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Applications of Self-Efficacy Theory to Understanding Career Choice Behavior

Article in Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · September 1986

DOI: 10.1521/jscp.1986.4.3.279

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Journal of Soc i.il and Clinical Psvc holoiJy, Vol 4, No t, 1986, |>|> J-4-JB4

APPLICATIONS OF SELF-EFFICACY
THEORY TO UNDERSTANDING
CAREER CHOICE BEHAVIOR
NANCY E. BETZ
Ohio State University

GAIL HACKETT
University of California-Santa Barbara

This paper reviews the literature

on applications of Bandura's (1977, 1982) self-

efficacy theory to the

career domain. After a description of the' utility of the self-

efficacy construct in understanding the mechanisms affecting women's disadvan

taged status in the labor force and the usefulness of career self-efficacy in building
models predicting the occupational choice behavior of men and women, a review
of the research on career self-efficacy is provided. Investigations of self-perceptions
of efficacy in relation to occupational choices provide support for the major hypothe
ses derived from self-efficacy theory.

Vocational psychology has been dominated historically by trait-factor

and developmental approaches to the explanation, prediction, and
modification of career behavior (Osipow, 1983; Walsh & Osipow, 1983).
Only recently have researchers begun to systematically apply social
learning theory approaches to career development (Krumboltz, Mitchell,
& Jones, 1976; A. M. Mitchell, Jones, & Krumboltz, 1979), although
these attempts at theory building have not yet explicitly included self-

efficacy theory, also a relatively recent development (Bandura, 1977,

1982). The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief description of the
applications of self-efficacy theory to the career domain, particularly
to the career choice process, and then to review the empirical research

on this topic.

Requests for reprints should be sent to Gail Hackett, Counseling Psychology Program,
Graduate School of Education, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 9310d

279
280 BETZ AND HACKETT

SELF-EFFICACY AND WOMEN'S CAREER DEVELOPMENT

The initial application of self -efficacy theory to the career area was our

(Hackett & Betz, 1981) postulate that the concept of self-efficacy expect
ancies might prove useful in explaining two continuing problems re
lated to women's career
development that is, their continued under-
representationin many male-dominated career fields, particularly those
in mathematics,
engineering, and the sciences (Humphreys, 1982; Na
tional Science Foundation, 1984; Pfafflin, 1984); and the serious under-
utilization of their abilities and talents in career pursuits (Farmer, 1976;
Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980). More specifically, we
postulated that dif
ferential sex-role socializationprovides different types and levels of Ban
dura's four sources of self-efficacy information to females versus males,
and that the resulting gender differences in self-efficacy expectancies

importantly influence the career-related behaviors and career choices

of young women.
In addition to the emphasis by ourselves and our colleagues on
gender differences in self-efficacy, the broader impact of career
career

self-efficacy on
important career behaviors, such as range and type of
career
options considered, performance, and persistence, has also been
a
primary focus. We use the term "career self -efficacy" here as a generic
label for self-efficacy expectancies in relation to the wide range of be
haviors necessary to the career choice and adjustment processes. More

descriptive terms are employed to refer to self-efficacy expectancies with

regard to the specific type of career choice or career adjustment under
investigation. The following review discusses occupational self-efficacy,
mathematics self-efficacy, career decision-making self-efficacy, task-spe
cific self-efficacy, and career adjustment.

OCCUPATIONAL SELF-EFFICACY

In our
empirical test of the usefulness of self-efficacy theory in
initial

understanding the career choice process, we (Betz & Hackett, 1981)

examined gender differences in self-efficacy with regard to the educa
tional requirements and job duties of a variety of traditionally male and
traditionally female occupations, and tested the utility of occupational
self-efficacy in predicting the range (number) of occupational alterna
tives considered by our college-student sample. In this study, occupa
tional self-efficacy was assessed by asking subjects to respond to ques
tions about their capabilities with regard to the educational requirements
and job duties of a series of 10 "traditional" occupations (defined as

occupations in which two-thirds or more of the members are women)

SELF-EFFICACY AND CAREER CHOICE 281

and 10 "nontraditional" occupations (i.e., occupations in which men

constitute the majority of the membership).

