourian et al., 2020). These tricity generation and total installed power capacity by 2050. In 2016, as
studies include, but are not limited to, assessing technical design depicted in Fig. 1, renewables contributed to about 30% of the global
viability, economic feasibility, optimization, and conducting social as installed capacity, providing nearly a quarter of global electricity pro
sessments using various models. Solar energy is a widely distributed, duction. The solar power (PV+CSP) accounted for nearly 8% of the
sustainable, and renewable energy source. As a renewable resource, renewable electricity production. As shown in Fig. 1, by 2050, solar PV
solar energy has the capability to replace the widely used fossil fuel technology is projected to have the largest installed capacity (8519 GW),
resource in the near future. While the contribution of solar energy to making it the second most prominent generation source behind wind
global electricity production remains generally low at 3.6%, it has firmly power, and it is expected to generate approximately 25% of total elec
established itself among other renewable energy technologies, tricity needs by 2050.
comprising nearly 31% of the total installed renewable energy capacity Through a systematic literature survey, this review study summa
in 2022 (IRENA, 2023). With an installed capacity of 1053 GW in 2022, rizes the world solar energy status (including concentrating solar power
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: hpourasl@ciu.edu.tr (H.H. Pourasl), Reza.vatankhahbarenji@ntu.ac.uk (R.V. Barenji).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.10.022
Received 31 July 2022; Received in revised form 16 September 2023; Accepted 4 October 2023
Available online 12 October 2023
2352-4847/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
H.H. Pourasl et al. Energy Reports 10 (2023) 3474–3493
Table 1
Global installed solar capacity from 2013 to 2022.
Solar energy capacity (MW)
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
World 140 514 180 712 228 920 301 082 395 947 489 306 592 245 720 429 861 537 1 053 115
Africa 716 1 709 2 242 3 455 5 200 8 150 9 493 10 819 11 628 12 641
Asia 36 225 60 691 90 581 140 489 211 853 276 406 332 854 410 326 485 413 597 573
Europe 84 189 91 095 99 604 106 173 112 299 121 603 142 272 162 795 190 143 227 799
N. America 13 645 20 129 27 043 38 731 47 828 57 664 69 656 86 493 107 192 126 443
S. America 198 465 921 1 589 3 672 5 512 8 562 13 164 20 795 32 773
Oceania 4 610 5 358 6 079 6 860 7 576 8 881 13 293 18 357 23 342 27 400
considering their concentrated solar power and PV installed capacities

Table 2 for each continent. The literature survey reveals that clear gaps still exist
Top fourteen solar energy installers in 2022.
in the field of solar energy. In the next three decades, the solar PV field
N/s Country Installed capacity (GW) can advance to become the second prominent generation source by
1 China 393.0 constructing more solar farms, allowing countries to generate approxi
2 USA 113.1 mately 25% of the world’s total electricity needs by 2050.
3 Japan 78.8
4 Germany 66.5
2. Data and methodology
5 India 63.1
6 Australia 26.8
7 Italy 25.1 Identifying problems and proposing solutions as academic research
8 Brazil 24.1 can be seen as the initial step toward developing the industry of a
9 Netherlands 22.6
country. This review paper attempts to highlight the gap between aca
10 Korea Rep 20.9
11 Spain 20.5 demic energy research and its ultimate observable impact on the energy
12 Viet Nam 18.5 industry of nations. For each country, a comprehensive effort is made to
13 France 17.4 define the current operational solar power status and its corresponding
14 UK 14.4 academic solar energy research. The presented information can help
bridge the mentioned gaps and serve as a valuable guide for researchers,
and solar PV power) along with the published solar energy potential designers, and policymakers looking to promote solar energy adoption
assessment articles for 235 countries and territories as the first step to in the electricity generation mix of countries. To accomplish this
ward developing solar energy in these regions. A comparison of the solar objective, the study utilized Elsevier’s Scopus, Google Scholar database,
power status among countries and territories has been provided, and bibliographic research techniques to collect materials identified as
Fig. 1. The contribution of energy sources in both electricity generation and total installed power capacity by 2050 (IRENA, 2019a).
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Table 3
Global installed solar PV capacity from 2013 to 2022.
Solar PV capacity (MW)
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
World 136 572 176 113 224 070 296 112 390 878 483 495 585 868 713 918 855 162 1 046 614
Africa 651 1 544 1 917 3 030 4 675 7 165 8 408 9 734 10 543 11 556
Asia 36 055 60 346 90 236 140 125 211 488 275 827 332 111 409 433 484 496 596 530
Europe 81 878 88 783 97 292 103 861 109 987 119 291 139 951 160 474 187 822 225 478
N. America 12 358 18 463 25 285 36 973 46 070 55 890 67 881 84 728 105 695 124 946
S. America 198 465 921 1 589 3 672 5 512 8 562 13 164 20 687 32 665
Oceania 4 607 5 355 6 076 6 857 7 574 8 878 13 290 18 354 23 339 27 397
projects in the early years of solar PV development. In 2013, sixty

