MTH 206

Summary Guide in Evaluating Limits

Keith Lester A. Mallorca

Faculty, Mathematics Department
College of Arts and Sciences
West Visayas State University

July 2020
 Sum m ary G uide on Evaluating Lim its of Functions
MTH 206 – Calculus I

A . Introduction
Intuitive Approach to Limits
The basic idea of limits of a function relies on the intuitive approach to the concept. Suppose we have a
linear function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 whose graph is illustrated in figure 1. What we want is to determine how the
function value behaves as we let our x approach a specific value. For the sake of the discussion, say we allow
our x to approach 3. Observe that as illustrated in figure 2, f(x) approaches 5 whenever x approaches 3 either
from the right or from the left, hence, intuitively we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches 3 is 5, written as

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 𝑜𝑟 lim (2𝑥 − 1) = 5

𝑥→3 𝑥→3

Figure 1. Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1

Figure 2. Illustration of the intuitive approach to limit of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 as x approaches 3.

Observe as well that limit may exist even though the function value is undefined when x = a. Here,
(𝑥−3)(2𝑥−1)
suppose we have the function 𝑔(𝑥) = . The domain of g is given by 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑔) = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 3}.
(𝑥−3)
Observe further that when simplified, g takes the same form as f and graphically, g is also represented by a line
similar to f but with hole at the point (3,5) as illustrated in figure 3.

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |2
 (𝑥−3)(2𝑥−1)
Figure 3. Graph of the function (𝑥) = (𝑥−3)
.

Thus, if we let x approach 3 either from the right or from the left, still g(x) approaches 5. This idea
suggests that it is not necessary for f or for g to be defined when x = a for the limit to exist. Limit speaks how
the function value behaves when we let our x approach a certain value. Usually, it answers the question
“Where does f(x) approach to as x approaches to a specific value?”. The following statement defines limit
formally which is also known as the 𝛿 − 𝜖 definition (delta-epsilon).

Form al D efinition of Lim it of a Function

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval containing a, except
possibly at the number a itself. The lim it of f(x) as x approaches a is L, written as

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

if given any 𝜀 > 0, however small, there exists a 𝛿 > 0, such that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿, then
|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀.

In words, this definition states that the function values f(x) approach a limit L as x approaches a if the
absolute value of the difference between f(x) and L can be made as small as we please by taking x sufficiently
near a but not equal to a. The geometric interpretation of the definition is illustrated in figure 4.

Figure 4. Geometric Interpretation of the Formal Definition of Limit of a Function

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |3
B . Lim it Theorem s
Limit of a Linear Function
 If m and b are any constants, then lim (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑏.
𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: Simply evaluate the linear function at x = a and perform the operations.

 Example: lim (2𝑥 − 1) = 2(1) − 1 = 1

𝑥→1

Limit of a Constant
 If c is a constant, then for any number a, lim 𝑐 = 𝑐.
𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: The limit of a constant is the constant itself.

 Example: lim 5 = 5
𝑥→0

Limit of the Identity Function

 Given f(x) = x, lim 𝑥 = 𝑎.
𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: The limit of an identity function f(x) = x is the value of a.

 Example: lim 𝑥 = −1
𝑥→−1

Limit of the Sum and Difference of Two Functions

 If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, then lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐿 ± 𝑀.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: The limit of the sum or difference of two functions is the sum or difference of their limits.
 Note: This theorem can be extended to three or more functions.

 Example: lim (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) = lim 𝑥 2 − lim 2𝑥 + lim 1 = (1)2 − 2(1) + 1 = 0

𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

Limit of the Product of Two Functions

 If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, then lim [𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐿 ⋅ 𝑀.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their limits.
 Note: This theorem can also be extended to product of three or more functions.

 Example: lim [3𝑥(𝑥 3 − 2)] = lim 3𝑥 ⋅ lim (𝑥 3 − 2) = [3(−2)][(−2)3 − 2] = (−6)(−8 − 2) = 60

𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

Limit of the Quotient of Two Functions

𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
 If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, provided lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: In taking the limit of the quotient of two functions, simply divide their limits.

1+sin 𝑥 lim (1+sin 𝑥) 1+sin 0 1+0

 Example: lim = 𝑥→0lim 𝑒 𝑥 = = =1
𝑥→0 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥→0
𝑒0 1

Limit of the nth Power of a Function

𝑛
 If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and n is a positive integer, then lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐿𝑛 .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: When taking the limit of a function raised to a power, simply take the limit of the base
function and raised it to the given power.
3
 Example: lim (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥)3 = [ lim (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥)] = [cos(−𝜋) − sin(−𝜋)]3 = (−1 − 0)3 = −1
𝑥→−𝜋 𝑥→−𝜋

Limit of the nth Root of a Function

𝑛
 If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and n is a positive integer, then lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿 provided if n is even, L > 0.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: In taking the limit of a root of a function, just take the limit of the function inside the radical
sign and take the root of that limit.

3 3
 Example: lim √2 − 5𝑥 = 3√ lim (2 − 5𝑥) = 3√2 − 5(−5) = √27 = 3
𝑥→−5 𝑥→−5

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |4
Limit Theorem 11
 If r is any positive integer, then
1
✒ lim+ 𝑥 𝑟 = +∞ (1)
𝑥→0
1 −∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
✒ lim− 𝑥 𝑟 = { (2)
𝑥→0 +∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
 Sense: In (1) the denominator is always positive when x takes the values to the right of zero (0) but
1
notice that the fraction 𝑥𝑟
increases without bound when x decreases and gets closer to zero (0). On
the other hand, in (2) the denominator is negative when the exponent r is odd but positive when it is
1
even. When r is even, it has the same sense as (1) but when r is odd, the fraction decreases without
𝑥𝑟
bound as x increases and gets closer to zero (0).
 Note: The general statement for this theorem is specified on the next theorem.
1 1
 Example 1: lim− 𝑥 2 = 0+ = +∞  the denominator is “through positive values” since the
𝑥→0
exponent is even, i.e. for all values of x to the left of
zero (0), x2 is always positive