Nosignificant gender differences were observed in overall occupa
tional self-efficacy, but significant differences were found in the occu
pational self-efficacy expectancies of females and males when tradi
tionality of the occupation was taken into account. Men's occupational
self-efficacy was equivalent for traditionally male and traditionally fe
male occupations; women's self-efficacy
expectancies were lower than
men's for nontraditional occupations, and
significantly higher than
men's for traditional occupations. These
gender differences were highly
predictive of gender differences in range of traditional and nontradi
tional occupations considered.

Stepwise regression analyses revealed that occupational self-effica

cy, in combination with gender and measures of vocational interests,
was
significantly predictive of consideration of occupational alterna
tives. Measured ability, a major predictive variable in traditional voca
tional theories, was not found to be a significant predictor in this study.
Interests and self-efficacy were significantly correlated, but the results
support the importance and independent contribution of occupational
self-efficacy in explaining gender differences in the consideration of
traditional and nontraditional careers.

Two other studies investigating occupational self-efficacy replicate

and extend our (Betz & Hackett, 1981) findings: those by Layton (1984)
and Wheeler (1983). Layton (1984) compared a self -efficacy model of
women's career
development with a locus of control model in predicting
career
exploration behavior and the range of occupations under con
sideration by college females. Layton found that women's self-efficacy
for traditionally female occupations was significantly higher than their
nontraditional occupational self-efficacy, and that these differences in
self-efficacy were moderately correlated with the range of traditional
or nontraditional careers considered. Overall, the self-efficacy model

was
superior to the locus of control model, and nontraditional occupa
tional self-efficacy was superior to all other variables, including in
terests, ability, and various background variables, in predicting choice
of a nontraditional college major.
Wheeler (1983) compared a self-efficacy model of occupational choice
to an expectancy-valence model. According to the expectancy model,

occupational choice is dependent on the interaction between a person's

work values and the availability of the outcomes in occupations being
considered. In some ways, the expectancy model resembles aspects of
Bandura's construct of outcome expectancies (Bandura, 1982).
Wheeler operationalized occupational self -efficacy with regard to
a series of 17 occupations ranging from traditionally male to traditionally
282 BETZ AND HACKETT

female in two ways: (1) perceived match of abilities, and (2) perceived
easeof success. Results indicated that both occupational self-efficacy
and occupational valence were significantly related to occupational
preferences, but that self-perceptions of occupational efficacy, when
defined as perceived ability match, were significantly more predictive
of preferences than was occupational valence. Gender differences in

occupational self-efficacy were also observed; these gender differences

were
directly related to the relative percentages of males and females
in the 17 occupations, and gender differences in self-efficacy expectan
cies were significantly correlated with gender differences in preferences.
Wheeler (1983) concluded that while self-efficacy with regard to
occupations is significantly more useful than valence of occupational
alternatives in predicting vocational preferences, both variables should
be included in models of occupational choice. Given the previously
mentioned similarities between Wheeler's expectancy-valence model
and Bandura's (1982) construct of outcome expectancies, the results of
this study are strongly supportive of the applicability of Bandura's con
cepts to career behavior.
A different approach to the assessment of occupational self-efficacy
was taken by Ayres (1980). Ayres's selection of the four occupations
of physician, nurse, college professor, and elementary teacher was in
tended to cross levels of sex-role traditionality of the occupation with
science versus nonscience orientation. For each occupation, a list of
tasks and competencies required for the successful pursuit of the oc

cupation was generated. Subjects' self-efficacy with respect to these

competencies was then assessed.
Ayres (1980) reported a significant relationship between self -efficacy
expectancies and occupational consideration. Although no overall gen
der differences were found, gender differences were observed on specific
tasks: For example, men scored higher in response to mathematics and
science-related items, while women's self-efficacy expectancies were

higher with regard to stereotypically feminine behaviors such as caring

for the sick, child development, and teaching. Ayres also reported sever
al moderate but significant correlations between self -efficacy and abilities.
Lent, Brown, and Larkin (1984) investigated the relationship be
tween self-efficacy estimates and the degree of persistence and aca
demic success of students majoring in the sciences and engineering.