Table 4
percent of the world’s solar PV installations were related to this conti
Top fourteen solar PV energy installers in 2022.
nent, as indicated in Table 3. Rapid solar PV development has occurred
N/s Country Installed capacity (GW) in other areas since 2013, particularly in China. In 2017, China became
1 China 392.4 the largest solar PV market, outperforming Europe, with approximately
2 USA 111.5 1/3 of the world’s installed capacity. The world’s cumulative installed
3 Japan 78.8
solar PV power capacity passed 1046 GW in 2022 (IRENA, 2023).
4 Germany 66.5
5 India 62.8 Table 3 shows a tremendous increase of approximately 22%
6 Australia 26.8 (192 GW) in solar PV installed capacity between 2021 and 2022. While
7 Italy 25.1 China, the US, and Japan are the top three installers, China’s relative
8 Brazil 24.1 contribution accounts for nearly 37% of the entire solar PV installation
9 Netherlands 22.6
in 2022. In 2022, the most significant expansion in the solar PV market
10 South Korea 20.9
11 Viet Nam 18.5 occurred in China, the US, and India, with increments of 86.1 GW,
12 Spain 18.2 17.8 GW, and 13.5 GW, respectively (IRENA, 2023).
13 France 17.4 Fig. 2 shows the contribution of each continent in the world’s solar
14 UK 14.4
PV installed capacity in 2018, followed by 2030 and 2050 based on
IRENA’s REmap analysis. In comparison to the PV installations in 2018
source type, keyword, subject area, source title, country, journal articles, (481 GW), the world’s PV installed capacity is projected to increase
or conference proceedings. This process aimed to address solar energy almost six times by 2030 (to 2841 GW) and almost 18 times by 2050 (to
potential assessment articles for 235 countries and territories as the first 8519 GW, of which the distributed scale (rooftop) would account for
step toward developing solar energy in these regions. 40% while the remaining 60% would be utility scale). Asia will proceed
to lead the solar PV market by about 65% of the world’s PV installations
3. Solar PV energy (mainly China with 76% of the total), followed by North America at 15%
(primarily the US with over 90% of the total) and Europe at 10% by
3.1. Solar PV installed capacity 2030. By 2050, Asia, primarily China, is expected to maintain its lead
ership in the solar PV market with 4837 GW (about 57% of the world’s
The global installed solar PV capacity over the past ten years and the PV installations), followed by North America at 21% and Europe at 11%.
contributions of the top fourteen countries are presented in Tables 3 and Meanwhile, a much larger market growth is anticipated for both Africa
4 (IRENA, 2023). Europe was the leading contributor to global solar PV and South America by 2050, as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. The world solar PV installed capacity by 2050 (IRENA, 2019a).
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Fig. 3. The global weighted-average total installed cost of solar PV projects since 2014, followed by 2050 (IRENA, 2019a; IRENA, 2022).
Fig. 4. The total installed cost trends for solar PV projects in major markets since 2010 (IRENA, 2022).
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Fig. 5. The global levelized cost of electricity for solar PV projects since 2010, followed by 2050 (IRENA, 2019a; IRENA, 2022).
Fig. 6. Regional weighted average levelized cost of electricity for solar PV projects in the major markets since 2010 (IRENA, 2022).
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Fig. 7. The global weighted average LCOE, capacity factor, and total installed costs for solar PV projects since 2010 (IRENA, 2022).
3.2. Solar PV total installed costs 3.3. Solar PV levelized cost of electricity
Fig. 3 shows the variation of the global weighted-average total Fig. 5 shows the variation of the global weighted-average LCOE for
installed cost of solar PV projects since 2014, followed by 2050. It is seen solar PV projects since 2010. It is seen that the global weighted-average
that the global weighted-average total installed cost of solar PV projects LCOE of solar PV technology reduced by about 89 % from 0.445 USD/
reduced by about 67% from 2652 USD/kW in 2014 to 876 USD/kW in kWh in 2010 to 0.049 USD/kWh in 2022. It is noticeable that the LCOE
2022. The recent reduction in the 2022 weighted-average total installed of PV technology has dropped into the range of fossil fuel electricity
cost compared to the 2021 value was about 4%. The results from IRE costs since 2014. The recent 2022 global weighted-average LCOE
NA’s REmap analysis also indicate that the global weighted-average reduction compared to the 2021 value was about 3%. The results from
total installed cost of solar PV projects would reduce from 876 USD/ IRENA’s REmap analysis also indicate that the LCOE for solar PV pro
kW in 2022 to an average within 340–834 USD/kW by 2030 and jects would reduce from 0.049 USD/kWh in 2022 to an average within
165–481 USD/kW by 2050. 0.02–0.08 USD/kWh by 2030 and 0.014–0.05 USD/kWh by 2050.
Fig. 4 shows the variation of the total installed cost trends of solar PV Fig. 6 shows the regional weighted-average LCOE of solar PV projects
projects in fifteen major markets between 2010 and 2022. It is observed in the top fifteen markets since 2010. It is seen that the country-
that the country-weighted average total installed cost decreased from weighted average LCOE reduced within 2010–2022 in the top fifteen
2010 to 2022 in the top fifteen markets, with India experiencing the markets, and the maximum and minimum reductions in the LCOE
maximum reduction (89%) and Germany the minimum reduction (76%) belong to Australia (91%) and the US (75%), respectively. The reduction
in the total installed cost. The reduction in the 2022 total installed cost, in the 2022 LCOE, compared to the 2021 values, varied from 9% in Chile
compared to the 2021 values, varied from 22% in Chile to a low of 4% in and Australia to a low of 1% in the US. Meanwhile, the increase in the
the US, while the increase in the 2022 total installed cost, compared to 2022 LCOE, compared to the 2021 values, ranged from 27% in Germany
the 2021 values, ranged from 34% in Germany and France to a low of 2% and Mexico to a low of 2% in India. In 2022, the observed countries’
in India. In 2022, among the top fifteen markets, India had the lowest weighted-average LCOE was within 0.037–0.1 USD/kWh. The lowest
total installed cost at 640 USD/kW, followed by Turkey (690 USD/kW), 2022 weighted-average LCOE belongs to both India and China (0.037
China (715 USD/kW), Italy (771 USD/kW), and Spain (778 USD/kW). USD/kWh), followed by Australia (0.041 USD/kWh), Chile (0.042 USD/
Among the aforementioned fifteen major markets, Japan had the highest kWh), and Spain (0.046 USD/kWh). Meanwhile, Japan recorded the
2022 total installed cost at 1905 USD/kW, followed by the Netherlands highest 2022 weighted-average LCOE at 0.092 USD/kWh at the highest
(1221 USD/kW) and France (1157 USD/kW). end of the cost chart.
Table 5
Global installed concentrated solar capacity from 2013 to 2022.
Concentrated solar capacity (MW)
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
World 3 942 4 599 4 850 4 970 5 069 5 811 6 377 6 511 6 375 6 501
Africa 65 165 325 425 525 985 1 085 1 085 1 085 1 085
Asia 170 345 345 365 365 580 744 894 918 1 044
Europe 2 311 2 312 2 312 2 312 2 312 2 312 2 321 2 321 2 321 2 321
N. America 1 286 1 667 1 758 1 758 1 758 1 774 1 775 1 765 1 497 1 497
S. America 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 108 108
Oceania 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3
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Table 6 3.4. Solar PV capacity factor