1 1
 Example 2: lim− 𝑥 5 = 0− = −∞  the denominator is “through negative values” since the
𝑥→0
exponent is odd, i.e. for all values of x to the left of
zero (0), x5 is always negative

Limit Theorem 12
 If a is any real number and if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0, where c is a constant not equal to 0,
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
then
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐
✒ if c > 0 and if g(x) approaches 0 through positive values, lim = + = +∞. (1)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 0
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐
✒ if c < 0 and if g(x) approaches 0 through positive values, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0+ = −∞. (2)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐
✒ if c > 0 and if g(x) approaches 0 through negative values, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0− = −∞. (3)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐
✒ if c < 0 and if g(x) approaches 0 through negative values, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0− = +∞. (4)
𝑥→𝑎

 Note: This theorem simply suggest that the fraction either increases (1 and 4) or decreases (2 and 3)
without bound whenever the numerator approaches a constant and the denominator approaches 0
through positive or negative values of the function. Always be careful with the sign of both the
numerator and the denominator. You may evaluate the denominator with a specific value of x to
check whether it approaches 0 through positive or negative values. Further, be mindful that the limit
in the denominator might not exist if the one-sided limits are not equal, i.e., it approaches to 0
through negative in one side and through positive values from the other side.

𝑥 2 −2 12 −2 −1
 Example 1: lim+ = = 0+ = −∞  the denominator is “through positive”
𝑥→1 ln 𝑥 ln 1
since for any value of x to the right of 1,
ln(x) is always positive

𝑥−1 0−1 −1 −1
 Example 2: lim cos 𝑥−1 = cos 0−1 = 1−1 = 0−
= +∞  the denominator is “through negative”
𝑥→0
since (cosx – 1) is always “negative” for
all values of x to the right and to the left
of 0. Recall that the range of cosine
function is [-1,1], hence for values
directly to the left and right of 0 the
function f(x) = cosx yields positive values
less than 1 making (cosx – 1) negative

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |5
Other Im portant Theorem s
Theorem Relating Two-Sided Limit to One-Sided Limits
 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 if and only if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: This theorem explains that the failure of existence of the two-sided limit is attributed to either
the inexistence of a one-sided limit or the unequal values of the one-sided limits. The former implies
that when either the left-hand or the right-hand limit fails to exist, then the two-sided limit fails to
exist as well while the latter suggests that even the left-hand and the right-hand limits exist but are
not equal, then still the two-sided limit fails to exist.
1
 Example 1: lim 𝑥  limit does not exist since the one-sided limits, though they exist, are
𝑥→0
unequal. When x approaches 0 from the right, we have
1 1
lim = 0+ = +∞. On the other hand, if x approaches 0 from the left,
𝑥→0+ 𝑥
1 1
we have lim− 𝑥 = 0− = −∞.
𝑥→0

 Example 2: lim ln 𝑥  limit does not exist since the left-hand limit does not exist, i.e.
𝑥→0
lim ln 𝑥 does not exist simply because the function 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 is not
𝑥→0−
defined to all negative values and to 0.

Theorem on Limit of Composite Functions

 If lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 and if the function f is continuous at b, then lim (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑓 (lim 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑏).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: You need to take note first whether the outer function is continuous at the limit of the inner
function. By continuous we mean, graphically there’s no jump, cut or hole in the graph of f at x = b.
If it is satisfied, then simply take f(b) to find the limit of the entire composition.

 Example 1: lim sin(ln 𝑥)  in this example, we may take f(x) = sinx and g(x) = lnx, so that
𝑥→1
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = sin(ln 𝑥). By the theorem, we have
lim sin(ln 𝑥) = sin (lim ln 𝑥). Now, take note that lim ln 𝑥 = ln 1 = 0
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
and the outer function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is continuous at x = 0, hence,
lim sin(ln 𝑥) = sin (lim ln 𝑥) = sin 0 = 0.
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

 Example 2: lim ln(sin 𝑥)  in this example, we may take f(x) = lnx and g(x) = sinx, so that
𝑥→𝜋
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = ln(sin 𝑥). By the theorem, lim ln(sin 𝑥) ≠ ln (lim sin 𝑥)
𝑥→𝜋 𝑥→𝜋
since if we take the limit of the inner function, lim sin 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→𝜋
but the outer function 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 is not continuous at x = 0.

The L’Hopital’s Rule (Theorem)

 Let f and g be a function differentiable on an open interval I containing a, except possibly at a itself.
𝑓′(𝑥)
Suppose that for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎 in I, 𝑔′(𝑥) ≠ 0. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 and if lim 𝑔′(𝑥) = 𝐿, then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥)
lim = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)
 Sense: Whenever the limit results to an indeterminate of the form 0/0, one may use this theorem or
rule to find its actual limit. This is a general approach where you derive both the numerator and the
denominator and find the limit of the resulting derivatives. If it still results to indeterminate of the
form 0/0, then you may apply the rule again. You terminate once the resulting limit is either finite or
infinite.
 Note: This theorem or rule is also applicable if the resulting limit is indeterminate of the form ∞/∞.
𝑥
 Example 1: lim 𝑒 𝑥 −1  When you evaluate its limit directly it results to indeterminate of the
𝑥→0
𝑥 0 0 0
form 0/0, i.e., lim 𝑒 𝑥 −1 = 𝑒 0 −1 = 1−1 = 0. Hence, we apply the theorem.
𝑥→0

By L’Hopital’s Rule, we derive both the numerator and the

𝑥 1 1 1
denominator, so we have; lim 𝑒 𝑥 −1 = lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 0 = 1 = 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |6
 ln 𝑥
 Example 2: lim  When evaluated directly, the resulting limit is indeterminate of the
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
∞ ln 𝑥 ln ∞ ∞
form ∞, i.e., lim = = ∞. Hence, we apply the theorem.
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 ∞

1
ln 𝑥 1 1
By L’Hopital’s Rule, we have lim = lim 𝑥
= lim = +∞ = 0.
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

Note that the derivative of the numerator is 1/x and the derivative of
the denominator is 1.