Using a relatively small sample of students who had declared college

majors in engineering, Lent et al. found generally that students with
higher confidence in their abilities relative to the scientific occupations
sampled achieved higher grades and persisted longer in their majors.
Moderate and significant correlations were also reported between tech
nical/scientific self-efficacy and objective measures of mathematics apti-
SELF-EFFICACY AND CAREER CHOICE 283

tude and high-school achievement. No gender differences in occupa

tional self-efficacy were found.
In a subsequent study, Lent, Brown, and Larkin (1985) conducted
a
partial replication and extension of their earlier study with a larger
sample. In this study, a second measure of technical/scientific self-
efficacy was developed, assessing self-efficacy beliefs with regard to
"academic milestones" that is, specific accomplishments critical to
academic success in science and engineering majors, such as "complet

ing the mathematics requirements" and "remaining enrolled in the

college of technology." Lent et al. (1985) also included a measure of
perceived vocational options in technical/scientific fields and measures
of self-esteem, career decidedness, vocational preferences, and ability.
As in the previous study, results from this study indicated an ab
sence of
gender differences in self-efficacy expectancies, but technical/
scientific self-efficacy was significantly predictive of grades in technical
courses, persistence in a major, and range of career options considered.
Hierarchical regression analyses provided support for the incremental
contribution of occupational self-efficacy in the prediction of perform
ance.

MATHEMATICS SELF-EFFICACY

Because of the increasing importance of adequate academic preparation

in mathematics to the pursuit of a wide range of technical/scientific
careers, and the significant gender differences found in mathematics
achievement, mathematics self-efficacy has been deemed to be a crucial
area of
study for self-efficacy research. We (Betz & Hackett, 1983)
career

developed an instrument to assess

expectancies of self-efficacy with
regard to three mathematical domains (everyday math tasks, math prob
lems, and math-based college courses) and explored the utility of math
ematics self-efficacy in predicting the choice of math-related (or "sci

ence-based") college majors.

Results indicated that mathematics self-efficacy expectancies were

significantly related to the extent to which students selected math-

related college majors, and that college males' stronger math self-efficacy

corresponded with their greater likelihood to choose a major in the

math/science area. Math self-efficacy was significantly related to indices
of attitudes toward mathematics, with the strongest relationships be
ing among math self-efficacy, math anxiety, and confidence in learn
ing mathematics. In the regression analysis, math self-efficacy was the
strongest predictor of choice of a math-related major; mathematics
scores from the American College Test did not enter into the prediction

equation.
284 BETZ AND HACKETT

Although men
significantly higher than women on the total
scored
scale and the three subscales, females' self-efficacy expectancies were
equal to males' when the tasks involved stereotypically feminine activ
ities (e.g., calculating a grocery bill in one's head, figuring out how
much fabric to buy in order to make drapes). This finding, along with
similar results (Ayres, 1980; Betz & Hackett, 1981), supports the hy
pothesis of sex-role socialization influences on self-estimates of effica
cy, and suggests the importance of including traditionally female
con

tent areas in math problems and in the treatment of math avoidance

and math anxiety.
We (Hackett & Betz, 1982) also found low to moderate correlations
between mathematics self-efficacyperformance on a series of math
and

problems. We concluded that math self-efficacy is more strongly related

to other indices of math-related attitudes than to performance. More

over, the results failed to support the hypothesis that women's math

self-efficacy expectancies are unrealistically low.