Top ten concentrated solar energy installers in 2022.
N/s Country Installed capacity (GW) Fig. 7 shows the variation of the global weighted-average capacity
factor for solar PV projects between 2010 and 2022. It is observed that
1 Spain 2.3
2 USA 1.5 there is a tendency towards higher capacity factors from 13.8% in 2010
3 China 0.59 to 16.9% in 2022. The observed growth in the capacity factor is mainly
4 Morocco 0.54 due to three key factors, 1) performance enhancement of the systems by
5 South Africa 0.50 reducing losses, 2) using solar tracking systems, and 3) tendency to
6 India 0.34
7 Israel 0.24
wards deployment in areas with higher radiation levels.
8 Chile 0.11
9 UAE 0.10
10 Saudi Arabia 0.05
Fig. 8. The global weighted average LCOE, capacity factor, and total installed costs for CSP projects between 2010 and 2022 (IRENA, 2022).
Fig. 9. The total installed costs for CSP projects between 2010 and 2022 (IRENA, 2022).
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Fig. 10. The levelized cost of electricity for CSP projects between 2010 and 2022 (IRENA, 2022).
4. Concentrated solar power (CSP) variation range was between 3400 and 7000 USD/kW with higher
storage capacities (between 4 and 8 h or even more). It is also seen that
4.1. Concentrated solar installed capacity there have been no CSP projects with a Linear Fresnel design since 2014,
except for one exception in 2020, as shown in Fig. 9.
The global installed concentrated solar capacity over the past ten
years and the contributions of the top ten countries are depicted in Ta 4.3. Concentrated solar levelized cost of electricity
bles 5 and 6 (IRENA, 2023). Europe has been the leading contributor to
global concentrated solar projects since the early years of CSP devel Fig. 8 shows the global weighted-average LCOE for CSP projects
opment. In 2013, 58% of the world CSP installations were related to between 2010 and 2022. As shown in Fig. 8, the global weighted-
Europe, followed by North America (32%), and Asia (4%), as shown in average LCOE of CSP technology reduced by about 69 % from 0.380
Table 5. Rapid CSP development has occurred in other areas since 2013, USD/kWh in 2010 to 0.118 USD/kWh in 2022. This makes the CSP the
particularly in Africa and Asia. In 2022, the relative contributions of most expensive source among renewable resources at the moment.
Asia and Africa were recorded both at around 16% of the entire CSP However, it’s noteworthy that this cost now falls within the 2022 range
installations. The world’s cumulative installed capacity passed 6.5 GW of fossil fuel-fired costs, which is between 0.05 and 0.27 USD/kWh.
for CSP in 2022 (IRENA, 2023). Given the limited CSP deployment in recent times, with only one CSP
Based on Table 6, while Spain, the US, and China are the top three plant commissioned in China in 2022, there has been a 2% reduction in
installers, the relative contribution of Spain is nearly 35% of the entire the 2022 LCOE compared to the 2021 value. This reduction is primarily
CSP installation, followed by the US (24%) and China (9%) in 2022. attributed to China’s emergence as a major competitor in the CSP field.
Fig. 10 shows the variation in the levelized cost of electricity for CSP
4.2. Concentrated solar total installed costs projects across various technology types and storage durations between
2010 and 2022.
Fig. 8 shows the global weighted-average total installed costs for CSP Currently, higher capacity factors and lower total installed costs can
projects between 2010 and 2022. As shown in Fig. 8, the world-weighted contribute to a reduction in the LCOE for CSP. Additionally, further
average total installed cost of CSP technology reduced by about 58 % decreases in the LCOE can be achieved by implementing storage tech
from 10,082 USD/kW in 2010 to 4274 USD/kW in 2022. The recent 56% nology in CSP projects. By recognizing the fact that storage minimizes
reduction in the 2022 total installed cost compared to the 2021 value the LCOE, there have been no CSP projects without storage capacity
will likely continue in the upcoming years due to China’s participation since 2014, as shown in Fig. 10. It is also seen that the average storage
as a major competitor by deploying more CSP plants with lower overall duration in 2018 (8.3 h) is more than double the 2010 value (3.6 h).
installed prices. Fig. 9 shows the variation of the total installed cost for
CSP projects for various technology types and storage durations between 4.4. Concentrated solar capacity factor
2010 and 2022. Based on the storage duration, the location of the pro
jects, the plant capacity, and the used technology type (Linear Fresnel, Fig. 8 shows the global weighted-average capacity factor for CSP
Parabolic Trough, Solar Tower), a wide range of installed costs has been projects between 2010 and 2022. The global weighted-average capacity
observed each year for the CSP technology. For instance, in 2018, the factor increased from 30% in 2010 to 42% in 2020, as illustrated in
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Fig. 11. The capacity factor for CSP projects between 2010 and 2022 (IRENA, 2022).
Fig. 8. Fig. 11 shows the variation in the capacity factor for CSP projects 5.1. Europe
across various levels of direct normal irradiance, technology types, and
storage durations between 2010 and 2022. It is observed in recent years Table 7 presents the solar capacity in Europe at the end of 2022
that there is a tendency towards higher storage capacity along with a (IRENA, 2023), alongside studies assessing the solar energy potential of
higher capacity factor. The increase in the capacity factor is primarily countries and territories in the continent. These assessments mark the
attributed to the shift from Spain to locations with higher direct radia initial steps toward solar energy development in the region. In the Eu
tion levels ranging from 2500 to 3000 kWh/m2/year since 2014. ropean continent, Albania (Maraj et al., 2014), Austria (Hartner et al.,
(IRENA, 2022). 2015; Komendantova et al., 2018), Belgium (Journée and Bertrand,
2010; Demain et al., 2013), Bosnia and Herzegovina (Pavlovic et al.,
5. Solar energy potential assessment articles in the continents 2013), Bulgaria (Ganev et al., 2014), Croatia (Hrastnik and Frankovi,
2001; Zhang et al., 2015), Czech Republic (Hofierka et al., 2014),
The accurate design of a Solar Energy Conversion System (SECS) Denmark (Dragsted and Furbo, 2012), Estonia (Russak, 1991), Finland
requires a good understanding of the solar characteristics at the location (Aslani et al., 2013), France (Notton et al., 2017), Germany (Mainzer
of interest. For this reason, selecting the right location is crucial, as it et al., 2014; Romero Rodríguez et al., 2017), Greece (Karteris et al.,
impacts not only the technical but also the economic viability of the 2013), Hungary (Horváth et al., 2016), Ireland (Berger, 1998; Murphy
proposed design. In addition to the location-specific solar irradiation and McDonnell, 2017), Italy (Bocca et al., 2015), Kosovo (Veseli and
data, other parameters, including ambient temperature, wind speed, and Sofiu, 2019), Latvia (Shipkovs et al., 2015), Lithuania (Vasarevicius and
the amount of dust covering solar PV systems, are crucial factors in Martavicius, 2011), Malta (Yousif et al., 2013), Netherlands (Bakker
converting solar power to electricity. To harness solar energy in any et al., 2019), Norway (Adaramola, 2016; Babar et al., 2019), Poland
location of interest, the first essential step is to assess the feasibility of (Kulesza, 2017), Portugal (Santos et al., 2014), Romania (BĂadescu,
the system (Mostafaeipour et al., 2014). For this reason, numerous 1990; Sfîcă et al., 2017), Russia (Daus et al., 2016; Izmailov et al., 2019),
studies have assessed the utilization and feasibility of solar energy in Serbia (Luković et al., 2015; Kostić and Mikulović, 2017), Slovakia
various locations across continents as the initial step toward solar energy (Hofierka and Kaňuk, 2009; Hofierka et al., 2014), Slovenia (Zakšek
development in these countries. et al., 2005; Brumen et al., 2014), Spain (Carrión et al., 2008; Izquierdo
et al., 2011; Yousif et al., 2013), Sweden (Wallén, 1966; Kozarcanin and
Andresen, 2018), Switzerland (Mohajeri et al., 2016; Assouline et al.,
2017), UK (Tham et al., 2009; Palmer et al., 2019), Ukraine (Rybchenko
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Table 7
Europe installed capacity.
Country CSP capacity (MW) PV Capacity (MW) Reference
Albania - 29 (Maraj et al., 2014)

