10.

Communication Systems

The present era is the era of ‘information and communication

revolution’. In electronics, the term ‘communication’ refers to sending,
receiving and processing of information electronically. In 1840’s,
communication started with telegraphy. Few decades later, telephony
was developed followed by radio at the beginning of twentieth century.
Radio communication was made possible by the invention of the
electronic valves. It subsequently became even more widely used and
refined through the invention and use of the transistors, integrated
circuits and other semiconductor devices.
More recently, the use of satellites and fiber optics has made
communications even more widespread, with an increasing emphasis
on computer and other data communications. Radar, telemetry and
satellite links play vital role in navigation, defence, scientific research
etc. For communication purposes, only a part of the electromagnetic
waves like radio waves and microwaves are being used.

10.1 Propagation of electromagnetic waves

The propagation of electromagnetic waves depend on the
properties of the waves and the environment. Radio waves ordinarily
travel in straight lines except where the earth and its atmosphere alter
their path. The useful ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum for
communication are summarised in Table 10.1.
Radio wave is propagated from the transmitting to the receiving
antenna mainly in three different ways depending on the frequency of
the wave. They are :
(i) Ground (surface) wave propagation
(ii) Space wave propagation
(iii) Sky wave (or) ionospheric propagation

198
 Table 10.1 Ranges of electromagnetic
spectrum used for communication (NOT FOR EXAMINATION)
Name Frequency Wavelength
Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) 30-300 Hz 107 – 106 m
Voice Frequencies (VF) 300-3000 Hz 106 – 105 m
Very Low Frequencies (VLF) 3-30 kHz 105 – 104 m
Low Frequencies (LF) 30-300 kHz 104 – 103 m
Medium Frequencies (MF) 300 kHz – 3 MHz 103 – 102 m
High Frequencies (HF) 3 – 30 MHz 102 – 10 m
Very High Frequencies (VHF) 30 – 300 MHz 10 – 1 m
Ultra High Frequencies (UHF) 300 MHz – 3 GHz 1 – 10-1 m
Super High Frequencies (SHF) 3 – 30 GHz 10-1 – 10-2 m
Extremely High Frequencies (EHF)30 – 300 GHz 10-2 – 10-3 m

10.1.1 Ground (surface) wave propagation

Ground or surface waves are the radio waves which travel along
the surface of the earth as shown in Fig 10.1. Ground wave propagation
takes place when the transmitting and receiving antennas are close to
the ground. Ground wave propagation is of prime importance only for
medium and long wave signals. All medium wave signals received
during the daytime use surface wave propagation.
Antenna

e Sur f
av ace
ac e w wa v e
Su r f

Earth

Fig 10.1 Ground or surface wave radiation from an antenna

10.1.2 Space wave propagation
Radio waves propagated through the troposphere of the Earth are
known as space waves. Troposphere is the portion of the Earth’s
atmosphere which extends upto 15 km from the surface of the Earth.
Space wave usually consists of two components as shown in Fig 10.2.

199
 (i) A component which travels straight from the transmitter to
the receiver.
(ii) A component which reaches the receiver after reflection from
the surface of the Earth.
Space wave propagation is particularly suitable for the waves
having frequency above 30 MHz.
Transmitter Direct wave Receiver

e
av
t edw d
c oun
fle
Re m gr
fr o

Ground

Fig 10.2 Space wave propagation

10.1.3 Sky wave (or) ionospheric propagation
The ionosphere is the upper portion of the atmosphere, which
absorbs large quantities of radiant energy like ultra violet rays, cosmic
rays etc., from the sun, becoming heated and ionised. This ionised
region contains free electrons, positive and negative ions.
Radio waves in the short wave band, radiated from an antenna at
large angles with ground, travel through the atmosphere and
encounters the ionised region in the upper atmosphere. Under
favourable circumstances, the radiowaves get bent downwards due to
refraction from the different parts of the ionised region and again reach
the earth at a far distant point. Such a radio wave is called the sky
wave and such a propagation of radio wave is known as sky wave
propagation or ionospheric propagation. Long distance radio
communication is thus possible through the sky wave propagation.
Reflection of electromagnetic waves by ionosphere
The electromagnetic waves entering into the ionosphere, are
reflected by the ionosphere. In fact, the actual mechanism involved is
refraction. The refractive indices of the various layers in the ionosphere
do not remain constant and it varies with respect to electron density
and the frequency of the incident wave. As the ionisation density
increases for a wave approaching the given layer at an angle, the
refractive index of the layer is reduced. Hence, the incident wave is

200
gradually bent farther and farther away from the normal as shown in
Fig 10.3 until some point. When the electron density is large, the angle
of refraction becomes 90o and the wave, then travel towards the Earth.

