Introduction To Geology

INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
 Definition of geology
 Origin of earth
 Layers of earth
 Plates tectonics
YAYA NAPO
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INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
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I. DEFINITION OF GEOLOGY
Geology is the science that deals with the history and structure of the earth
and its life forms, especially as recorded in the rock record. A basic
understanding of its concepts and processes is essential in the petroleum
industry, for it is used to predict where oil accumulations might occur.
It is the job of the petroleum geologist to use his/her knowledge to reconstruct

the geologic history of an area to determine whether the formations are likely
to contain petroleum reservoirs. It is also the job of the geologist to determine
whether the recovery and production of these hydrocarbons will be
commercially profitable.
The physical characteristics of a reservoir, how petroleum originated and in

what type of rock, what types of fluids exist in the reservoir, how hydrocarbons
become trapped, and basic well log analysis are some of the concepts vital to
the production and recovery efforts of any exploration or energy service
company.
II. Earth , An Evolving Planet
About 4.6 billion years ago, Earth began to evolve from a conglomeration of
chunks of matter into a differentiated planet with continents, oceans and an
atmosphere. The primitive planet grew and began to heat up due to the
collision of in-falling material striking other accreted material at high velocities.
There were three general processes that contributed to the heating of the
planet: collision, compression by the weight of the accreted material, and
radioactive decay.It is likely that accretion and compression raised the internal
temperature of the planet to an average of about 1000°C.
Radioactive elements also had a profound effect on the evolution of Earth. The
decay of these elements contributed to a rise in interior temperature to
approximately 2000°C, the temperature at which iron will melt.
This is important because the melting of iron, which makes up about one-third
of the planet, initiated the process by which Earth became the planet we know
today. Iron is denser than most other elements on Earth.
When it melted, the iron sank and formed the planet’s core. The other molten
materials were lighter and therefore separated and floated upward, creating a
layered body. The very lightest materials floated to the top, cooled, and formed
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Earth’s crust. This differentiation also initiated the escape of lighter gases,
which eventually led to the formation of the atmosphere and oceans.
Figure 1: Collision of material onto primitive earth

Figure 2: Compression of material
Figure 3 : Disintegration of radioactive elements
III .The 3 layers of earth
The earth is composed of three basic layers: the core, the mantle, and the
crust. The crust is the layer that is of most importance in petroleum geology.
Geologists distinguish between oceanic crust and continental crust.
 Oceanic crust lies under the oceans and is thin about 5-7 miles (8-11 km)
and is made up primarily of heavy rock that is formed when molten rock
(magma) cools.
 Continental crust is thick about 10-30miles (16-48 km) and is composed
of rock that is relatively light as compared to oceanic crust.
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Figure 4: Cross-sectional view of the earth showing internal structure
IV. Weathering, orogeny

The crust is continuously changing and moving because of two major forces of
nature: Orogeny and weathering/erosion.
Orogeny, or mountain building, is a process in which the layers of the crust are
folded and pushed upward by such processes as plate tectonics and volcanism.
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 Weathering and erosion are the opposing forces in which the sediments
are broken down and transported.
There are two types of weathering:
 Physical: it occurs when solid rock is fragmented by physical processes

that do not change the rock’s chemical composition. These processes
include wind (Aeolian forces), water (freezing, flowing, wave action, etc),
heat, and even glacial movement.
 Chemical: it occurs when minerals in a rock are chemically altered or
dissolved. The weathering of potassium feldspar to form kaolinite, a
clay, is an example of chemical weathering.
Weathering and erosion are closely interrelated geological processes. As a rock

weathers, it becomes susceptible to erosion. Erosion is the removal of
weathered debris. These and additional forces and processes have resulted in
the creation of subsurface geological formations in which petroleum reservoirs
are found.
Figure 5
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 Plates tectonics
The crust of the earth is a dynamic system because the continental plates and
oceanic plates are moving relative to one another. The Atlantic Ocean’s width,
for example, is increasing at a rate of about one inch per year. In terms of
geologic time, its width is increasing by five feet every 60 years along the
ocean’s axial rift. Iceland is an above-sea-level exposure of the mid-oceanic
ridge of the Atlantic Ocean and is therefore a geologically unstable land mass.
The theory of plate tectonics refers to the motions of continental and oceanic
plates. According to this theory, the major land masses of the earth began
colliding approximately 500 million years ago. The collision process continued
for approximately 235 million years and resulted in the formation of the
supercontinent of Pangaea. Pangaea existed as a single supercontinent until
200 million years ago, when it began to break apart to form the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans and separate into the continents of North America, South
America, Africa, Eurasia, Australia, and Antarctica. At this time, the land mass
of Saudi Arabia separated from the continent of Africa, beginning the formation
of the Red Sea. The subcontinent of India broke away from the southeastern
part of Africa and began to move to the northeast. It collided with the land
mass that is now China, forming the Himalayan Mountains. These crustal plate
motions occur as the plates move on the plastic mantle of the earth. This
breakup of Pangaea and the relative motions of the plates continue, as
indicated by the widening of the Atlantic Ocean and the increasing width of the
Red Sea.
According to one theory, this formation and breakup of a supercontinent, in
geologic time, is a cyclic process caused by the earth acting as a heat engine as
heat is dissipated from the earth’s interior. The separation of the land masses
of the supercontinent of Pangaea is nearing completion. At a later time, these
masses will come back together, forming a new supercontinent as the cyclic
process continues.
Most major earthquakes result from relative motion between crustal plates of
the earth. As these plates collide or slide relative to one another, the frictional
forces between the plates prevent relative motion until the maximum force of
static friction is exceeded. When this occurs, the abrupt movement of the
plates results in major earthquakes. It is estimated that the earthquake that
caused major damage and loss of life in Mexico City in 1985 resulted from
approximately nine inches of slippage between crustal plates.
 The crust of the earth is a dynamic system, and the petroleum industry
operates within that system.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY

It is the job of the petroleum geologist to use his/her knowledge to reconstruct

The physical characteristics of a reservoir, how petroleum originated and in

II. Earth , An Evolving Planet

Figure 1: Collision of material onto primitive earth

Figure 3 : Disintegration of radioactive elements

III .The 3 layers of earth

IV. Weathering, orogeny

 Physical: it occurs when solid rock is fragmented by physical processes

Weathering and erosion are closely interrelated geological processes. As a rock

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