Hackett (1985) tested the hypothesis that mathematics-related self-

efficacy mediates the effects of gender and of mathematical preparation

and achievement on the math-relatedness of college major choice. A
causal model based on self-efficacy theory was constructed and tested

using path-analytic techniques. Results consistent with a self-efficacy

approach to career development were reported. Gender, sex-role so
cialization, high-school mathematical preparation, and mathematics
achievement were all found to influence math self-efficacy, which in
turn was significantly predictive of math-related major choice and also
influenced math anxiety.
And finally, in a related vein, Kerns (1981) developed an analogous
measure with
respect to studying, performing, and majoring in chemis
try. Like us (Betz & Hackett, 1983), Kerns found significant sex dif
ferences and relationships between self-efficacy and choices of major.

CAREER DECISION-MAKING SELF-EFFICACY

In vocational psychology, a
major distinction is made between the con

tent and the process of career choice (Crites, 1969, 1981). The "content"
of career choice refers to what the individual considers or chooses (e.g.,
careers in science, careers
college degree). The "process" re
requiring a

fers to how decisions are made (e.g., exploration and de

the nature of the
cision-making activities engaged in). Although most of our research
pro
gram to date has focused on career choice content, one
study examined
the usefulness of self-efficacy in the understanding of process variables.
SELF-EFFICACY AND CAREER CHOICE 285

Taylor and Betz (1983) examined self-efficacy expectancies with

regard to the skills and activities necessary to effective career decision
making. Based on Crites's (1981) system of career choice competencies
from his theory of career maturity, self-estimates of ability were meas
ured with respect to (1) goal selection, (2) occupational information, (3)

problem solving, (4) planning, and (5) self-appraisal. Self -efficacy for
career decision
making was significantly predictive of career indecision;
that is, subjects who reported low levels of career decision-making self-
efficacy were also more career- indecisive. No overall gender differences
in self-efficacy for career decision making were observed, nor was there
a
relationship between career decision-making self-efficacy and aca
demic ability.

TASK-SPECIFIC SELF-EFFICACY

Several analogue studies have been performed to test Bandura's prop

ositions regarding the sources of information, particularly performance
accomplishments, hypothesized to be influential in modifying career-
related self-efficacy. We (Hackett & Betz, 1984) investigated the effects
of failure at a math or verbal task on general and specific measures of
mathematics self-efficacy, as well as on global ratings of math and verbal

ability. Conflicting results emerged. Findings indicated that task failure

influenced self-efficacy expectancies, but not always in the expected
direction. Gender x task interactions were observed, and, contrary to

predictions, the effects of task failure in one domain (i.e., either the
math or the verbal task) in some cases
positively influenced self-efficacy
expectancies in the other domain.
Campbell and Hackett (1985; Hackett & Campbell, 1985) then con
ducted two additional experimental studies of the effects of task success
or failure on mathematical and verbal task self-efficacy, task interest,

and performance attributions. The results were consistent with theoreti

cal predictions: Task success led to an increase in self-efficacy expect
ancies, while task failure led to a corresponding drop in both level and
strength of task self-efficacy; task performance similarly influenced
ability ratings, task interest, and performance attributions. Gender dif
ferences and gender x task interactions in self-efficacy and task interest
result of failure at the mathematical task, but
appeared as a success or

were not found in response to verbal task performance. Furthermore,

a trend was found for women to be more strongly affected than men
by both success and failure.
286 BETZ AND HACKETT