Andorra - 4 -
Austria - 3 548 (Hartner et al., 2015; Komendantova et al., 2018)
Belarus - 269 -
Belgium - 6 898 (Journée and Bertrand, 2010; Demain et al., 2013)
Bosnia & Herzegovina - 107 (Pavlovic et al., 2013)
Bulgaria - 1 948 (Ganev et al., 2014)
Croatia - 182 (Hrastnik and Frankovi, 2001; Zhang et al., 2015)
Czech Republic - 2 627 (Hofierka et al., 2014)
Denmark - 2 490 (Dragsted and Furbo, 2012)
Estonia - 535 (Russak, 1991)
Faroe Islands - - -
Finland - 591 (Aslani et al., 2013)
France 9 17 410 (Notton et al., 2017)
Germany 2 66 552 (Mainzer et al., 2014; Romero Rodríguez et al., 2017)
Gibraltar - - -
Greece - 5 557 (Karteris et al., 2013)
Hungary - 2 988 (Horváth et al., 2016)
Iceland - 7 -
Ireland - 135 (Berger, 1998; Murphy and McDonnell, 2017)
Italy 6 25 077 (Bocca et al., 2015)
Kosovo - 10 (Veseli and Sofiu, 2019)
Latvia - 56 (Shipkovs et al., 2015)
Liechtenstein - - -
Lithuania - 568 (Vasarevicius and Martavicius, 2011)
Luxembourg - 319 -
Macedonia - 94 -
Malta - 206 (Yousif et al., 2013)
Moldova - 19 -
Monaco - - -
Montenegro - 26 -
Netherlands - 22 590 (Bakker et al., 2019)
Norway - 321 (Adaramola, 2016; Babar et al., 2019)
Poland - 11 167 (Kulesza, 2017)
Portugal - 2 536 (Santos et al., 2014)
Romania - 1 414 (BĂadescu, 1990; Sfîcă et al., 2017)
Russia - 1 816 (Daus et al., 2016; Izmailov et al., 2019)
San Marino - - -
Serbia - 137 (Luković et al., 2015; Kostić and Mikulović, 2017)
Slovakia - 537 (Hofierka and Kaňuk, 2009; Hofierka et al., 2014)
Slovenia - 632 (Zakšek et al., 2005; Brumen et al., 2014)
Spain 2 304 18 214 (Carrión et al., 2008; Izquierdo et al., 2011; Yousif et al., 2013)
Sweden - 2 606 (Wallén, 1966; Kozarcanin and Andresen, 2018)
Switzerland - 4 134 (Mohajeri et al., 2016; Assouline et al., 2017)
UK - 14 412 (Tham et al., 2009; Palmer et al., 2019)
Ukraine - 8 062 (Rybchenko and Savchuk, 2017; Mandryk et al., 2020)
and Savchuk, 2017; Mandryk et al., 2020). Cape Verde (Qing and Niu, 2018), Cameroon (David et al., 2018), Chad
According to Table 7, in 2022, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands (Soulouknga et al., 2017; Goni et al., 2019), Côte d’Ivoire (Sidibé et al.,
ranked as the top three European solar energy installers (solar PV and 2017; Kouassi et al., 2020), Djibouti (Pillot et al., 2013; Pillot et al.,
CSP), with total installed capacities of 66.5 GW, 25.1 GW, and 22.6 GW, 2015), Egypt (Effat, 2013; Effat, 2016), Ethiopia (Drake and Mulugetta,
respectively. The same ranking pattern holds for the solar PV category, 1996; Woldegiyorgis, 2019), Gambia (Kanteh Sakiliba et al., 2015),
with Germany leading the continent at 66.5 GW (99.99% of its total Ghana (Forson et al., 2004; Asumadu-Sarkodie and Asantewaa Owusu,
solar capacity), followed by Italy (25.1 GW, 99.97% of its total solar 2016), Kenya (Oloo et al., 2015; Kariuki and Sato, 2018), Lesotho
capacity) and the Netherlands (22.6 GW, 100.0% of its total solar ca (Gopinathan, 1989; Gopinathan, 1991), Libya (Kutucu and Almryad,
pacity). The ranking pattern is quite different in the CSP category. In the 2016; Belgasim et al., 2018), Madagascar (Randrianarinosy et al., 2018),
case of CSP installers, Spain, France, and Italy were the top three Eu Malawi (Madhlopa, 2006), Mali (Diarra and Akuffo, 2002), Mauritania
ropean CSP installers in 2022, with installed capacities of 2.3 GW, (El-Mukhtar, 1983), Mauritius (Ramgolam and Soyjaudah, 2015; Singh
0.01 GW, and 0.006 GW, respectively. Doorga et al., 2019), Morocco (Ouammi et al., 2012; Bouhal et al., 2018;
Tazi et al., 2018), Mozambique (Cuamba et al., 2006), Namibia (Le Fol
5.2. Africa and Ndhlukula, 2017), Niger (Dankassoua et al., 2017), Nigeria (Fadare,
2009; Okoye et al., 2016), Reunion (Badosa et al., 2013; Jeanty et al.,
Table 8 presents the solar capacity in Africa at the end of 2022 2013), Rwanda (Safari and Gasore, 2009; Rodríguez-Manotas et al.,
(IRENA, 2023), along with studies assessing the solar energy potential of 2018), Senegal (Wane et al., 2018), Seychelles (Brown et al., 2016),
countries and territories in the continent. These assessments mark the Sierra Leone (Massaquoi, 1988), Somalia (Habbane and McVeigh,
initial steps toward solar energy development in the region. In the Af 1986), South Africa (Munzhedzi and Sebitosi, 2009; Park et al., 2011;
rican continent, Algeria (Gairaa and Bakelli, 2013; Guermoui and Zawilska and Brooks, 2011), South Sudan (Gudo et al., 2020), Sudan
Rabehi, 2018), Angola (Puati Zau and Daniel Chowdhury B, 2018), (Elagib and Mansell, 2000; Gamil et al., 2012), Tanzania (Alfayo and