90º
φ2 Ionosphere
PM
P2
φ1

P1
Refracted wave Reflected
ve
wa

wave
φ0
o
di
Ra

Fig 10.3 Refraction of the radio wave in ionosphere

Skip distance and skip zone
In the skywave propagation, for a fixed frequency, the shortest
distance between the point of transmission and the point of reception
along the surface is known as the skip distance.
When the angle of incidence is large for the ray R1 as shown in
Fig. 10.4, the sky wave returns to the ground at a long distance from

R5 Escaped
rays
R4

Ionospheric layer

Lower
ray

R1

R6 R2
T R3

Skip distance

Fig 10.4 Travel of radio waves at different angles of

incidence

201
the transmitter. As this angle is slowly reduced, naturally the wave
returns closer and closer to the transmitter as shown by the rays R2
and R3. If the angle of incidence is now made significantly less than
that of ray R3, the ray will be very close to the normal to be returned
to the Earth. If the angle of incidence is reduced further, the radio
waves penetrate through the layer as shown by the rays R4 and R5. For
a particular angle of incidence, the distance between the point of
transmission and the point of reception is minimum. The minimum
distance between the transmitter and the ray like R3 which strikes the
Earth is called as the skip distance.
As we move away from the transmitter, the ground wave becomes
lesser and lesser significant. A stage comes when there is no reception
due to the ground waves. This point lies somewhere in the skip
distance. The region between the point where there is no reception of
ground waves and the point where the sky wave is received first is
known as skip zone. In the skip zone, there is no reception at all.

10.2 Modulation
In radio broadcasting, it is necessary to send audio frequency
signal (eg. music, speech etc.) from a broadcasting station over great
distances to a receiver. The music, speech etc., are converted into audio
signals using a microphone. The energy of a wave increases with
frequency. So, the audio frequency (20 – 20000 Hz) is not having large
amount of energy and cannot be sent over long distances. The radiation
of electrical energy is practicable only at high frequencies e.g. above
20 kHz. The high frequency signals can be sent through thousands of
kilometres with comparatively small power.
Therefore, if audio signal is to be transmitted properly, the audio
signal must be superimposed on high frequency wave called carrier.
The resultant waves are known as modulated waves and this process
is called as modulation. This high frequency wave (Radio frequency
wave) is transmitted in space through antenna. At the receiver end, the
audio signal is extracted from the modulated wave by the process called
demodulation. The audio signal is then amplified and reproduced into
sound by the loud speaker.

202
 A high frequency radio wave is used to carry the audio signal. On
adding the audio signal to carrier, any one of the characteristics namely
amplitude or frequency or phase of the carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the intensity of the audio signal. This process is known
as modulation and may be defined as the process of changing
amplitude or frequency or phase of the carrier wave in accordance with
the intensity of the signal. Some of the modulation process namely,
(i) amplitude modulation, (ii) frequency modulation and (iii) phase
modulation are discussed.

10.2.1 Amplitude modulation (AM)

When the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the intensity of the signal, the process is called
amplitude modulation.
In the amplitude modulation, only the amplitude of the carrier
wave is changed. The frequency and the phase of the carrier wave
remains constant. Fig 10.5 shows the principle of amplitude
modulation.
Fig 10.5a shows the eS
Es
audio electrical signal of
Signal
frequency f s. Fig 10.5b t
shows a carrier wave of (a)
constant amplitude with
frequency fc. Fig 10.5c is e
C
the amplitude modulated Ec
wave. It is to be noted that Carrier
t
the amplitudes of both
positive and negative half (b)
cycles of carrier wave are
changed in accordance e ES
with the signal. Thus the
amplitude of the modulated AM Wave
t
wave possesses the
frequency of the audio
(c)
signal wave.
Fig 10.5 Amplitude modulation

203
Modulation factor
An important term in amplitude modulation is modulation factor
which describes the extent to which the amplitude of the carrier wave
is changed by the audio signal. It is defined as the ratio of the change
of amplitude in carrier wave after modulation to the amplitude of the
unmodulated carrier wave.
Amplitude change of carrier
i.e. modulation factor, m = wave after modulation
Amplitude of carrier wave before modulation

