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Introduction To Geology-1

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Introduction To Geology-1

Uploaded by

milnermarunda718
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Rock cycle

 Rock is the most common and abundant material on Earth.

 A rock consists of smaller crystals or grains called minerals. Minerals are chemical compounds (or
sometimes single elements), each with its own composition and physical properties. The grains or
crystals may be microscopically small or easily seen with the unaided eye.

 The nature and appearance of a rock is strongly influenced by the minerals that compose it.

 A rock’s texture—the size, shape, and/or arrangement of its constituent minerals—also has a
significant effect on its appearance.

 A rock’s mineral composition and texture, in turn, are a reflection of the geologic processes that
created it

 Geologists divide rocks into three major groups: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Igneous Rocks

 Magma is the molten material which is


formed when the pressure and
temperature conditions are high
enough to melt the rocks.

 The Magma is formed in the interior of


the earth and then gradually migrates
upwards to the earth’s crust.

 When it reaches the surface its cools


and solidifies by the process of
crystallization.

 The rocks formed as a result are


known as Igneous Rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
 These igneous rocks when exposed to
the atmosphere undergo weathering
where they disintegrate into smaller
particles.

 These particles known as sediments


are transported by the agents of
erosion such as water, wind and ice.

 Finally these sediments are deposited.

 These sediments are then converted


to rocks by the process of lithification.

 The resulting rocks are known as


Sedimentary Rocks.
Metamorphic Rocks
 If the resulting sedimentary rock is
buried deep within Earth and involved
in the dynamics of mountain building or
intruded by a mass of magma, it will be
subjected to great pressures and/or
intense heat.

 The sedimentary rock will react to the


changing environment and turn into the
third rock type, metamorphic rock.

 When metamorphic rock is subjected to


additional pressure changes or to still
higher temperatures, it will melt,
creating magma, which will eventually
crystallize into igneous rock, starting the
cycle all over again.
 Rock Cycle is the fundamental concept of Geology that describes the dynamic
transition through geologic time among the three rock types Each type of rock
is altered or destroyed when it is forced out of equilibrium condition.
Rock Cycle

Where does the energy that drives Earth’s rock cycle come from?

Processes driven by heat from Earth’s interior are responsible for


forming igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Internal processes produce igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Weathering and the movement of weathered material are


external processes powered by energy from the Sun.

External processes produce sedimentary rocks.


Formation of the Solar System
 Earth was not around at the beginning—the
universe began without us some 10 billion
years earlier than Earth.

 The universe started out with only two


elements, hydrogen and helium gas.

 They formed stars that burned these


elements in nuclear fusion reactions.

 Generations of stars were born in gas clouds


and died in explosive novas.

 Long, long ago (some 5 billion years ago) a


supernova exploded, pushing a lot of its
heavy-element wreckage into a nearby
cloud of hydrogen gas and interstellar dust.
Formation of the Solar System
The mixture grew hot and
compressed under its own
gravity, and at its center a
new star began to form.

Around it swirled a disk of


the same material, which
grew white-hot from the
great compressive forces.

That new star became our


Sun, and the glowing disk
gave rise to Earth and its
sister planets.
Formation of the Solar System
Formation of the Solar System
 The planets of the Solar system can be divided into groups depending on
their proximity to the sun and their density.

 The terrestrial planets are the four closest to the sun and are all similar
to the Earth in density. They include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. All
four terrestrial planets are small, rocky and dense (3 g/cm3 or more).
Formation of the Solar System
The Jovian planets are those farther from the sun than Mars
They include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They are much
larger than the Earth but their densities are very low.
They are made up of light elements most Hydrogen and Helium and
hence their densities are low,
Formation of the Earth
 The Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old and is believed that it was formed
by accretion of small particles.

 The Earth has a layered structure. The center is a dense, hot core composed mainly
of iron and nickel .

 A thick mantle, composed mainly of solid rock, surrounds the core and contains 80
percent of the Earth’s volume.

 The crust is a thin surface also composed of rock.


Structure of the Earth

1. CRUST (CONTINENTAL/OCEANIC)
2. MANTLE
3. CORE (OUTER/INNER)
The crust

 The crust, Earth’s relatively thin, rocky outer skin, is of two different
types— continental crust and oceanic crust.

 The oceanic crust is roughly 7 kilometers thick and composed of the


dark igneous rock basalt.

 The continental crust has an average thickness of about 35 kilometers


and is composed mainly of light colored igneous rock called granite.

 Continental rocks have an average density of about 2.7 g/cm3, and are
older in age (up to 4 billion years old).

 The rocks of the oceanic crust have an average density of 3.0 g/cm3
and are younger in age (180 million years or less).
The mantle

More than 82 percent of Earth’s volume is contained in the


mantle, a solid, rocky shell that extends to a depth of nearly
2900 kilometers.

The boundary between the crust and mantle represents a


significant change in chemical composition.

The dominant rock type in the uppermost mantle is peridotite,


which is richer in the metals magnesium and iron than the
minerals found in either the continental or oceanic crust.
The core

 The composition of the core is thought to be an iron-nickel alloy with minor amounts of
oxygen, silicon, and sulfur—elements that readily form compounds with iron.

 At the extreme pressure found in the core, this iron-rich material has an average density
of nearly 11 g/cm3 .

 The core is divided into two regions that exhibit very different mechanical strengths.

 The outer core is a liquid layer 2270 kilometers thick.

 It is the movement of metallic iron within this zone that generates Earth’s magnetic
field.

 The inner core is a solid sphere having a radius of 1216 kilometers.

 Despite its higher temperature, the iron in the inner core is solid due to the immense
pressures that exist in the center of the planet.
How long is 4.6 billion years? If you were to begin counting at the rate of
one number per second and continued 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and
Geologic Time never stopped, it would take about two lifetimes (150 years) to reach 4.6
billion!

 The earth is estimated to be 4.6 Billion Years old.


 Geologic time differs from the human perspective of time.
 Earth goes through cycles of much longer duration than the human
perspective of time.
 The geologic time scale is the calendar that geologists use to date past
events in Earth’s history.
 The Geological time scale is divided into Eons, Eras, Periods, and Epochs
and is identified primarily by the types of life that existed at the various
times.
 The two earliest eons, the Hadean and Archean, cover the first 2.5 billion
years of Earth history.
 Life originated during Archean time and with the passage of time the life
form evolved.
 Evolution was very gradual until the last 5 million years where many new
species evolved which were more complex than their ancestors.
The Geological Time
Scale
Plates of the Earth

• The Earth’s lithosphere is divided into approximately 15


rigid plates that can move across the underlying
asthenosphere
• The global distribution of earthquakes clearly highlights the
tectonic plate boundaries.

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