I

Ivan Illich theology and philosophy at the Gregorian Univer-

sity in Rome and became an ordained Catholic
Petar Jandrić priest in 1951.
Zagreb University of Applied Sciences, Zagreb, In 1951, Illich moved to New York where he
Croatia worked with the Puerto Rican immigrant commu-
nity. In 1956, Illich became the vice-rector of the
Abstract Catholic University at Ponce in Puerto Rico. In
1961, he moved to Cuernavaca, Mexico, and
This entry describes the life and works of Ivan
established the Center for Intercultural Documen-
Illich.
tation (CIDOC). CIDOC was founded by the
Catholic church as a training center for mission-
Keywords
aries from North America working in South
Ivan Illich · Deschooling · Conviviality · America. Yet, Illich believed that the missionary
Healthcare · Institutions · Energy · Equity · initiative was an extension of colonialism and
Gender · Catholicism · Priest · Critical ‘Catholic part of a larger U.S. charity project
pedagogy · Postdigital whose good intentions could not mask its great
potential for destruction’ (Hartch 2015: 78). He
consequently shaped the CIDOC in an unortho-
Biography
dox way, fostering cultural immersion and critical
thought.
Ivan Domenic Illich was born on September
Due to church opposition to his work at the
4, 1926, in Vienna, Austria, and died on
CIDOC, Illich left the priesthood in 1969. The
December 2, 2002, in Bremen, Germany. His
CIDOC was closed in 1976. After the closing of
father, Gian Pietro Illich, was an aristocrat Croa-
the CIDOC, Illich travelled extensively, spending
tian, and his mother, Ellen Rose Illich, was from
most of his time in the United States, Mexico, and
German family of Jewish converts to Catholicism.
Germany. During this period, Illich was in high
Illich spoke Italian, Spanish, French, German,
demand as a lecturer and teacher. Illich spent the
Croatian, Ancient Greek and Latin, Portuguese,
last years of his life in Bremen.
Hindi, English, and other languages.
Illich never lived long in one place. Accepting
Illich spent his early childhood in Vienna and
the Culture and Peace Prize of the Villa Ichon in
on the island of Brač. He majored chemistry at the
Bremen in 1998 he referred to himself as an
University of Florence and obtained a PhD in
‘errant pilgrim’ (Illich 1998/2002: 234). Illich
history at the University of Salzburg. He studied
was praised, sometimes overly so, for his high
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
P. Jandrić (ed.), Encyclopedia of Postdigital Science and Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35469-4_29-1
2 Ivan Illich

intellectual ability: ‘[h]e was reported to have claims that their usage undermines human
learned Greek in one week simply by talking to freedom, dignity, individual and planetary self-
a hotel gardener’ (Hartch 2015: 110). For many sufficiency. In Medical Nemesis: The expropria-
years, Illich suffered from a disfiguring tumor on tion of health (1975), Illich builds a similar argu-
his face, which eventually caused his death. Fol- ment against modern medicine. These writings are
lowing his principles, he rejected medical help, parts of his systemic, long-term critique of mod-
calling the tumor his ‘mortality’. ern institutions.
Illich linked individual freedom and self-
sufficiency to planetary survival in many writings
Influences including Energy and Equity (Illich 1974). In
Gender (1982), he focused on the nature of labour,
Illich’s most important influence was Catholic labour divisions, and inequalities. Illich often
apophatic theology, yet he openly disagreed with used ancient Greek and Biblical mythology and
the Vatican. He wrote about class yet ‘[t]hose who the essence of his work is probably best summed
take an unmistakably Marxist line generally find up in this call for ‘the rebirth of the Epimethean
more to criticise than to approve in Illich’s ideas’ man’ (Illich 1971: 45). ‘Prometheus is usually
(Watt 1981: 1). Illich collaborated with anarchists thought to mean “foresight” . . . He tricked the
such as Paul Goodman and his work has many gods out of their monopoly of fire, taught men to
anarchist tendencies (Watt 1981: 13), though he use it in the forging of iron, became the god of
never acknowledged his theoretical links to anar- technologists, and wound up in iron chains.’
chism (Jandrić 2014). Illich’s work developed in Epimetheus ‘love[s] people more than products
close interaction with the work of Paulo Freire . . . love[s] the earth on which each can meet the
(Kahn and Kellner 2007) but did not consider other . . . collaborate[s] with their Promethean
his work as a part of the critical pedagogy move- brother in the lighting of the fire and the shaping
ment. Illich collaborated with leftist revolutionary of iron, but [does] so to enhance their ability to
priests across Latin America, yet he clearly dis- tend and care and wait upon the other’ (Illich
tanced his theories from the then-prominent liber- 1971: 48–49).
ation theology movement. Influential concepts developed by Illich
Illich adopted ideas he found interesting include deschooling, radical monopoly, convivi-
regardless of their makers’ ideological back- ality, and medicalization. Deschooling is the idea
ground; ‘[a] good example of this is his endorse- that modern schools are beyond repair and that
ment and adaptation of Milton Friedman’s plan to they should be completely abandoned. Radical
finance education by a voucher system’ (Watt monopoly describes the point at which people
1981: 2). Illich read pretty much everything become dependent on a technology (such as car)
from medicine to philosophy, yet his works on and which destroys human natural abilities (such
biopolitics exhibit a curious absence of reference as walking). Conviviality is the concept that
to his contemporaries, such as Foucault (Cayley describes technologies that are in harmony with
2021: Chap 11). Illich’s work was influenced by human (and Earth) nature. Medicalization
diverse sources, and it is impossible to assign it to describes the institutionalization of basic human
any intellectual tradition or school of thought. functions of learning and healing.