Benin (Amoussa, 1992), Botswana (Mutoko and Mutoko, 2019), Burkina Uiso, 2002; Aly et al., 2017), Togo (Dzo Mawuefa Afenyiveh et al.,
Faso (Ouedraogo and Yamegueu, 2019), Burundi (Lawin et al., 2019), 2019), Tunisia (El Ouderni et al., 2013; Chelbi et al., 2015), Uganda
3483
Table 8
Africa installed capacity.
Country CSP capacity (MW) PV Capacity (MW) Reference
Algeria 25 435 (Gairaa and Bakelli, 2013; Guermoui and Rabehi, 2018)
Angola - 297 (Puati Zau and Daniel Chowdhury B, 2018)
Benin - 28 (Amoussa, 1992)
Botswana - 6 (Mutoko and Mutoko, 2019)
Burkina Faso - 92 (Ouedraogo and Yamegueu, 2019)
Burundi - 13 (Lawin et al., 2019)
Cape Verde - 8 (Qing and Niu, 2018)
Cameroon - 14 (David et al., 2018)
Central African Republic - - -
Chad - 1 (Soulouknga et al., 2017; Goni et al., 2019)
Comoros - 4 -
Congo DR - 20 -
Congo - 1 -
Côte d’Ivoire - 13 (Sidibé et al., 2017; Kouassi et al., 2020)
Djibouti - - (Pillot et al., 2013, 2015)
Egypt 20 1 704 (Effat, 2013, 2016)
Equatorial Guinea - - -
Eritrea - 11 -
Eswatini - 11 -
Ethiopia - 21 (Drake and Mulugetta, 1996; Woldegiyorgis, 2019)
Gabon - 1 -
Gambia - 3 (Kanteh Sakiliba et al., 2015)
Ghana - 98 (Forson et al., 2004; Asumadu-Sarkodie and Asantewaa Owusu, 2016)
Guinea - 2 -
Guinea-Bissau - 1 -
Kenya - 307 (Oloo et al., 2015; Kariuki and Sato, 2018)
Lesotho - - (Gopinathan, 1989, 1991)
Liberia - 3 -
Libya - 6 (Kutucu and Almryad, 2016; Belgasim et al., 2018)
Madagascar - 33 (Randrianarinosy et al., 2018)
Malawi - 143 (Madhlopa, 2006)
Mali - 229 (Diarra and Akuffo, 2002)
Mauritania - 89 (El-Mukhtar, 1983)
Mauritius - 110 (Ramgolam and Soyjaudah, 2015; Singh Doorga et al., 2019)
Mayotte - 30 -
Morocco 540 318 (Ouammi et al., 2012; Bouhal et al., 2018; Tazi et al., 2018)
Mozambique - 108 (Cuamba et al., 2006)
Namibia - 176 (Le Fol and Ndhlukula, 2017)
Niger - 62 (Dankassoua et al., 2017)
Nigeria - 37 (Fadare, 2009; Okoye et al., 2016)
Reunion - 224 (Badosa et al., 2013; Jeanty et al., 2013)
Rwanda - 25 (Safari and Gasore, 2009; Rodríguez-Manotas et al., 2018)
Saint Helena - - -
São Tomé and Príncipe - - -
Senegal - 263 (Wane et al., 2018)
Seychelles - 18 (Brown et al., 2016)
Sierra Leone - 9 (Massaquoi, 1988)
Somalia - 47 (Habbane and McVeigh, 1986)
South Africa 500 5 826 (Munzhedzi and Sebitosi, 2009; Park et al., 2011; Zawilska and Brooks, 2011)
South Sudan - 14 (Gudo et al., 2020)
Sudan - 190 (Elagib and Mansell, 2000; Gamil et al., 2012)
Tanzania - 15 (Alfayo and Uiso, 2002; Aly et al., 2017)
Togo - 57 (Dzo Mawuefa Afenyiveh et al., 2019)
Tunisia - 197 (El Ouderni et al., 2013; Chelbi et al., 2015)
Uganda - 94 (Mubiru and Banda, 2012; Biira and Kilama, 2014)
Western Sahara - - -
Zambia - 96 (Mwanza et al., 2017)
Zimbabwe - 41 (Ziuku et al., 2014; Samu and Fahrioglu, 2017).
(Mubiru and Banda, 2012; Biira and Kilama, 2014), Zambia (Mwanza 5.3. Asia
et al., 2017), Zimbabwe (Ziuku et al., 2014; Samu and Fahrioglu, 2017).
It is seen from Table 8 that South Africa, Egypt, and Morocco were Table 9 presents the solar capacity in Asia at the end of 2022 (IRENA,
the top three African solar power installers (solar PV and CSP) in 2022, 2023), along with studies assessing the solar energy potential of coun
with total installed capacities of 6.3 GW, 1.7 GW, and 0.8 GW, respec tries and territories in the continent. These assessments mark the initial
tively. The ranking pattern differs in the solar PV category, with South steps toward solar energy development in the region. In the Asian
Africa (5.8 GW) and Egypt (1.7 GW) leading as the top two solar power continent, Afghanistan (Mohammed Quraishee, 1969, Anwarzai and
installers. The third position is held by Algeria (0.4 GW), followed by Nagasaka, 2017), Armenia (Gevorgyan and Sargsyan, 2007), Azerbaijan
Morocco (0.3 GW). In the case of CSP installers, Morocco, South Africa, (Abbasov, 2015; Gulaliyev et al., 2020), Bahrain (Al-Sadah et al., 1990;
and Algeria were the top three African CSP installers in 2022, with Alnaser and Al-Attar, 1999), Bangladesh (Alam Hossain Mondal and
installed capacities of 0.54 GW, 0.50 GW, and 0.03 GW, respectively. Sadrul Islam, 2011; Nandi et al., 2013), Bhutan (Tenzin and Saini,
2019), Brunei (Mathew et al., 2013), Cambodia (De Schepper et al.,
2015), China (Li et al., 2014; He and Kammen, 2016; Zhang et al., 2020),
3484
Table 9
Asia installed capacity.
Country CSP (MW) PV Capacity (MW) Reference
Afghanistan - 33 (MohammedQuraishee, 1969,Anwarzai and Nagasaka, 2017)

