2

LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

2.2
The Limit of a Function

In this section, we will learn:

About limits in general and about numerical
and graphical methods for computing them.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Let’s investigate the behavior of the

function f defined by f(x) = x2 – x + 2
for values of x near 2.
 The following table gives values of f(x) for values of x
close to 2, but not equal to 2.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

From the table and the

graph of f (a parabola)
shown in the figure,
we see that, when x is
close to 2 (on either
side of 2), f(x) is close
to 4.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

In fact, it appears that

we can make the
values of f(x) as close
as we like to 4 by
taking x sufficiently
close to 2.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

We express this by saying “the limit of

the function f(x) = x2 – x + 2 as x
approaches 2 is equal to 4.”
 The notation for this is:

lim  x  x  2   4
2
x2
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Definition 1

In general, we use the following

notation.
 We write lim f  x   L
x a

and say “the limit of f(x), as x approaches a,

equals L”

if we can make the values of f(x) arbitrarily close

to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not
equal to a.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Roughly speaking, this says that the values

of f(x) tend to get closer and closer to the
number L as x gets closer and closer to the
number a (from either side of a) but x  a.
 A more precise definition will be given in Section
2.4.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

An alternative notation for

lim f  x   L
x a

is f ( x)  L as x  a

which is usually read “f(x) approaches L as

x approaches a.”
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Notice the phrase “but x  a” in the

definition of limit.
 This means that, in finding the limit of f(x) as
x approaches a, we never consider x = a.
 In fact, f(x) need not even be defined when
x = a.
 The only thing that matters is how f is
defined near a.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

The figure shows the graphs of

three functions.
 Note that, in the third graph, f(a) is not defined and, in
the second graph, f ( x)  L .
 However, in each case, regardless of what happens at
a, it is true that lim f ( x)  L.
x a
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 1
x 1
Guess the value of lim 2
x 1 x  1
.

 Notice that the function f(x) = (x – 1)/(x2 – 1) is

not defined when x = 1.
 However, that doesn’t matter—because the
definition of lim
x a
f ( x) says that we consider values
of x that are close to a but not equal to a.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 1

The tables give values

of f(x) (correct to six
decimal places) for
values of x that
approach 1 (but are not
equal to 1).
 On the basis of the values,
we make the guess that
x 1
lim 2  0.5
x 1 x  1
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 1

Example 1 is illustrated by the graph

of f in the figure.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 1

Now, let’s change f slightly by

giving it the value 2 when x = 1 and calling
the resulting function g:
 x 1
 2 if x  1
g  x   x 1
2 if x  1
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 1

This new function g still has the

same limit as x approaches 1.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 2
t2  9  3
Estimate the value of lim
t 0 2
.
t

 The table lists values of the function for several values

of t near 0.
 As t approaches 0,
the values of the function
seem to approach
0.16666666…
 So, we guess that:
t2  9  3 1
lim 2

t 0 t 6
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 2

What would have happened if we

had taken even smaller values of t?
 The table shows the results from one calculator.
 You can see that something strange seems to be
happening.
 If you try these
calculations on your own
calculator, you might get
different values but,
eventually, you will get
the value 0 if you make
t sufficiently small.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 2

Does this mean that the answer is

really 0 instead of 1/6?
 No, the value of the limit is 1/6, as we will
show in the next section.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 2

The problem is that the calculator

gave false values because t 2  9 is
very close to 3 when t is small.
 In fact, when t is sufficiently small, a calculator’s
value for t 2  9 is 3.000… to as many digits as the
calculator is capable of carrying.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 2

Something very similar happens when

we try to graph the function
t 9 3
2
f t   2
t
of the example on a graphing calculator
or computer.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 2

These figures show quite accurate graphs

of f and, when we use the trace mode (if
available), we can estimate easily that the
limit is about 1/6.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 2

However, if we zoom in too much, then

we get inaccurate graphs—again because
of problems with subtraction.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 3
sin x
Guess the value of lim
x 0
.
x

 The function f(x) = (sin x)/x is not defined when x = 0.

 Using a calculator (and remembering that, if x ° ,
sin x means the sine of the angle
whose radian measure is x),
we construct a table of values
correct to eight decimal places.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 3

From the table and the graph, we guess that

sin x
lim 1
x 0 x
 This guess is, in fact, correct—as will be proved later,
using a geometric argument.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Example 4

Investigate limsin
x 0
.
x
 Again, the function of f(x) = sin ( /x) is
undefined at 0.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 4

Evaluating the function for some small

values of x, we get:

f 1  sin   0 1

f    sin 2  0
2
1 1
f    sin 3  0 f    sin 4  0
3 4

f  0.1  sin10  0 f  0.01  sin100  0

Similarly, f(0.001) = f(0.0001) = 0.