Notable Ideas Reception

In Deschooling Society, Illich (1971) builds an Illich’s wrote in simple and accessible language
argument against the modern institutions of mass that attracted mixed responses. His books are
schooling. In Tools for Conviviality (1973), he known for strong openings. For instance, the
develops his theory of modern technologies and first sentence of Medical Nemesis is: ‘The medical
Ivan Illich 3

establishment has become a major threat to health’ the critical ecopedagogy movement (Jandrić
(Illich 1975: 1). Many critics have pointed out that 2014; Jandrić and Ford 2022). In the 2000s,
Illich was excellent at identifying problems but echoes of Illich’s ideas can be found in educa-
bad at offering solutions (Cayley 2021). Others tional approaches such as Networked Learning
disagree (e.g., Hartch 2015), saying that these (Networked Learning Editorial Collective et al.
critiques are a misinterpretation of the open- 2021). Finally, Illich’s work is foundational for
ended nature of Illich’s work. postdigital approaches to arts, sciences, and edu-
While Illich wrote alone, he always developed cation (Jandrić et al. 2018).
his ideas in conversation. His deschooling thesis Illich was strongly opposed to communication
was developed during CIDOC seminars with his technologies. He routinely refused to use micro-
friends Everett Reimer, Paul Goodman, Jonathan phones even at very large gatherings and would
Kozol, and others. Based on these conversations, usually not permit video or voice recording. Con-
Illich wrote Deschooling Society (1971), Reimer sequently, he left a sparse audiovisual legacy.
wrote School is Dead (1971), and Paul Goodman
wrote Compulsory Miseducation (1973). The list
of Illich’s encounters with prominent scholars and Major Writings
revolutionaries of his day is almost endless (see
Hartch 2015 and Cayley 2021 for details). Illich was a prolific public intellectual. His popu-
lar writings appeared in many periodicals includ-
ing The New York Times, The New York Review of
Legacy Books, The Saturday Review, Esprit, Kursbuch,
Siempre, Excelsior de Mexico, America, Com-
Illich’s legacy can be found in diverse fields monweal, Les Temps Modernes, Le Monde, Le
including computer science, environmental sci- Nouvel Observateur, The Ecologist, The Guard-
ence, sociology, and education. Hart (2001: 72) ian, and The Lancet. During the 1970s and 1980s,
writes that ‘it is not too far-fetched to assert that Illich wrote many short books including:
Illich predicted the World Wide Web’. Jandrić
(2010: 54) shows that Illich’s learning webs are Illich, I. (1971). Deschooling society. London:
‘strikingly similar to the basic principles of Marion Boyars.
Wikipedia’. His concept of conviviality often Illich, I. (1973). Tools for conviviality. London:
linked to the free software movement (Beinsteiner Marion Boyars.
2020). Illich’s environmental insights are promi- Illich, I. (1974). Energy and equity. London: Mar-
nent in today’s critiques of development and the ion Boyars.
degrowth movement (Samerski 2018) and his Illich, I. (1975). Medical nemesis: The expropri-
Medical Nemesis (1975) is a key text in the life ation of health. London: Marion Boyars.
sciences. Illich, I. (1982). Gender. New York: Pantheon.
Illich made an equally strong impact on edu- Sanders, B., & Illich, I. (1989). ABC: The alpha-
cation. ‘Of all the books purportedly written on betization of the popular mind. London:
radical educational alternatives that came out in Vintage.
1960s and 1970s, Illich’s book [Deschooling
Society] remains perhaps the most discussed,
and it still continues to inspire educational exper- Further Reading
iments in much of the Third World.’ (Routray
2012: 85) Illich’s educational ideas are founda- In its heyday, Illich’s work provoked countless
tional for the critical pedagogy movement, where responses and reflections in popular outlets. Fol-
Illich and Freire are considered as very different lowing his death in 2002, this body of work has
yet equally important founding fathers (Kahn been supplemented by several extensive biogra-
and Kellner 2007). His work is foundational for phies including:
4 Ivan Illich

Hartch, T. (2015). The prophet of Cuernavaca: ▶ Postdigital EdTech

Ivan Illich and the crisis of the West. ▶ Postdigital Environmental Crisis
New York: Oxford University Press. ▶ Postdigital Nature
Cayley, D. (2021). Ivan Illich: an intellectual ▶ Postdigital Theologies
journey. University Park, PA: The Pennsylva- ▶ Resistance to the Postdigital
nia State University Press.