Armenia - 306 (Gevorgyan and Sargsyan, 2007)
Azerbaijan - 51 (Abbasov, 2015; Gulaliyev et al., 2020)
Bahrain - 12 (Al-Sadah et al., 1990; Alnaser and Al-Attar, 1999)
Bangladesh - 537 (Alam Hossain Mondal and Sadrul Islam, 2011; Nandi et al., 2013)
Bhutan - - (Tenzin and Saini, 2019)
Brunei - 5 (Mathew et al., 2013)
Cambodia - 456 (De Schepper et al., 2015)
China 596 392 436 (Li et al., 2014; He and Kammen, 2016; Zhang et al., 2020)
Cyprus - 464 (Makrides et al., 2010; Ouria and Sevinc, 2018)
Georgia - 18 -
India 343 62 804 (Ramachandra et al., 2011; Kapoor et al., 2014)
Indonesia - 291 (Morrison and Sudjito, 1992; Rumbayan et al., 2012)
Iran - 539 (Alamdari et al., 2013; Besarati et al., 2013)
Iraq - 42 (Ahmad et al., 1983; Hussain and Mahdi, 2018)
Israel 242 4 169 (Becker, 2001; Fischhendler et al., 2015)
Japan - 78 833 (Yang et al., 2001; Ohtake et al., 2013)
Jordan - 1 914 (S. Alrwashdeh et al., 2018)
Kazakhstan - 2 031 (Assamidanov et al., 2018; Pivina et al., 2018)
Kuwait 50 43 (Bou-Rabee and Sulaiman, 2015)
Kyrgyzstan - - (Kiseleva et al., 2015)
Laos - 34 -
Lebanon - 440 (Sfeir, 1981)
Malaysia - 1 933 (Sukarno et al., 2015; Abd. Aziz et al., 2016)
Maldives - 36 (Ali et al., 2018)
Mongolia 100 95 (Adiyabat et al., 2006)
Myanmar - 103 -
Nepal - 117 (Pondyal et al., 1970; KC and Gurung, 2017)
North Korea - 52 (Baek and Kim, 2019)
Oman - 638 (Gastli and Charabi, 2010; Al-Saqlawi et al., 2018)
Pakistan - 1 243 (Stökler et al., 2016; Tahir and Asim, 2018)
Palestine - 192 (Fathi Nassar and Yassin Alsadi, 2019)
Philippines - 1 625 (Teves et al., 2016; Farias-Rocha et al., 2019)
Qatar - 805 (Alnaser and Almohanadi, 1990; Martín-Pomares et al., 2017)
Saudi Arabia 50 390 (Zell et al., 2015; Almarshoud, 2016)
Singapore - 572 (Kannan et al., 2006; Ramkumar et al., 2019)
South Korea - 20 975 (Nematollahi and Kim, 2017; Alsharif et al., 2018)
Sri Lanka - 714 (Gunaratne, 1994)
Syria - 60 (Elistratov and Ramadan, 2018; Ramadan and Elistratov, 2018)
Taiwan - 9 724 (Ko et al., 2015; Kuo et al., 2018)
Tajikistan - - (Kirpichnikova and Makhsumov, 2019)
Thailand 5 3 060 (Suphahitanukool et al., 2018; Ali et al., 2019)
Timor Leste - - -
Turkey 1 9 425 (Sözen and Arcaklioǧlu, 2005; Sözen et al., 2005)
Turkmenistan - - (Pendzhiev, 2010)
UAE 100 2 940 (Islam et al., 2009; Gherboudj and Ghedira, 2016)
Uzbekistan - 253 (Rakhimov et al., 2017)
Vietnam - 18 474 (Nguyen and Pryor, 1996; Polo et al., 2015)
Yemen - 257 (Khogali et al., 1983)
Cyprus (Makrides et al., 2010; Ouria and Sevinc, 2018), India (Ram 2018), Tajikistan (Kirpichnikova and Makhsumov, 2019), Thailand
achandra et al., 2011; Kapoor et al., 2014), Indonesia (Morrison and (Suphahitanukool et al., 2018; Ali et al., 2019), Turkey (Sözen and
Sudjito, 1992; Rumbayan et al., 2012), Iran (Alamdari et al., 2013; Arcaklioǧlu, 2005; Sözen et al., 2005), Turkmenistan (Pendzhiev, 2010),
Besarati et al., 2013), Iraq (Ahmad et al., 1983; Hussain and Mahdi, UAE (Islam et al., 2009; Gherboudj and Ghedira, 2016), Uzbekistan
2018), Israel (Becker, 2001; Fischhendler et al., 2015), Japan (Yang (Rakhimov et al., 2017), Vietnam (Nguyen and Pryor, 1996; Polo et al.,
et al., 2001; Ohtake et al., 2013), Jordan (S. Alrwashdeh et al., 2018), 2015), Yemen (Khogali et al., 1983).
Kazakhstan (Assamidanov et al., 2018; Pivina et al., 2018), Kuwait It is observed from Table 9 that China, Japan, and India were the top
(Bou-Rabee and Sulaiman, 2015), Kyrgyzstan (Kiseleva et al., 2015), three Asian solar energy installers (solar PV and CSP) in 2022, with total
Lebanon (Sfeir, 1981), Malaysia (Sukarno et al., 2015; Abd. Aziz et al., installed capacities of 393.0 GW, 78.8 GW, and 63.1 GW, respectively.
2016), Maldives (Ali et al., 2018), Mongolia (Adiyabat et al., 2006), The mentioned ranking pattern is the same for the solar PV category as
Nepal (Pondyal et al., 1970; KC and Gurung, 2017), North Korea (Baek China is the leader in the continent with 392.4 GW (99.8% of its total
and Kim, 2019), Oman (Gastli and Charabi, 2010; Al-Saqlawi et al., solar capacity), followed by Japan (78.8 GW, 100% of its total solar
2018), Pakistan (Stökler et al., 2016; Tahir and Asim, 2018), Palestine capacity) and India (62.8 GW, 99.4% of its total solar capacity). The
(Fathi Nassar and Yassin Alsadi, 2019), Philippines (Teves et al., 2016; same ranking pattern holds for the solar PV category, with China leading
Farias-Rocha et al., 2019), Qatar (Alnaser and Almohanadi, 1990; the continent at 392.4 GW (99.8% of its total solar capacity), followed
Martín-Pomares et al., 2017), Saudi Arabia (Zell et al., 2015; Almar by Japan (78.8 GW, 100% of its total solar capacity) and India
shoud, 2016), Singapore (Kannan et al., 2006; Ramkumar et al., 2019), (62.8 GW, 99.4% of its total solar capacity). The ranking pattern is quite
South Korea (Nematollahi and Kim, 2017; Alsharif et al., 2018), Sri different in the CSP category. In the case of CSP installers, China, India,
Lanka (Gunaratne, 1994), Syria (Elistratov and Ramadan, 2018; and Israel are the top three Asian CSP installers in 2022, with installed