Theorem s on Lim its of Functions Involving Infinite Lim its

Theorem on Sum of Two Functions
 If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑐, where c is any constant, then lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = +∞. Further, if
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, then lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = −∞.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: This theorem implies that the sum of positive infinity and any constant value is positive
infinity. The same implication when the limit of one of the two functions is negative infinity. The
constant value when added to an infinite does not affect the value of the “infinite”.

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
 Example: lim+ (2𝑥−1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 1 − (2) = 1−1 + 4 = 0+ − 4 = +∞ − 4 = +∞
1 2( )−1
𝑥→ 2
2
1 1 1
 Note: In the above example, lim + (2𝑥−1) = 0+ = +∞ since for all values of x to the right of 2, (2x – 1)
𝑥→1/2
is always positive.

Theorems on Product of Two Functions

 If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑐, where c is any constant, then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
✒ lim [𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)] = +∞ when c > 0, and
𝑥→𝑎
✒ lim [𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)] = −∞ when c < 0.
𝑥→𝑎

 If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑐, where c is any constant, then

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
✒ lim [𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)] = −∞ when c > 0, and
𝑥→𝑎
✒ lim [𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)] = +∞ when c < 0.
𝑥→𝑎

2+𝑥 4 1 2+𝑥 4 4
 Example 1: lim+ 2−𝑥 ⋅ 𝑒 −𝑥 = 0− ⋅ 𝑒 −2 = −∞ ⋅ 𝑒 2 = −∞  lim+ 2−𝑥 = 2−2 = 0− = −∞, the
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
denominator is 0− (through negative
values) since for all values of x to the
right of 2, (2 – x) is negative

−5 √𝑥−2 −5 1−2 −1 −5 −5
 Example 2: lim (𝑥−1)2 ⋅ 𝑥+2
= ⋅
0+ 1+2
= −∞ ⋅ 3
= +∞  lim (𝑥−1)2 = 0+ = −∞, the denominator is
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
+
0 (through positive values) since for all
values of x whether to the right or left of
1, (x – 1)2 is always positive.

Theorem on Lim its at Infinity

Limit Theorem 13
1 1
 If r is any positive integer, then (1) lim = 0 and (2) lim = 0.
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑟 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑟
 Sense: In (1), when we let x increase without bound, the denominator increases indefinitely, hence the
1
fraction gets smaller and approaches 0. While in (2), if we let x decrease without bound, then the
𝑥𝑟
denominator 𝑥 𝑟 either approaches +∞ (when r is even) or −∞ (when r is odd). Either way, the
1
fraction 𝑥𝑟
gets closer to 0.

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |7
  Note: This theorem can be extended to cases when the numerator is not 1 but any constant c. Such
idea suggests that any constant divided by a very large amount (either positive or negative) would
result to an approximate value near 0.
1 1
 Example: lim = −∞ = 0
𝑥→−∞ 3
𝑥

Special Theorem s on Lim its Involving Trigonom etric Functions

Special Theorems
sin 𝑡 1−cos 𝑡
 (1) lim = 1 and (2) lim =0
𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑡→0 𝑡

sin 3𝑥
 Example 1: lim sin 5𝑥  We need to use special theorem (1) but notice that we need to
𝑥→0
express the given function in an equivalent expression with
the numerator and the denominator following the form sint/t.

So, for this example, we need to divide the numerator by 3x

and the denominator by 5x. Further, to preserve the function,
we need to multiply the numerator by 3 and the denominator
by 5. So, we have;

sin 3𝑥 sin 3𝑥
sin 3𝑥 3( ) 3 lim 3(1) 3
3𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥
lim = lim sin 5𝑥 = sin 5𝑥 = 5(1) = 5
𝑥→0 sin 5𝑥 𝑥→0 5( ) 5 lim
5𝑥 𝑥→0 5𝑥

1−cos 𝑥
 Example 2: lim  We need to use special theorem (2) but notice that we need to
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
express the given function in an equivalent expression with
the numerator following the form (1 – cost)/t. So, our
option is to express it in an equivalent expression
1−cos 𝑥
containing 𝑥
.

By doing so, we have;

1−cos 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥 1 1−cos 𝑥 1
lim 𝑥2
= lim 𝑥⋅𝑥
= lim 𝑥
⋅ 𝑥 = lim 𝑥
⋅ lim 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

But in this form,

1 1 1
lim does not exist since lim+ 𝑥 ≠ lim− 𝑥.
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Hence, we need to manipulate the expression that might lead

us to special theorem (1). To attain such expression, we need
to multiply the given function by the conjugate of the
numerator to attain an expression (1 − cos2 𝑥) which is by
Pythagorean identity, equal to sin2 𝑥. So, we have;

1−cos 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥 1+cos 𝑥 1−cos2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥

lim = lim ⋅ 1+cos 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 2 (1+cos 𝑥) = lim 𝑥 2 (1+cos 𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 𝑥→0 𝑥 2 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Manipulating it further to suit special theorem (1), we have;

sin2 𝑥 sin 𝑥⋅sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 1
lim 𝑥 2 (1+cos 𝑥) = lim 𝑥⋅𝑥⋅(1+cos 𝑥) = lim 𝑥
⋅ 𝑥
⋅ 1+cos 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Evaluating the limit of each term in the product, we have;

sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 1 1 1 1
lim ⋅ ⋅ = (1)(1) ( ) = (1)(1) ( ) =
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥 1+cos 𝑥 1+cos 0 2 2

1−cos 𝑥 1
Therefore, lim 𝑥2
= 2.
𝑥→0

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |8
The Squeeze Theorem
 Suppose that the function f, g, and h are defined on some open interval I containing a except possibly
at a itself, and that 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all x in I for which 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎. Also suppose that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
and lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿, then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Sense: The theorem suggests that for functions yielding indeterminate forms, one way is to find two
functions whose values are always greater than or less than that of the given function and whose limits
are easily identified and equal. This statement squeezes the function and hence, will have the same
limit as the other two identified functions.
1
 Example: lim |𝑥 sin 𝑥|  Notice that evaluating the function directly, we attain
𝑥→0
1 1 1
lim |𝑥 sin 𝑥| = |0 ⋅ sin 0| and sin 0 is undefined.
𝑥→0

So, we need to find two functions satisfying the conditions in

the squeeze theorem. Now, recall that for any angle x (in
radian measure), −1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1. Taking the absolute value, for
any angle x in radian, 0 ≤ |sin 𝑥| ≤ 1.