In academia, Illich’s work is extensively used References

in disciplines including philosophy, sociology,
education, computer science, and medicine. Beinsteiner, A. (2020). Conviviality, the Internet, and
AI. Ivan Illich, Bernard Stiegler, and the Question
Some dedicated collections include: Concerning Information-technological Self-limitation.
Open Cultural Studies, 4(1), 131–142. https://doi.org/
Hern, M. (1998). Deschooling our lives. 10.1515/culture-2020-0013.
Philadelphia, PA: New Society. Cayley, D. (2021). Ivan Illich: an intellectual journey.
University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State Univer-
Hoinacki, L., & Mitcham, C. (Eds.). (2002). The sity Press.
Challenges of Ivan Illich: A Collective Reflec- Goodman, P. (1973). Compulsory miseducation.
tion. Albany, NY: State University of Harmondsworth: Penguin Education Specials.
New York. Hart, I. (2001). Deschooling and the Web: Ivan Illich
30 years on. Education Media International, 38(2–3),
Western New England Law Review (2012). Special 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523980110041449a.
Issue on Ivan Illich. https://digitalcommons.law. Hartch, T. (2015). The prophet of Cuernavaca: Ivan Illich
wne.edu/lawreview/vol34/iss2/. Accessed and the crisis of the West. New York: Oxford University
1 January 2023. Press.
Hoinacki, L., & Mitcham, C. (Eds.). (2002). The Chal-
lenges of Ivan Illich: A Collective Reflection.
In 2010, Penn State University launched The Albany, NY: State University of New York.
International Journal for Illich Studies (Penn Illich, I. (1971). Deschooling society. London: Marion
Boyars.
State University 2023). Illich, I. (1973). Tools for conviviality. London: Marion
Boyars.
Illich, I. (1974). Energy and equity. London: Marion
Summary Boyars.
Illich, I. (1975). Medical nemesis: The expropriation of
health. London: Marion Boyars.
Ivan Illich was a man of letters, a Catholic priest, Illich, I. (1982). Gender. New York: Pantheon.
and a rebel. He spent most of his life on the road Illich, I. (1998/2002). The Cultivation of Conspiracy. In
and in numerous encounters with ordinary people L. Hoinacki & C. Mitcham (Eds.), The Challenges of
Ivan Illich: A Collective Reflection (pp. 233–242).
and some of the best minds of his time. His works Albany, NY: State University of New York.
have strongly influenced many fields including Jandrić, P. (2010). Wikipedia and education: Anarchist
computer science, environmental science, sociol- perspectives and virtual practices. Journal for Critical
ogy, and education. Education Policy Studies, 8(2), 48–73.
Jandrić, P. (2014). Deschooling Virtuality. Open Review of
Educational Research, 1(1), 84–98. https://doi.org/10.
1080/23265507.2014.965193.
Cross-References Jandrić, P., & Ford, D. (2022). Postdigital Ecopedagogies:
Genealogies, Contradictions, and Possible Futures.
Postdigital Science and Education, 4(3), 672–710.
▶ Networked Learning https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00207-3.
▶ Paulo Freire Jandrić, P., Knox, J., Besley, T., Ryberg, T., Suoranta, J., &
▶ Philosophy of Technology Hayes, S. (2018). Postdigital Science and Education.
▶ Postdigital Educational Philosophy and Theory, 50(10), 893–899.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2018.1454000.
▶ Postdigital Critical Pedagogy Kahn, R., & Kellner, D. (2007). Paulo Freire and Ivan
▶ Postdigital Ecopedagogy Illich: technology, politics and the reconstruction of
Ivan Illich 5

education. Policy Futures in Education, 5(4), 431–448. Routray, S. (2012). ‘Deschooling Society’: The Strange
https://doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2007.5.4.431. Legacy of Ivan Illich. Contemporary Education Dia-
Networked Learning Editorial Collective, Gourlay, L., logue, 9(1), 85–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/
Rodríguez-Illera, J. L., Barberà, E., Bali, M., Gachago, 097318491100900105.
D., Pallitt, N., Jones, C., Bayne, S., Hansen, S. B., Samerski, S. (2018). Tools for degrowth? Ivan Illich’s
Hrastinski, S., Jaldemark, J., Themelis, C., Pischetola, critique of technology revisited. Journal of Cleaner
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K. N., Lee, K., Bligh, B., Thibaut, P., . . . & Knox, 1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.039.
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Definition. Postdigital Science and Education, 3(2), of the popular mind. London: Vintage.
326–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-021- Watt, A. J. (1981). Illich and Anarchism. Educational
00222-y. Philosophy and Theory, 13(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/
Penn State University. (2023). The International Journal 10.1111/j.1469-5812.1981.tb00481.x.
for Illich Studies. https://journals.psu.edu/illichstudies. Western New England Law Review (2012). Special Issue
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