CAREER ADJUSTMENT

Although most of our own and colleagues' research has focused

our

on career choice,self-efficacy theory potential as well for the

has great
understanding and facilitation of career
adjustment. In vocational psy
chology, "career adjustment" refers to the processes of implementing
one's career choice and finding both success and satisfaction in one's
chosen career (Crites, 1969; Lofquist & Dawis, 1984). Although there
are a
variety of factors capable of influencing vocational success and
satisfaction, self-efficacy expectancies with respect to both content and
process career competencies are postulated to be among those factors.
As a first step in applying self-efficacy theory to career adjustment,
it was necessary to delineate the domain of requisite career compe
tencies. Since the vocational literature had not directly addressed this
issue, we developed a taxonomy of such competencies to guide research
efforts. Specifically, we (Hackett, Betz, & Doty, 1985) interviewed 50
academic women about their perceptions of factors influential in their
career
development, identified specific behavioral competencies de
scribed by these women, and classified the information. The resulting
taxonomy contained both content competencies (i.e., specific job-related
skills, such as writing ability, knowledge in one's subject, etc.) and
process competencies (e.g., leadership, assertion, and problem-solving
skills). Research efforts designed to examine self-efficacy expectancies
with respect to such competencies have to date focused on leadership
behaviors (Konitsney, 1981) and "career facilitation skills" (i.e., behav
iors indicative of proactive rather than reactive pursuit of educational
and career objectives) (Betz & Hackett, 1982). Related research includes
Lee's (1983, 1984) work on assertiveness and Moe and Zeiss's (1982)
work on social skills. Much work remains to be done in the area of ca

reer adjustment, particularly in

addressing difficulties with the meas

urement of self-efficacy with regard to complex social and career-related

behaviors.

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

The results of the studies reviewed herein provide strong support for
the major mediational role played by occupational self-efficacy in the
process of choosing a career.
Occupational self-efficacy is an important
variable to include in extant and developing models of career choice,
and interactions between occupational self-efficacy and various other
career-related variables (e.g., vocational interests, career salience, and
SELF-EFFICACY AND CAREER CHOICE 287

work values) willundoubtedly prove to be heuristic to research on

career
development.
Career self-efficacy appears to be important in understanding
women's career choices when the traditionality of the occupational
alternatives is taken into account. Likewise, when investigating expect
ancies with regard to specific skills, tasks, or abilities, the sex-role ster-

eotypicality of the task or activity is a major determinant of gender dif

ferences in self-efficacy.
Summarized below are suggestions for directions in research
on career
self-efficacy. For a fuller exposition of suggested future re
search, as well as discussion of the methodological and conceptual
issues in career
self-efficacy, the reader is referred to Lent and Hackett
(lc5).
First, more attention to measurement issues is needed. Identification
of appropriate levels of specificity for measuring self -efficacy expect
ancies is needed, as is work the
reliability
on and validity of the instru
ments employed. Second, the issue of generalizability must be explored;
samples other than college students should be studied. Third, more
attention to career adjustment, as opposed to career choice, is necessary
in order to establish the usefulness of the self-efficacy construct in the

explanation and prediction of a wide range of career behaviors. Specifi

cally, investigations of the relationship between career self-efficacy and
job satisfaction, work adjustment, and occupational stress offer promise
in enhancing our knowledge of important career-related problems.
Fourth, further efforts directed toward model testing and comparisons
between theoretical models in predicting career choice and adjustment
should take advantage of the sophisticated causal-modeling procedures
available (e.g., Bentler, 1980; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1984). These statis
tical techniques will allow the investigation of the complex interactions
of factors reflecting Bandura's (1978) concept of reciprocal determinism.
They will also allow the construction of more accurate and realistic
models of career behavior.

Finally, important test of the career self-efficacy construct

the most
will come investigating the effectiveness of theory-based in
in studies
terventions. The career counseling literature already contains a vast

array of interventions of varying potencies (Lunneborg, 1983; L. K.

Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1984; Spokane & Oliver, 1983). Self-efficacy theo
ry may not lead to new counseling procedures, but rtmay be very' useful
inredesigning interventions or in guiding the development of treatment
packages consisting of multiple interventions, which will eventually
prove to be more effective in facilitating satisfying career choices and
career development in general.
288 BETZ AND HACKETT

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