1
Consequently, 0 ≤ |sin 𝑥| ≤ 1. [*]

To attain the given function using [*], we need to multiply |𝑥|

to the given inequality in [*]. By doing so, we have;
1
 0 ⋅ |𝑥| ≤ |sin 𝑥| ⋅ |𝑥| ≤ 1 ⋅ |𝑥|
1
 0 ≤ |𝑥 sin 𝑥| ≤ |𝑥|

1
In this example, 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 sin 𝑥|, and ℎ(𝑥) = |𝑥|. So
1
to evaluate the limit of 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 sin 𝑥|, we need to find the
limit of f and h. Thus, we have lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 0 = 0 and
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
lim ℎ(𝑥) = lim |𝑥| = 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

1
By squeeze theorem, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim |𝑥 sin | = 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

C . Evaluating One-Sided Lim its Involving G reatest Integer Function

Guide Process
 To evaluate the limits involving ⟦𝑓(𝑥)⟧, one may do the following:
✒ If lim
+/−
𝑓(𝑥) ∉ ℤ (not an integer), then lim
+/−
⟦𝑓(𝑥)⟧ = ⟦ lim 𝑓(𝑥)⟧.
+/−
(1)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
✒ If lim
+/−
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛 ∈ ℤ (an integer), then one may either;
𝑥→𝑎
A. if 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑛+ , 𝑥 → 𝑎+/− , then replace ⟦𝑓(𝑥)⟧ by n, or (2)
B. if 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑛− , 𝑥 → 𝑎+/− , then replace ⟦𝑓(𝑥)⟧ by n – 1 (3)
𝑥−1
 Example 1: lim+ ⟦− ⟧  First, evaluate the limit of the function inside the “bracket”. So,
𝑥→5 3
𝑥−1 5−1 4
we have lim+ − 3
=− 3
= − 3. Since the resulting limit is
𝑥→5
not an integer, we may use the idea stipulated above in (1).

𝑥−1 𝑥−1 4
So, we have lim+ ⟦− 3
⟧ = ⟦ lim+ − 3
⟧ = ⟦− 3⟧ = −2.
𝑥→5 𝑥→5

𝑥−1
 Example 2: lim+ ⟦− 3
⟧  Notice that when we take the limit of the function inside the
𝑥→4
𝑥−1 4−1
“bracket” it results to an integer, i.e. lim+ − =− = −1.
𝑥→4 3 3
So, we need to determine if this is of case (2) or case (3) by
investigating from what side does f(x) approach to.

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |9
 𝑥−1
Observe that, as 𝑥 → 4+ , 𝑓(𝑥) = − 3
→ −1− . Hence, by (3),
𝑥−1
lim ⟦− 3
⟧ = 𝑛 − 1 = −1 − 1 = −2.
𝑥→4 +

In this example, n = –1 or the resulting limit of the function

inside the “bracket”. Further, to determine where does f(x)
approach to, you may select one value of x to the right of 4,
say let 𝑥 = 4.3. Then, substitute this to f(x), so we have
4.3−1 3.3
𝑓(4.3) = − 3
=− 3
= −1.1. Notice that the resulting value
is to the left of 𝑛 = −1, thus, 𝑓(𝑥) → −1− as 𝑥 → 4+ .

𝑥−1 𝑥−1 4−1

 Example 3: lim− ⟦− 3
⟧  Same as Example 2, lim− − 3
=− 3
= −1. But as 𝑥 → 4− ,
𝑥→4 𝑥→4
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
𝑓(𝑥) = − 3
→ −1+ . Hence, by (2), lim+ ⟦− 3
⟧ = −1.
𝑥→4

In this example, 𝑛 = −1 and if we select a value for x to the

left of 4, say let 𝑥 = 3.7, the function value corresponding to
3.7−1 2.7
this is given by 𝑓(3.7) = − 3
=− 3
= −0.9. Notice that
the resulting value is to the right of n = –1, thus, 𝑓(𝑥) → −1+
as 𝑥 → 4− .

D . G uide on Evaluating Lim its

1. Is the limit one-sided or not? There are cases where we evaluate limits that might not exist due to the one-
sided limit being not existing. Perhaps, the function is not defined to values either to the left or right of the
value where we approach x. Refer to the examples below.

(i) lim (2𝑥 + 1) In this example, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 being a polynomial function is
𝑥→0
defined to all real numbers and to evaluate its limit we simply evaluate the
function at x = 0.

(ii) lim √𝑥 Unlike with the function above, 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 is not defined to negative real
𝑥→0
numbers or values of x to the left of 0. Hence, the left hand limit does not exist
and as a consequence, the lim √𝑥 does not exist. Further, for such example what
𝑥→0
exists is the right hand limit only, i.e. lim+ √𝑥 = 0.
𝑥→0

2. If you are done checking if the limit is one-sided or not, then evaluate directly by substituting the value of
a (where we approach x) to the given function.

a. If the resulting value is not indeterminate, i.e., it is either infinite or finite value, then it is the
limit. Note that when the limit is infinite, it means that as the value of x approaches a, then the
function value f(x) increases or decreases without bound depending whether it is +∞ or −∞,
respectively. Refer to the given example below.

(i) lim (𝑥 2 − 1) = (3)2 − 1 = 8 the resulting limit is a finite value, hence the limit is 3
𝑥→3

(ii) lim ln(𝑥) = +∞ the resulting limit is +∞, hence as x increases without
𝑥→+∞
bound, f(x) also increases without bound

2𝑥−3 1
(iii) lim = −0 we can’t directly claim that the limit is −∞, we need to
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
evaluate the left-hand and the right-hand limits since the
behavior of the graph of the function from the left and
from the right of 1 differ

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |10
b. Further, we usually evaluate the right-hand and the left-hand limits if the function (a) is a
piecewise function, (b) contains an absolute value function that results to |0|, or (c) if it yields a
𝑐 𝑛
limit of the form (i) 0
or (ii) √0, where c is a constant and n is an integer. Refer to the given
examples below.

𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
(i) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = { We need to evaluate the right-hand and the left-hand
𝑥→0 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0
limits since two different functions define the values to the
right and to the left of 0 and utilize the theorem on
existence of a limit, i.e., it exists whenever the right-hand
limit is equal to the left-hand limit.

In this example, lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(𝑥 2 − 1) = −1 while

𝑥→0 𝑥→0
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(2𝑥 + 1) = 1, thus, lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
exist.

2𝑥−3 −1
(ii) lim = We evaluate the one-sided limits.
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 0
2𝑥−3 −1
The lim+ 𝑥−1
= 0+ (0+ is read as “0 through positive
𝑥→1
values” since for all values of x to the right of 1, x – 1 is
2𝑥−3 −1
positive), thus, lim+ = = −∞ since the numerator is
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 0+
“negative“ and denominator is “through positive values”.

2𝑥−3 −1
On the other hand, the lim− = (0− is read as “0
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 0−
through negative values” since for all values to the left of
2𝑥−3 −1
1", x – 1 is negative), thus, lim− 𝑥−1
= 0− = +∞ since the
𝑥→1
numerator is “negative” and the denominator is “through
negative values”.

Since the left hand and the right hand limits are not equal
2𝑥−3
or the same, the lim does not exist.
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

(iii) lim √𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = √0 We need to evaluate the one sided limits for this example
𝑥→3
since we don’t exactly know the behavior of the function
value as we approach x from the left and right of 3.

First, factor out the radicand since it is of degree 2;

lim √𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = lim √(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

So, the right-hand limit is given by:

lim √(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = √(0+ )(4) = √0+ = 0
𝑥→3+

Notice above, that for all values of x to the right of 3, x – 3

is positive, hence 0+

On the other hand, the left-hand limit is given by:

lim √(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = √(0− )(4) = √0− (not defined),
𝑥→3−
thus, the limit does not exist. Notice that for all values of
x to the left of 3, x – 3 is negative, hence 0−

Therefore, the lim √𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 does not exist since the

𝑥→3
left-hand limit does not exist.
Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |11
 |𝑥+2| |0|
(iv) lim = First, we need to redefine the numerator to express it as a
𝑥→−2 𝑥 2 −4 0
piecewise function.

𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
Recall |𝑥| = { , applying this to the numerator
−𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0

𝑥 + 2, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0
|𝑥 + 2| = {
−(𝑥 + 2), 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 + 2 < 0

or simplifying the conditions, we have

𝑥 + 2, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ −2
|𝑥 + 2| = {
−(𝑥 + 2), 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < −2

Redefining the given function to piecewise, we have

𝑥+2 1
= , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ −2
|𝑥+2| |𝑥+2| (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 −4
= (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)
{ −(𝑥+2) 1
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)
= − 𝑥−2 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < −2

The final piecewise form of the given function is given by

1
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ −2
𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 − 2
−1
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < −2
𝑥−2

Evaluating the one-sided limits, we have

|𝑥+2| 1 1 1
lim + 𝑥 2 −4 = lim + 𝑥−2 = −4 = − 4
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
|𝑥+2| −1 −1 1
lim − = lim − = =
𝑥→−2 𝑥 2 −4 𝑥→−2 𝑥−2 −4 4

|𝑥+2|
Therefore, lim does not exist
𝑥→−2 𝑥 2 −4

0 ∞
c. If the resulting limit is indeterminate in form, i.e. it follows any of the following forms: 0 , ∞,
∞ − ∞, 0 × ∞, 1∞ , ∞0 , and 00 , then you need to perform the following techniques on the next
section.

Evaluating lim its at infinity of algebraic functions;

3. This section is applied only to functions in algebraic forms and whose limits (at infinity) are evaluated.
Typically, these would result to indeterminate forms as well. We shall divide the examples in cases
involving (a) polynomial functions, (b) radical functions, and (c) rational functions with polynomial and
radical terms.
a. lim (3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) When evaluated directly, this results to (∞ − ∞).
𝑥→+∞
What we need to do is factor out the variable x with the
highest exponent, by doing so, we have;
1 1
 lim (3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) = lim 𝑥 2 (3 − + )
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥2

Evaluating the limit, we have;

1 1 1 1
 lim 𝑥 2 (3 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) = ∞ (3 − ∞ + ∞) = ∞(3 − 0 + 0) = +∞
𝑥→+∞

Therefore, lim (3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) = +∞.

𝑥→+∞

Note: Generally, for this case, the limit follows from the limit of the leading term. In this
example, the leading term is 3𝑥 2 and lim 3𝑥 2 = +∞. Therefore, lim (3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) = +∞.
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |12
b. lim (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) When evaluated directly, the limit is of the form (−∞ + ∞).
𝑥→−∞
We rationalize the function by multiplying its conjugate to both
the numerator and the denominator. By doing so, we have;
𝑥−√𝑥 2 −3𝑥
 lim (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) = lim (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) ×
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−√𝑥 2 −3𝑥
𝑥 2 −(𝑥 2 −3𝑥)
= lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−√𝑥 2 −3𝑥
𝑥 2 −𝑥 2 +3𝑥
= lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−√𝑥 2 −3𝑥
3𝑥
= lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−√𝑥 2 −3𝑥

Then, divide all terms by x with the highest degree. In this

example, it is 𝑥 2 which is inside the radical sign. So, divide all
terms inside the radical sign by 𝑥 2 and divide the terms outside
by √𝑥 2 .