Ramadan and Elistratov, 2018), Taiwan (Ko et al., 2015; Kuo et al., capacities of 0.59 GW, 0.34 GW, and 0.24 GW, respectively.
3485
Table 10
North and Central America installed capacity.
Country CSP Capacity (MW) PV Capacity (MW) Reference
Anguilla - 2 -
Antigua and Barbuda - 13 -
Aruba - 14 -
Bahamas - 3 (Bingham et al., 2016)
Barbados - 69 (Wyllie et al., 2018)
Belize - 7 -
Bermuda - - -
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius & Saba - 7 -
British Virgin Islands - 1 -
Canada - 4 401 (McIntyre, 2012; Rosenbloom and Meadowcroft, 2014; Mansouri Kouhestani et al., 2019)
Cayman Islands - 14 -
Costa Rica - 74 (Nandwani, 2006)
Cuba - 258 (Prieto and Oliveira, 2018; Morales Pedraza, 2019)
Curaçao - 16 -
Dominica - - -
Dominican Republic - 742 (Guidi, 1993)
El Salvador - 664 (Ambiente, 2005)
Greenland - 1 -
Grenada - 4 -
Guadeloupe - 90 (Boland, 2015; Lauret et al., 2015)
Guatemala - 105 (Orozco, 1987)
Haiti - 3 (Oates et al., 2003)
Honduras - 529 (El Blog del BID, 2018)
Jamaica - 93 (Chen et al., 1994)
Martinique - 78 -
Montserrat - 1 -
Mexico 17 9 009 (Hernández-Escobedo et al., 2015; Villicaña-Ortiz et al., 2015)
Nicaragua - 16 (Ranaboldo et al., 2015)
Panama - 522 (Becker, 1987)
Puerto Rico - 639 (Figueroa-Acevedo and Irizarry-Rivera, 2014; Harmsen et al., 2014)
Saint Barthelemy - - -
Saint Kitts and Nevis - 2 -
Saint Lucia - 4 -
Sint Maarten - - -
Saint Martin - 1 -
Saint Pierre & Miquelon - - -
Saint Vincent & the - 4 -
Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago - 4 (Boretti and Al-Zubaidy, 2019)
Turks & Caicos Islands - 1 -
USA 1 480 111 535 (Jeppesen, 2004; Kodysh et al., 2013; Majumdar and Pasqualetti, 2019)
US Virgin Islands - 10 -
5.4. North and Central America CSP installers in 2022, the US and Mexico were the only two countries in
the continent with installed CSP capacities of 1.5 GW and 0.02 GW,
Table 10 presents the solar capacity in North and Central America at respectively.
the end of 2022 (IRENA, 2023), along with studies assessing the solar
energy potential of countries and territories in the continent. These as 5.5. South America
sessments mark the initial steps toward solar energy development in the
region. In the North and Central American continent, Bahamas (Bing Table 11 presents the solar capacity in South America at the end of
ham et al., 2016), Barbados (Wyllie et al., 2018), Canada (McIntyre, 2022 (IRENA, 2023), along with studies assessing the solar energy po
2012; Rosenbloom and Meadowcroft, 2014; Mansouri Kouhestani et al., tential of countries and territories in the continent. These assessments
2019), Costa Rica (Nandwani, 2006), Cuba (Prieto and Oliveira, 2018; mark the initial steps toward solar energy development in the region. In
Morales Pedraza, 2019), Dominican Republic (Guidi, 1993), El Salvador the South American Continent, Argentina (Arboit et al., 2008; Sarmiento
(Ambiente, 2005), Guadeloupe (Boland, 2015; Lauret et al., 2015), et al., 2019), Bolivia (Torrez et al., 2013), Brazil (Tiba et al., 2002;
Guatemala (Orozco, 1987), Haiti (Oates et al., 2003), Honduras (El Blog Martins et al., 2008; Cronemberger et al., 2012), Chile (Araya-Muñoz
del BID, 2018), Jamaica (Chen et al., 1994), Mexico (Hernández-Esco et al., 2014; Escobar et al., 2015), Colombia (Carvajal-Romo et al., 2019;
bedo et al., 2015; Villicaña-Ortiz et al., 2015), Nicaragua (Ranaboldo López et al., 2020), Ecuador (Polit et al., 2016; Echegaray-Aveiga et al.,
et al., 2015), Panama (Becker, 1987), Puerto Rico (Figueroa-Acevedo 2018), French Guiana (Linguet and Atif, 2014; Albarelo et al., 2015),
and Irizarry-Rivera, 2014; Harmsen et al., 2014), Trinidad and Tobago Paraguay (Becker Pessolani, 2016; Lindstrom et al., 2019), Peru (Horn,
(Boretti and Al-Zubaidy, 2019), USA (Jeppesen, 2004; Kodysh et al., 2006), Suriname (Rolfe, 2015), Uruguay (Suárez et al., 2012; Abal et al.,
2013; Majumdar and Pasqualetti, 2019). 2016), Venezuela (Ledanois and Prieto, 1988; Posso et al., 2014).
It is observed from Table 10 that the US, Mexico, and Canada were It is seen from Table 11 that Brazil, Chile, and Argentina were the top
the top three solar energy installers (solar PV and CSP) in 2022, with three South American solar energy installers (solar PV and CSP) in 2022,
total installed capacities of 113.1 GW, 9.0 GW, and 4.4 GW, respec with total installed capacities of 24.1 GW, 6.2 GW, and 1.1 GW,
tively. The same ranking pattern holds for the solar PV category, with respectively. The same ranking pattern applies to the solar PV category,
the US leading the continent at 111.5 GW (98.6% of its total solar ca with Chile being the only country in South America with a CSP capacity
pacity), followed by Mexico (9.0 GW, 99.8% of its total solar capacity) of 108 MW.
and Canada (4.4 GW, 100.0% of its total solar capacity). In the case of
3486
Table 11
South America installed capacity.
Argentina - 1 104 (Arboit et al., 2008; Sarmiento et al., 2019)