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 4

On the basis of this information,

we might be tempted to guess

that limsin  0.
x 0 x
 This time, however, our guess is wrong.
 Although f(1/n) = sin n = 0 for any integer n, it
is also true that f(x) = 1 for infinitely many values
of x that approach 0.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 4

The graph of f is given in the figure.

 The dashed lines near the y-axis indicate that the
values of sin(  /x) oscillate between 1 and –1 infinitely
as x approaches 0.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 4

 Since the values of f(x) do not approach


a fixed number as approaches 0, limsin
x 0 x
does not exist.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 5
 3 cos5 x 
Find lim  x   .
x 0
 10, 000 

As before, we construct a table of values.

 From the table, it appears that:
 3 cos 5 x 
lim  x   0
x 0
 10, 000 
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 5

 If, however, we persevere with smaller

values of x, this table suggests that:
 3 cos 5 x  1
lim  x    0.000100 
x 0
 10, 000  10, 000
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 5

Later, we will see that:

lim x0 cos5 x  1

 Then, it follows that the limit is 0.0001.

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Examples 4 and 5 illustrate some of the

pitfalls in guessing the value of a limit.
 It is easy to guess the wrong value if we use
inappropriate values of x, but it is difficult to know when
to stop calculating values.
 As the discussion after Example 2 shows, sometimes,
calculators and computers give the wrong values.
 In the next section, however, we will develop foolproof
methods for calculating limits.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 6

The Heaviside function H is defined by:

0 if t  1
H t   
1 if t  0
 The function is named after the electrical engineer
Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925).
 It can be used to describe an electric current that is
switched on at time t = 0.
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Example 6

The graph of the function is shown in

the figure.
 As t approaches 0 from the left, H(t) approaches 0.
 As t approaches 0 from the right, H(t) approaches 1.
 There is no single number that H(t) approaches as t
approaches 0.
 So, lim t 0 H  t  does not exist.
ONE-SIDED LIMITS

We noticed in Example 6 that H(t)

approaches 0 as t approaches 0 from the
left and H(t) approaches 1 as t approaches
0 from the right.
 We indicate this situation symbolically by writing
lim H  t   0 and lim H  t   1.
t 0  t 0 

 The symbol ‘t  0 ’ indicates that we consider only
values of t that are less than 0.

 Similarly, ‘ t  0 ’ indicates that we consider only values
of t that are greater than 0.
ONE-SIDED LIMITS Definition 2

We write lim f  x   L
x a

and say the left-hand limit of f(x) as x

approaches a—or the limit of f(x) as x
approaches a from the left—is equal to L if
we can make the values of f(x) arbitrarily
close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close
to a and x less than a.
ONE-SIDED LIMITS

Notice that Definition 2 differs from

Definition 1 only in that we require x to
be less than a.
 Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get
‘the right-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a is equal
to L’ and we write lim f  x   L.
x a

 Thus, the symbol ‘ x  a ’ means that we consider
only x  a.
ONE-SIDED LIMITS

The definitions are illustrated in the

figures.
ONE-SIDED LIMITS

By comparing Definition 1 with the definition

of one-sided limits, we see that the following
is true:

lim f  x   L if and only if lim f  x   L and lim f  x   L

x a x a x a
ONE-SIDED LIMITS Example 7

The graph of a function g is displayed. Use it

to state the values (if they exist) of:

lim g  x  lim g  x 
x 2 x 2

lim g  x  lim g  x 
x 2 x 5

lim g  x  lim g  x 
x 5 x 5
ONE-SIDED LIMITS Example 7

From the graph, we see that the values of

g(x) approach 3 as x approaches 2 from the
left, but they approach 1 as x approaches 2
from the right. Therefore, lim g  x   3 and
x 2
lim g  x   1.
x  2
ONE-SIDED LIMITS Example 7

As the left and right limits are different,

we conclude that lim g  x  does not
x 2
exist.
ONE-SIDED LIMITS Example 7

The graph also shows that lim g  x   2

x 5
and lim g  x   2 .
x 5
ONE-SIDED LIMITS Example 7

For lim g  x  , the left and right limits are the

x 5
same.
 So, we have lim g  x   2.
x 5
 Despite this, notice that g  5   2.
INFINITE LIMITS Example 8
1
Find lim 2 if it exists.
x 0 x

 As x becomes close to 0, x2 also becomes close to 0,

and 1/x2 becomes very large.
INFINITE LIMITS Example 8
 In fact, it appears from the graph of the function f(x) = 1/x2
that the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily large by
taking x close enough to 0.
 Thus, the values of f(x) do not approach a number.
1
 So, x0 2 does not exist.
lim
x
INFINITE LIMITS Example 8

