TOPIC 5 The Periodic Table

By the 1850s, chemists had identified a total of 58 elements, and

nobody knew how many more there might be. Chemists attempted to
create a classification system that would organize their observations.
The various “family” systems were useful for some elements, but most
family relationships were not obvious. What else could a classification
system be based on?
By the 1860s several scientists were trying to sort the known elements
according to atomic mass. Atomic mass is the average mass of an atom
of an element. According to Dalton’s atomic theory, each element had
its own kind of atom with a specific atomic mass, different from the
Figure 2.31 Dmitri atomic mass of any other elements. One scientist created a system that
Ivanovich Mendeleev was so accurate it is still used today. He was a Russian chemist named
was born in Siberia, the Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907).
youngest of 17 children.

Mendeleev Builds a Table

Mendeleev made a card for each known element. On each card, he put
data similar to the data you see in Figure 2.32.

Figure 2.32 The card above shows modern values for silicon, rather than
the ones Mendeleev actually used. His values were surprisingly close to
modern ones. The atomic mass measurement indicates that silicon is 28.1
times heavier than hydrogen. You can observe other properties of silicon in
Figure 2.33.

Mendeleev pinned all the cards to the wall, in order of

increasing atomic mass. He “played cards” for several
Figure 2.33 The element silicon is melted months, arranging the elements in vertical columns and
and formed into a crystal. The crystal is then
sliced into thin wafers to produce electronic
horizontal rows. In the next activity, you will model
devices such as these microprocessor chips. Mendeleev’s method.

126 MHR • Matter and Chemical Change

 Chemical Solitaire Find Out
In this activity, you will arrange element cards What Did You Find Out?
in groups according to their atomic mass and 1. Which cards probably represent metallic
other properties. elements? Which probably represent non-
Materials metallic elements? Give reasons for your
opinions.
sheet of property cards for fictional elements
(provided by your teacher) 2. Which elements are solids? Which are
liquids? Which are gases? Explain how
scissors
you know.
Procedure Analyzing and Interpreting
3. Which of your arrangements do you think
1. Cut the sheet into separate cards. is the best? Why?
2. Line up the cards in order of increasing Extensions
atomic mass.
4. How long did it take you to classify these
3. Examine the cards to look for properties elements? Mendeleev had to classify
that are similar enough to justify placing 63 elements. How long do you think it
certain elements above or below each other took him?
in a family. Find an arrangement that also
5. Where do you think Mendeleev got the
keeps the cards in order by atomic mass.
data he wrote on his cards? (Hint: Do you
4. Compare your arrangement with that of oth- think he performed all the experiments
er students. Are there any refinements you himself to get the data?)
can make to your arrangement? If so, record
your new arrangement.

Putting the Elements in Order

When Mendeleev arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic
mass, he found that the properties of the elements repeated at definite,
or periodic, intervals. The eighth element in his arrangement (sodium)
had properties similar to the first (lithium), and the fifteenth element
(potassium) had properties similar to the eighth. Therefore the first,
eighth, and fifteenth elements made up a chemical family. The pattern
Mendeleev discovered became known as the periodic table.
Mendeleev left gaps in his table, blank spaces predicting the existence
of elements not yet found or even suspected by other chemists. He even
predicted properties of these unknown elements, which spurred on other
scientists to prove or disprove his predictions.
How did Mendeleev’s table make it possible for him to predict the prop-
erties of other, still undiscovered, elements? Mendeleev noted which fami-
Figure 2.34 The melting
lies had spaces. He inferred that the missing elements would have proper- point of gallium is so low
ties similar to those of other members of the family. Two examples, gallium that it will melt in a
and germanium, are famous for having been discovered shortly after person’s hand.
Mendeleev predicted their existence and physical properties (see Figure
2.34). The discovery of gallium and germanium was a remarkable example
of experimental evidence confirming a scientific prediction.

The Periodic Table • MHR 127

 Mendeleev had noticed a periodic relationship between increasing
atomic mass and chemical properties of elements. His work provided a
logical organization for a huge amount of data about the elements, but
no one could explain why the elements showed their amazing periodicity.
By about 1915, chemists and physicists had developed models of
atomic structure, and it became clear that atomic structure was the key
to explaining the periodicity of chemical properties. The periodic table
was therefore reorganized with a focus on atomic structure rather than
just atomic mass. The changes were surprisingly few. The resulting
modern periodic table is based on a special number for each element,
called its atomic number.
The atomic number is the number of protons an element has in its
nucleus. For example, the atomic number of fluorine is nine, indicating
that there are nine protons in the nucleus. The atomic number of oxy-
gen is eight, so it has eight protons in the nucleus. Since all atoms are
The number of protons in neutral, their positive and negative charges must be balanced. In other
an atom determines what words, atoms contain an equal number of electrons and protons. How
element it is. For example, many electrons must be in a fluorine atom? How many electrons must
all atoms that contain
be in an oxygen atom?
three protons in the nucle-
us are atoms of lithium.
The atomic mass, atomic number, and symbol for an element are
sometimes represented in a periodic table like this:

Fluorine Element
9 Atomic number

F Symbol

18.998 Atomic mass

Mass Number
Calculate the number of Chemists use another number, called the mass number, to give the total
neutrons in the following number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
elements. The approxi- number of protons
mate mass number
 number of neutrons
is given for each in
parentheses: carbon (19),  mass number
neon (20), sodium (23), If you know the atomic number and mass number, you can calculate
and magnesium (24). the number of neutrons by subtracting:
mass number
 atomic number
 number of neutrons
The mass number of fluorine is 19. If you subtract its atomic number of
nine, you can conclude that an atom of fluorine must contain ten neutrons.

128 MHR • Matter and Chemical Change

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

2-D
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

Meet the Modern

Periodic Table
Part 1
Every Element Has Its Own Number

Think About It
The periodic table below is simplified. It shows Notice the “staircase” on the right-hand side.
the general shape of the table and includes sym- The metals are found to the left of the staircase.
bols for the elements, arranged in order of their The non-metals are found to the right (except for
atomic number. It also indicates which elements hydrogen). The metalloids are on either side of
are gases, which are liquids, and which are solids the staircase.
at room temperature.

Legend gas = red metals

H liquids = blue metalloids He
Li Be solids = black non-metals B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

A simplified view of part of the modern periodic table

What to Do Infer and record the atomic numbers for

An element’s position in the periodic table is beryllium (Be) and boron (B). Do the same for
determined by its atomic number. The num- the rest of this horizontal row, from carbon
bering system begins with hydrogen (H), (C) to neon (Ne).
atomic number 1, in the upper left-hand cor-
ner and moves from left to right. The num- Analyze
bers skip any blank space in between, so heli- 1. Which element in each pair below has the
um (He) has atomic number 2. The numbers larger atomic number? Explain how you know.
then jump back to the left again, so lithium
(Li), atomic number 3, is next. (a) carbon (C) or silicon (Si)
Make a copy of this simplified periodic (b) silicon (Si) or phosphorus (P)
table and record these atomic numbers on it. (c) beryllium (Be) or sodium (Na)

CONTINUED

The Periodic Table • MHR 129

Part 2
Every Element Is Part of a Group
Think About It
Chemists call each vertical column in the periodic
table a group. Chemical families are located in the
same group.

1 18
2 13 14 15 16 17

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

How groups appear in the periodic table

What to Do Analyze
Combine information from the simplified periodic 1. List the symbols, and as many names as
table in Part 1 and the diagram above to answer you can, of the other elements that are
the following questions. found in the same group as the elements
below.
There are 18 groups in the periodic table, as
(a) aluminum (Al)
you can see by counting across the top of the
diagram. Locate the elements in the second (b) potassium (K)
group in your simplified periodic table. (c) lead (Pb)

Record the symbols for these elements in a 2. Locate the elements copper (Cu), silver
vertical list. Which element in the list has the (Ag), and gold (Au) on your simplified
largest atomic number? periodic table. Are they in the same
group? Is this what you expected?
Which element would you expect to have the
greatest atomic mass? Why? 3. List these chemical families in your note-
book: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals,
noble gases, and halogens. Which group
number is each family? (Refer to pages
121–125 if you need help.)

130 MHR • Matter and Chemical Change

Part 3
Every Element Is Part of a Period
Think About It
The horizontal rows of the periodic table are called belongs in the group having similar chemical proper-
periods. There are seven periods, although these ties — the noble gases. Mendeleev and other scien-
simplified diagrams show only six. You probably tists of his time were aware of these gaps. However,
noticed the empty spaces in the middle of Periods the explanation for the gaps did not come until
1, 2, and 3. There is a reason for these spaces. For much later when scientists began to explore the
example, even though helium has an atomic num- inner structure of the atom.
ber 2, it does not belong next to hydrogen. Helium