Also, note that √𝑥 2 = |𝑥|. Thus, we have;

3𝑥
 lim (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) = lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−√𝑥 2 −3𝑥
3𝑥
|𝑥|
= lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 √𝑥2 3𝑥
|𝑥|
− 2− 2
𝑥 𝑥

Replace |𝑥| by x if 𝑥 → +∞ or by –x if 𝑥 → −∞. Thus, we have;

3𝑥
−𝑥
= lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥2 3𝑥
−√ 2 − 2
−𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
−3
= lim
𝑥→−∞ −1−√1−3
𝑥
−3 −3 −3 3
= = −1− = −1−1 = 2
3 √1+0
−1−√1−
−∞

3
Therefore, lim (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) = 2.
𝑥→−∞

2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2
c. lim For this case, we may perform the process in example (a) for both
𝑥→+∞ −𝑥 2 +𝑥+2
the numerator and the denominator or we can simply divide all
terms by the variable x with the highest degree.

In this example, we need to divide all terms by 𝑥 2 .

2𝑥2 3𝑥 2
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2 − −
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
 lim −𝑥2 +𝑥+2 = lim 2
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ −𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
3 2
2− − 2
𝑥 𝑥
= lim 1 2
𝑥→+∞ −1+𝑥+ 2
𝑥
3 2
2− − 2−0−0 2
∞ ∞
= 1 2 = = = −2
−1+ + −1+0+0 −1
∞ ∞

2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2
Therefore, lim = −2.
𝑥→+∞ −𝑥 2 +𝑥+2

Note: We use this process in determining the horizontal asymptotes of rational functions.
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2
Suppose, we take 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 +𝑥+2
, hence its horizontal asymptote using its limit is the
horizontal line 𝑦 = −2.

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |13
 𝑥−3
d. lim For this case, we perform similar process as example (b) except
𝑥→+∞ 2+√1+𝑥 2
that there’s no need to rationalize the function. Simply, we
directly divide all terms by either √𝑥 2 = |𝑥| or by 𝑥 2 depending
on its location.

In this example, we replace |𝑥| by 𝑥 since 𝑥 → +∞. Thus,

𝑥 3
𝑥−3 −
 lim = lim |𝑥| |𝑥|
𝑥→+∞ 2+√1+𝑥 2 𝑥→+∞ 2 1 𝑥2
|𝑥|
+√ 2 + 2
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 3
−
𝑥 𝑥
= lim
𝑥→+∞ 2 √ 1 𝑥2
+ 2+ 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
3 3
1− 1− 1−0 1
𝑥 ∞
= lim = = 0+ =1=1
𝑥→+∞ 2+√ 1 +1 2 1 √0+1
+√ +1
𝑥 𝑥2 ∞ ∞

𝑥−3
Therefore, lim = 1.
𝑥→+∞ 2+√1+𝑥 2

For indeterm inate form s;

0
4. If the resulting value after the direct evaluation of the limit of the function is indeterminate of the form 0
∞
or ∞
, then you may (a) simplify the rational expression by factoring, (b) rationalize, or (c) use L’Hopital’s
Rule. Be mindful that the number of times you apply the L’Hopital’s Rule depends on the given case. You
may terminate when the actual limit is attained (finite or infinite). Refer to the given examples below.
𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4 0
a. lim =0 We factor out first both the numerator and the
𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −1
denominator to determine common factors, then simplify
and evaluate the limit of the simplified form
𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4 (𝑥−4)(𝑥+1) 𝑥−4 −5 5
lim = lim = lim = −2 = 2
𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥→−1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) 𝑥→−1 𝑥−1

𝑥−2 0
b. lim 𝑥− =0 We rationalize the given function to evaluate the given
𝑥→2 √2+𝑥
limit not resulting to indeterminate form, so we have;
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥+√2+𝑥 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+√2+𝑥)
lim = lim 𝑥− × 𝑥+ = lim 𝑥 2 −(2+𝑥)
𝑥→2 𝑥−√2+𝑥 𝑥→2 √2+𝑥 √2+𝑥 𝑥→2
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+√2+𝑥)
= lim 𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
𝑥→2
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+√2+𝑥)
=lim
𝑥→2 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+1)
𝑥+√2+𝑥
=lim 𝑥+1
𝑥→2
4
=3

cos 𝑥+1 0
c. lim 𝑥−𝜋
=0 Since we can’t either perform rationalization or
𝑥→𝜋
simplification by factoring, we need to apply the
L’Hopital’s Rule, so we have;
cos 𝑥+1 − sin 𝑥 0
lim 𝑥−𝜋
= lim 1
=1=0
𝑥→𝜋 𝑥→𝜋

ln 𝑥 ∞
d. lim =∞ Same as item (c), we may apply the L’Hopital’s Rule to
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
determine the actual limit of the given function, so we
1
ln 𝑥 1 1
have lim = lim 𝑥
= lim = +∞ = 0
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |14
 sin 𝑥−𝑥 0
e. lim 𝑥3
=0 Same as item (d), we have;
𝑥→0
sin 𝑥−𝑥 cos 𝑥−1
lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥3 𝑥→0 3𝑥 2

Notice that when the new expression is evaluated, it still

cos 𝑥−1 cos 0−1 1−1 0
gives 0/0 since lim = = = .
𝑥→0 3𝑥 2 3(0)2 0 0

Applying the rule again, we have;

cos 𝑥−1 − sin 𝑥
 lim = lim
𝑥→0 3𝑥 2 𝑥→0 6𝑥

But, when evaluated it still gives 0/0 since

− sin 𝑥 sin 0 0
lim = − 6(0) = − 0.
𝑥→0 6𝑥

Applying the rule for the third time, we have;

− sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 1
 lim = lim =− .
𝑥→0 6𝑥 𝑥→0 6 6

5. If the resulting value after the direct evaluation of the limit is indeterminate of the form (a) ∞ − ∞ or (b)
0 × ∞, we manipulate or express the function in the form 0/0 or ∞/∞ and use L’Hopital’s Rule. The
following examples will illustrate the process for this case.
1 1
a. lim (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 sec 𝑥) Evaluating directly, the resulting limit is ∞ − ∞, to show;
𝑥→0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
lim ( − 𝑥 2 sec 𝑥) = 02 − 02 (sec 0) = 0 − 0(1) = 0+ − 0+ = ∞ − ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 2