To indicate the kind of behavior exhibited

in the example, we use the following
1
notation: lim x0 2  
x
This does not mean that we are regarding ∞ as a number.
 Nor does it mean that the limit exists.
 It simply expresses the particular way in which the limit
does not exist.
 1/x2 can be made as large as we like by taking x close
enough to 0.
INFINITE LIMITS Example 8

In general, we write symbolically

lim f  x   
x a

to indicate that the values of f(x) become

larger and larger—or ‘increase without
bound’—as x becomes closer and closer
to a.
INFINITE LIMITS Definition 4

Let f be a function defined on both sides

of a, except possibly at a itself. Then,
lim f  x   
x a

means that the values of f(x) can be

made arbitrarily large—as large as we
please—by taking x sufficiently close to a,
but not equal to a.
INFINITE LIMITS

Another notation for lim f  x    is:

x a

f  x    as x  a

 Again, the symbol  is not a number.

 However, the expression lim f  x    is often read as
x a
‘the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, is infinity;’ or ‘f(x)
becomes infinite as x approaches a;’ or ‘f(x) increases
without bound as x approaches a.’
INFINITE LIMITS

This definition is illustrated

graphically.
INFINITE LIMITS

A similar type of limit—for functions that

become large negative as x gets close to
a—is illustrated.
INFINITE LIMITS Definition 5

Let f be defined on both sides of a, except

possibly at a itself. Then,

lim f  x   
x a

means that the values of f(x) can be made

arbitrarily large negative by taking x
sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
INFINITE LIMITS

The symbol lim f  x    can be read

x a
as ‘the limit of f(x), as x approaches a,
is negative infinity’ or ‘f(x) decreases
without bound as x approaches a.’
 As an example, we have:
 1 
lim   2   
x 0
 x 
INFINITE LIMITS

Similar definitions can be given for the

one-sided limits:

lim f  x    lim f  x   
x a x a

lim f  x    lim f  x   
x a x a


 Remember, ‘ x  a ’ means that we consider only
values of x that are less than a.

 Similarly, ‘x  a ’ means that we consider only x  a .
INFINITE LIMITS

Those four
cases are
illustrated
here.
INFINITE LIMITS Definition 6

The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote

of the curve y = f(x) if at least one of the
following statements is true.

lim f  x    lim f  x    lim f  x   

x a x a x a

lim f  x    lim f  x    lim f  x   

x a x a x a

 For instance, the y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the

curve y = 1/x2 because lim x0  12   .
x 
INFINITE LIMITS

In the figures, the line x = a is a vertical

asymptote in each of the four cases shown.
 In general, knowledge of vertical asymptotes is very
useful in sketching graphs.
INFINITE LIMITS Example 9
2x 2x
Find lim and lim .
x 3 x  3 x 3 x  3

 If x is close to 3 but larger than 3, then the

denominator x – 3 is a small positive number and
2x is close to 6.
 So, the quotient 2x/(x – 3) is a large positive
number.
2x
 Thus, intuitively, we see that lim  .
x 3 x  3
INFINITE LIMITS Example 9
 Similarly, if x is close to 3 but smaller than 3,
then x - 3 is a small negative number but 2x is
still a positive number (close to 6).
 So, 2x/(x - 3) is a numerically large negative
number.
2x
 Thus, we see that lim   .
x 3 x3
INFINITE LIMITS Example 9

The graph of the curve y = 2x/(x - 3) is

given in the figure.
 The line x – 3 is a vertical asymptote.
INFINITE LIMITS Example 10
Find the vertical asymptotes of
f(x) = tan x.
sin x
 As tan x  cos x
, there are potential vertical
asymptotes where cos x = 0.
 In fact, since cos x  0 as x   / 2  and cos x  0
  

as x   / 2  , whereas sin x is positive when x is

near  /2, we have:

lim  tan x   lim  tan x  

x   / 2  and x  / 2 

 This shows that the line x = /2 is a vertical

asymptote.
INFINITE LIMITS Example 10

Similar reasoning shows that the

lines x = (2n + 1) /2, where n is an
integer, are all vertical asymptotes of
f(x) = tan x.
 The graph confirms this.
INFINITE LIMITS Example 10

Another example of a function whose

graph has a vertical asymptote is the
natural logarithmic function of y = ln x.
 From the figure, we see that lim ln x  .
x 0
 So, the line x = 0 (the y-axis)
is a vertical asymptote.
 The same is true for
y = loga x, provided a > 1.