1
2
3
4
5
6
How periods appear in the periodic table

What to Do
Combine information from the simplified periodic
table in Part 1 and the diagram above to answer
Can survival depend on a knowledge of the elements?
the following questions.
Primo Levi was born in Italy and trained as a chemist.
Record the symbols of the elements in Period During World War II he was arrested and sent to a con-
2 so they are stretched out horizontally across centration camp. Levi attributes his survival to his passion
a page. Place the symbols of the elements in for chemistry. He wrote a book called The Periodic Table in
which chemical elements are metaphors for human experi-
Period 3 directly beneath them, as they appear
ence. In the chapter called “Carbon,” Levi observes how
in the table.
all living things are united as he follows a carbon atom
Most of the elements are solids at room tem- through rocks, leaves, milk, blood, and muscle. He uses
perature. In your simplified periodic table, ele- the element hydrogen to explain the explosive nature of
his life as a teenager. Levi states, “Chemistry is the art of
ments that are liquids at room temperature are
separating, weighing, and distinguishing. These are also
in blue. Circle all of the liquids on your peri-
useful exercises for people to perform and use when try-
odic table. Do any of them appear in Period 2 ing to give body to their own imagination.” What do you
or Period 3? think Levi means in this quotation? Is there some way you
could use the properties of an element as a metaphor?
Elements that are gases at room temperature
are in red. Mark all of these on your periodic
table with a highlighter. You will find gases in
both Period 2 and Period 3. For each gas in
Period 2, is there a corresponding gas under-
neath it (in the same group) in Period 3?
Period 4? Period 5?

The Periodic Table • MHR 131

 Figure 2.35 Pictorial Periodic Table
The periodic table shown here illustrates samples of the elements and common uses.
It differs somewhat from the up-to-date table that you will find in Appendix B.

132 MHR • Matter and Chemical Change

The Periodic Table • MHR 133
 Find Out
Infer and Identify
How can you tell which element is which? The problems, or ideas that arise from the test
physical and chemical properties of a sub- results. Try to come to a consensus with
stance will give you clues. Can you solve the your group on the identity of the element.
mysteries? Appendix C may be helpful once Return the element to its proper location.
you have filled in all of the chart except for the 5. Repeat steps 2–4 for each of the elements.
element’s name.
What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
Safety Precautions
1. Which two elements were the easiest to
Identify safety precautions and discuss with identify? Why?
your teacher.
2. Which properties were the hardest to
Materials determine?
elements and testing apparatus, as identified 3. Some of the elements were metals. Make
by your teacher a hypothesis about what characteristics a
Procedure Performing and Recording substance must have to be considered
Communication and Teamwork a metal.
1. Make an observation chart. 4. Why do you suppose your teacher did not
give you a sample of mercury, bromine,
2. Select an element. Discuss general obser- or plutonium?
vations of the element with your group.
Record your observations on the chart. Extension
5. Find photographs in Figure 2.35, the
3. As a group discuss and decide on the
Pictorial Periodic Table of each of the ele-
chemical and physical properties for which
ments you tested. Compare the illustration
you could safely test the element. Get
with the sample you used. What questions
approval for your tests and safety precau-
do you have about each element? Choose
tions from your teacher.
one of your questions and research the
4. Conduct the tests. Record your results on answer. Share your answer with the class.
your chart. Discuss any new questions,

Figure 2.36 A radioactive form of iodine can be Figure 2.37 Carbon occurs naturally in different forms,
used to produce an image of the thyroid gland. such as graphite and diamonds. In which ways are the
physical properties of graphite and diamonds different?

134 MHR • Matter and Chemical Change

 Only nine new natural elements were
chlorine (Cl) discovered in the twentieth century.
However, scientists extended the periodic
table by creating synthetic elements in
nuclear reactors and particle accelera-
salt (NaCl)
tors. A particle accelerator is a machine
used to move nuclear particles at very
high speeds. When new elements are
created in the accelerator, they last only
for a short time — sometimes just a
fraction of a second. Why don’t they
last longer?

sodium (Na)

Figure 2.38 Sodium has a silvery lustre, typical of many metals. It is shiniest
where it has just been cut. If you have smelled chlorine bleach, then you are
familiar with the gas chlorine. Together, sodium and chlorine form salt.

TOPIC 5 Review
1. Why is the table called a “periodic” table?

2. How many groups of elements are in the modern periodic table of

elements? Why are the elements grouped into rows and columns?

3. List the first 18 elements of the periodic table. State two properties of
each element.

4. Apply For what purposes might modern scientists use the periodic table?
5. Thinking Critically Are the physical properties of the compound
sodium chloride (table salt) an average of the properties of the elements
it contains? (See Figure 2.38 above.) Explain.

www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/sciencefocus9
What would you like to know about elements and their properties?
Create a KWL chart about six different elements. List what you know, then list
what you wonder about each element. Search for answers at the web site
above. Go to the web site above, and click on Web Links to find
out where to go next. Then list what you have
learned on your chart.

The Periodic Table • MHR 135