Hence, we need to manipulate the function to express either in the

form 0/0 or ∞/∞. We may combine the two fractions, we have;
1 1 1 cos 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥
lim ( − 𝑥 2 sec 𝑥) = lim (𝑥 2 − ) = lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥2

1 1
In the above process, recall that sec 𝑥 = or cos 𝑥 = . Now,
cos 𝑥 sec 𝑥
evaluating the limit of the new form, we have;
1−cos 𝑥 1−cos 0 1−1 0
 lim ( ) = = =
𝑥→0 𝑥2 02 0 0

Applying L’Hopital’s Rule to the new form, we have;

1−cos 𝑥 −(− sin 𝑥) sin 𝑥 sin(0) 0
 lim ( 𝑥2
) = lim 2𝑥
= lim = =0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 2𝑥 2(0)

Since the resulting value is still indeterminate of the form 0/0, we

may apply the rule once again. So, we have;
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 0 1
 lim = lim = =2
𝑥→0 2𝑥 𝑥→0 2 2

1 1 1
Thus, lim (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 sec 𝑥) = 2.
𝑥→0

b. lim tan 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 ) Evaluating the limit directly gives us the form 0 × ∞, to show;
𝑥→0+
lim tan 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 ) = lim+ tan 𝑥 ⋅ lim+ ln 𝑥 = 0 ⋅ (−∞)
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Hence, we need to manipulate the function to express the limit

either in the form 0/0 or ∞/∞. So, we have;
ln 𝑥
 lim+ tan 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 ) = lim+ cot 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

1
In the above process, recall that tan 𝑥 = cot 𝑥. By evaluating the
lim ln 𝑥
ln 𝑥 𝑥→0+ −∞
limit of the new form, we have lim+ cot 𝑥 = lim cot 𝑥
= +∞.
𝑥→0
𝑥→0+
Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |15
 Applying L’Hopital’s Rule to the new form, we have;
1
ln 𝑥 1 sin2 𝑥
 lim+ cot 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑥
−csc2 𝑥
= lim+ −𝑥 csc2 𝑥 = lim+ − 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

In the above process, recall that the derivative of the numerator is

1/x and that of the denominator is −csc 2 𝑥. Also, in trigonometry
1
we have the identity sin 𝑥 = csc 𝑥 which also implies that
1
sin2 𝑥 = csc2 𝑥.

Evaluating the limit of the new form, we have;

sin2 𝑥 sin2 0 0
 lim+ − =− =−
𝑥→0 𝑥 0 0

We may apply L’Hopital’s rule again. So, we have;

sin2 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
 lim+ − 𝑥
= lim+ − 1
= lim+ −2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

In the above process, we apply chain rule to find the derivative of

the numerator. Further, evaluating the limit of the new form, we
have lim+ −2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = −2 sin 0 cos 0 = −2(0)(1) = 0.
𝑥→0

Thus, lim+ tan 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 ) = 0.

𝑥→0

6. If the given function is of the form 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) and the limit after direct evaluation results to indeterminate of
the form 1∞ , 00 , or ∞0 , we also need to manipulate or express the given function in an equivalent form that
would result to a limit of the form 0/0 or ∞/∞. For this case, we follow the following steps.

A. Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥). Our goal is to find lim 𝑦.

𝑥→𝑎
B. Take the “ln” (natural logarithm) of both sides, i.e., ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) .
C. In the right side in (B), rewrite in the form 𝑔(𝑥) ln 𝑓(𝑥). This follows from the fact that ln 𝑎𝑏 =
𝑏 ln 𝑎.
D. Manipulate the new right hand side (RHS) in (C) to result in the form 0/0 or ∞/∞. Say, the
new resulting function is ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) ln 𝑓(𝑥).
E. From (B) and (D), the new equation is ln 𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥) [Note that this ℎ(𝑥) is the new function as a
result of the manipulation of 𝑔(𝑥) ln 𝑓(𝑥) to form 0/0 or ∞/∞. In this step, we take the limit of
both sides, i.e., lim ln 𝑦 = lim ℎ(𝑥) and use L’Hopital’s Rule in the RHS (as many as it is
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
needed).
lim ln 𝑦 lim ℎ(𝑥)
F. Then, we take 𝑒 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑒 𝑅𝐻𝑆 , i.e. 𝑒 𝑥→𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑥→𝑎 . Note that the LHS in (E), i.e., lim ln 𝑦
𝑥→𝑎
remains as it is while the RHS in (E), i.e. lim ℎ(𝑥) is the actual limit solved after using the
𝑥→𝑎
L’Hopital’s Rule in (E).
lim ln 𝑦 lim ℎ(𝑥)
G. Note that LHS in (F), i.e. 𝑒 𝑥→𝑎 = lim 𝑒 ln 𝑦 = lim 𝑦. Hence, we have lim 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥→𝑎 .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

The following are some examples illustrating the process stipulated above.
a. lim+ (1 + 𝑥)cot 𝑥 Solution: Evaluating the limit directly, we have;
𝑥→0
 lim+ (1 + 𝑥)cot 𝑥 = 1+∞ since lim+(1 + 𝑥) = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
cos 𝑥 cos 0 1
and lim+ cot 𝑥 = lim = sin 0 = 0+ = +∞.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0+ sin 𝑥

By applying the process above, we have;

Let 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥)cot 𝑥
 ln 𝑦 = ln(1 + 𝑥)cot 𝑥
 ln 𝑦 = cot 𝑥 ln(1 + 𝑥)
ln(𝑥+1) 1
 ln 𝑦 = tan 𝑥
since cot 𝑥 = tan 𝑥
Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |16
 Taking the limit of both sides;
ln(1+𝑥) ln(1+0) ln 1 0
 lim+ ln 𝑦 = lim+ tan 𝑥
= tan 0
= 0
=0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Using L’Hopital’s Rule, we have;

1
ln(1+𝑥)
 lim+ ln 𝑦 = lim = lim 1+𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0+ tan 𝑥 𝑥→0+ sec2 𝑥

Evaluating the limit, we have;

1 1
1 1
 lim+ ln 𝑦 = lim+ 1+𝑥
= 1+0
= (1)2 = = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 sec2 𝑥 sec2 0 1

Thus, by performing step (F), we have;

 lim+ ln 𝑦 = 1
𝑥→0
lim ln 𝑦
 𝑒 𝑥→0+ = 𝑒1
 lim+ 𝑒 ln 𝑦 = 𝑒
𝑥→0
 lim+ 𝑦 = 𝑒
𝑥→0

Therefore, lim+ (1 + 𝑥)cot 𝑥 = 𝑒.