Bolivia - 170 (Torrez et al., 2013)
Brazil - 24079 (Tiba et al., 2002; Martins et al., 2008; Cronemberger et al., 2012)
Chile 108 6 142 (Araya-Muñoz et al., 2014; Escobar et al., 2015)
Colombia - 457 (Carvajal-Romo et al., 2019; López et al., 2020)
Ecuador - 29 (Polit et al., 2016; Echegaray-Aveiga et al., 2018)
Falkland Islands - - -
French Guiana - 55 (Linguet and Atif, 2014; Albarelo et al., 2015)
Guyana - 8 -
Paraguay - - (Becker Pessolani, 2016; Lindstrom et al., 2019)
Peru - 332 (Horn, 2006)
Suriname - 12 (Rolfe, 2015)
Uruguay - 270 (Suárez et al., 2012; Abal et al., 2016)
Venezuela - 5 (Ledanois and Prieto, 1988; Posso et al., 2014)
Table 12
Oceania installed capacity.
American Samoa - 5 -
Australia 3 26789 (Clifton and Boruff, 2010; Bahadori and Nwaoha, 2013; Prasad et al., 2017)
Christmas Island - - -
Cocos Islands - - -
Cook Islands - 6 (Nikolic et al., 2016)
Fiji - 9 (Prasad, 2013; Prasad and Raturi, 2020)
French Polynesia - 46 (Thomaz and Michalson, 2014)
Guam - 105 -
Kiribati - 3 (Mala et al., 2008, 2009)
Marshall Islands - 2 -
Micronesia - 3 -
Nauru - 3 -
New Caledonia - 75 (Blanc et al., 2015)
New Zealand - 303 (Kelly, 2011; Ahmad et al., 2015)
Niue - 1 (Cole and Banks, 2017)
Norfolk Island - - -
Northern Mariana Islands - - -
Palau - 4 -
Papua New Guinea - 4 (Kaur and Segal, 2017)
Pitcairn - - -
Samoa - 14 (THOMSON, 1927)
Solomon Islands - 4 (Vorrath, 2015)
Tokelau - 1 (Watt and Passey, 2015)
Tonga - 14 (Outhred et al., 2004; Weir, 2018)
Tuvalu - 2 (Cole and Banks, 2017)
Vanuatu - 5 (Walton and Ford, 2020)
Wallis & Futuna Islands - - -
5.6. Oceania Academic research plays a crucial role in shaping a country’s in
dustry. This review paper focuses on the connection between academic
Table 12 presents the solar capacity in Oceania at the end of 2022 solar energy research and its practical real-world implications. It ex
(IRENA, 2023), along with studies assessing the solar energy potential of amines the current state of solar power and related academic solar en
countries and territories in the continent. These assessments mark the ergy research in different countries, aiming to provide valuable
initial steps toward solar energy development in the region. In Oceania, guidance for researchers, designers, and policymakers interested in
Australia (Clifton and Boruff, 2010; Bahadori and Nwaoha, 2013; Prasad incorporating solar energy into their nation’s electricity generation. This
et al., 2017), Cook Islands (Nikolic et al., 2016), Fiji (Prasad, 2013; effort seeks to close the gap between research and practical imple
Prasad and Raturi, 2020), French Polynesia (Thomaz and Michalson, mentation in the energy sector. Based on the presented Tables 7–12, it is
2014), Kiribati (Mala et al., 2008; Mala et al., 2009), New Caledonia seen that there are still 30 countries with no solar energy development
(Blanc et al., 2015), New Zealand (Kelly, 2011; Ahmad et al., 2015), among 235 countries (12.8%), collectively accounting for a total pop
Niue (Cole and Banks, 2017), Papua New Guinea (Kaur and Segal, ulation of 44 million. The country names include Faroe Islands,
2017), Samoa (THOMSON, 1927), Solomon Islands (Vorrath, 2015), Gibraltar, Liechtenstein, Monaco, and San Marino in Europe; Central
Tokelau (Watt and Passey, 2015), Tonga (Outhred et al., 2004; Weir, African Republic, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Lesotho, Saint Helena,
2018), Tuvalu (Cole and Banks, 2017), Vanuatu (Walton and Ford, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Western Sahara in Africa; Bhutan,
2020). Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Timor Leste, and Turkmenistan in Asia;
It is observed from Table 12 that Australia, New Zealand, and Guam Bermuda, Dominica, Saint Barthelemy, Sint Maarten, and Saint Pierre &
were the top three Oceanian solar energy installers (solar PV and CSP) in Miquelon in North-Central America; Falkland Islands, and Paraguay in
2022, with total installed capacities of 26.8 GW, 0.3 GW, and 0.1 GW, South America; Christmas Island, Cocos Islands, Norfolk Island, North
respectively. The same ranking pattern holds for the solar PV category, ern Mariana Islands, Pitcairn, and Wallis & Futuna Islands in Oceania.
with Australia as the sole country in Oceania reporting an installed CSP Twenty-three countries of the mentioned 30 countries, about 76.7%,
capacity of 3 MW in 2022. have no reported academic solar energy research yet. Consequently, in
3487
seven countries (Djibouti and Lesotho in Africa; Bhutan, Kyrgyzstan, Data Availability
Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan in Asia; and Paraguay in South America),
about 23.3%, there is solar energy research; however, there is still no Data will be made available on request.
observable solar energy development in these seven regions. Given the
2022 fossil fuel price crisis, there is an expectation that these 30 nations References
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Energy Reports 10 (2023) 3474–3493

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Solar energy status in the world: A comprehensive review

considering their concentrated solar power and PV installed capacities

projects in the early years of solar PV development. In 2013, sixty

Fig. 2. The world solar PV installed capacity by 2050 (IRENA, 2019a).

Table 6 3.4. Solar PV capacity factor

Albania - 29 (Maraj et al., 2014)

Afghanistan - 33 (MohammedQuraishee, 1969,Anwarzai and Nagasaka, 2017)

Argentina - 1 104 (Arboit et al., 2008; Sarmiento et al., 2019)

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