𝑥→0

1
b. lim (cos 𝑥)𝑥2 Solution: Notice that lim (cos 𝑥) = cos 0 = 1 and
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
1
1 1
lim = = +∞. Hence, lim (cos 𝑥)𝑥2 = 1+∞ .
𝑥→ 0 𝑥 2 0+ 𝑥→0

Using the process above, we have;

1
Let 𝑦 = (cos 𝑥)𝑥2
1
 ln 𝑦 = ln(cos 𝑥)𝑥2
1
 ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ln cos 𝑥
ln cos 𝑥
 ln 𝑦 = 𝑥2

Taking the limits of both sides, we have;

ln cos 𝑥 ln cos 0 ln 1 0
 lim ln 𝑦 = lim 𝑥2
= 02
= 0
=0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Applying L’Hopital’s Rule, we have;

1
ln cos 𝑥 ⋅(− sin 𝑥)
 lim ln 𝑦 = lim = lim cos 𝑥 (*)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 2 𝑥→0 2𝑥

Simplifying further we have;

− sin 𝑥
⋅ − tan 𝑥 ⋅
 lim ln 𝑦 = lim cos 𝑥
2𝑥
= lim 2𝑥
(**)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

In (*), we use chain rule for ln cos 𝑥 and in (**) we

sin 𝑥
replace cos 𝑥
by tan 𝑥 since they are just equal.
Evaluating the limit of the last form in (**);
− tan 𝑥 ⋅ − tan 0′ 0
 lim 2𝑥
= 2(0)
=0
𝑥→0

Applying again the L’Hopital’s Rule, we have;

− tan 𝑥 ⋅ − sec2 𝑥
 lim ln 𝑦 = lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 2𝑥 𝑥→0 2

Evaluating the limit of the last form, we have;

− sec2 𝑥 − sec2(0) −(12 ) 1
 lim ln 𝑦 = lim 2
= 2
= 2
= −2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |17
 1
Thus, lim ln 𝑦 = 2 and performing step (F);
𝑥→0
1
lim ln 𝑦
 𝑒 𝑥→0 = 𝑒 −2
1
 lim 𝑒 ln 𝑦 = 𝑒 −2
𝑥→0
1
 lim 𝑦 = 𝑒 −2
𝑥→0

1 1
Therefore, lim (cos 𝑥)𝑥2 = 𝑒 −2 .
𝑥→0

Supplem entary Exercises:

Evaluate the following limits. (* indicates the item is intended for BS Applied Mathematics)
4𝑥−5 1 1 |4−𝑥|−3 𝑥 2 +2𝑥
(1) lim 5𝑥−1 (11) lim+ (𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 − 𝑥−2) (19) lim (28) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥→2 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑒 3𝑥 −1

𝑥−2
𝑥 2 +3𝑥+4 𝑥−1 2𝑥+6
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 1
(2) lim √ 𝑥 3 +1 (12) lim+ (20) lim 𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑔(𝑥) = {2𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
𝑥→2 𝑥→1 √2𝑥−𝑥 2 −1 𝑥→1 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1
|2𝑥−3|

4𝑥 2 −9 1−cos 2𝑥 4𝑥−3 sin 𝑥 1

(3) lim3 (13) lim (21) lim (29) lim ( − 𝑥2)
𝑥→− 2𝑥+3 𝑥→0 sin 3𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥−√𝑥 2 +2𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 3
2

1
−
3𝑥 2 −17𝑥+20 sin 𝑥 1−𝑥+3𝑥 2 −𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥
(4) lim 4𝑥 2 −25𝑥+36 (14) lim 3𝑥2 +2𝑥 (22) lim (30) lim+
𝑥→4 𝑥→0 𝑥→−∞ 2+3𝑥−𝑥 2 +2𝑥 3 𝑥→0 𝑥

1
√𝑥+5−2 1 ln 𝑥 𝑥
(5) lim (15) lim 𝑥 cos 𝑥 (23) lim (𝑥 − √𝑥 2 + 𝑥) (31*) lim+ ( )
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 𝑥→0 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→0 𝑥

√ℎ+2−√2 |𝑥−2| 4𝑥−3 𝑒 𝑥 −(1+𝑥)

(6) lim (16) lim (24) lim (32*) lim
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−√𝑥 2 +2𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥𝑛

2𝑥 + 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 3
(7) lim ℎ(𝑥), where ℎ(𝑥) = { (25*) lim sin(tan−1 2𝑥) (33) lim+(𝑥 2 − 2 ln 𝑥)
𝑥→3 10 − 𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 3 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→0

1−𝑥 2
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1 1
(8) lim 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) = { 1+𝑥 (26*) lim sin (𝑥) ln 𝑥 (34*) lim+ 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑥→1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→0
1 − √𝑥 + 8, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 1

𝑥 2 −2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑥−3

(9*) lim+ ⟦𝑥⟧−𝑥 (17*) lim+ 𝑥−𝜋 [Hint: Let 𝑡 = 𝑥 − 𝜋] (35) lim +
𝑥→2 𝑥→ 𝑥→−2 √𝑥+2

1 1 1 𝑥2
(10) lim+ ( − ) (18*) lim+ (csc 𝑥 − ) (27*) lim+(cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)cot 𝑥 (36) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥→0 ln(1+𝑥) 𝑥→0 𝑥→+∞ 𝑒 𝑥

Mathematics Department  College of Arts and Sciences  West Visayas State University |18