Signal amplitude
m = Carrier amplitude

Modulation factor
determines the strength
and quality of the (a)
transmitted signal. When
the modulation factor
m < 1, the amount of
carrier amplitude varia-
tion is small (Fig 10.6a).
Consequently, the audio
signal being transmitted
(b) t
will not be very strong.
When the modulation
factor m > 1, distortion is
produced in the
transmitted wave as
shown in Fig 10.6 b.
Hence, the signal wave is
not exactly reproduced.
(c)
For effective modulation, t
the degree of modulation
should never exceed
100 %.
Fig 10.6 Amplitude modulated waves for
different modulation factors

204
Analysis of amplitude modulated wave
A carrier wave may be represented as,
ec = Ec cos ωct ... (1)
where ec , Ec and ωc represent the instantaneous voltage,
amplitude and angular frequency of the carrier wave respectively.
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude Ec of the carrier wave is
varied in accordance with the intensity of the audio signal as shown in
Fig 10.5. The modulating signal may be represented as,
es = Es cosωst ... (2)
where es, Es and ωs represent instantaneous voltage, amplitude
and angular frequency of the signal respectively.
Amplitude modulated wave is obtained by varying Ec of
equation (1) in accordance with Es. Thus, amplitude modulated wave is,
e = (Ec + Es cosωst ) cosωct
⎡ ⎛ Es ⎞ ⎤
e = Ec ⎢1 + ⎜ E ⎟ cos ωs t ⎥ cosωct = Ec [1 + m cos ωst ] cosωct
⎣ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎦
Es
where m is the modulation factor which is equal to Ec .
∴ e = Eccos ωct + mEccos ωct . cosωst ...(3)
mEc
= Ec cos ωct +
2
[2cos ωc t cos ωst ]
mEc
= Ec cos ωct + [cos (ωc + ωs) t + cos (ωc – ωs) t ]
2
mEc mEc
= Ec cos ωct + cos (ωc + ωs) t + cos (ωc – ωs) t ...(4)
2 2
This expression shows that the modulated wave contains three
components:
(i) Ec cos ωct : This component is same as the carrier wave.
mEc
(ii) cos (ωc + ωs)t : This component has a frequency greater
2
than that of the carrier and is called as the Upper Side Band (USB).
mEc
(iii) cos (ωc – ωs)t : This component has a frequency lesser
2
than that of the carrier and is called as the Lower Side Band (LSB).

205
Frequency spectrum

Carrier
Amplitude

Lower side Upper side

band band
EC

mEC mEC
2 2
S S

O ( C - S ) C
( C + S )
Angular frequency
Fig 10.7 Plot of frequency spectrum of
amplitude modulated voltage.
The lower side band term and upper side band term are located
in the frequency spectrum on either side of the carrier at a frequency
interval of ωs as shown in Fig 10.7. The magnitude of both the upper
m
and lower side bands is times the carrier amplitude Ec. If the
2
modulation factor m is equal to unity, then each side band has
amplitude equal to half of the carrier amplitude.
Bandwidth
In an AM wave, the bandwidth is from (ωc – ωs) to (ωc + ωs) i.e twice
the signal frequency. In the preceding section, it is assumed that the
modulating signal is composed of one frequency component only.
However, in a broadcasting
CW
station, the modulating
signal is the human voice LSB USB

or music which contains ωc

waves with a frequency ωc–(ωs)max ωc–(ωs)min ωc+(ωs)min ωc+(ωs)max
range of 300 – 3000 Hz.
Each of these waves has its Fig 10.8 Channel width
own side bands. The upper
side band (USB), in fact, contains all sum components of the signal and
carrier frequency whereas lower side band (LSB) contains the difference
components, as shown in Fig 10.8.

206
 The channel width is given by the difference between extreme
frequencies i.e. between maximum frequency of USB and minimum
frequency of LSB.
∴ Channel width = 2 × maximum frequency of the modulating signal
= 2 × (f s)max
Advantages
(i) Easy transmission and reception
(ii) Lesser bandwidth requirements
(iii) Low cost
Limitations
(i) Noisy reception : In an AM wave, the signal appears in the
amplitude variations of the carrier. Practically, all the natural and man
made noises consists of electrical amplitude disturbances. As a radio
receiver cannot distinguish between amplitude variation that represent
noise and those that contain the desired signal, the reception is
generally noisy.
(ii) Low efficiency : In AM, useful power is available in the side
bands, since they contain signals. The sideband power for an AM wave
is low. Hence the efficiency of AM is low.
(iii) Small operating range : Due to low efficiency of amplitude
modulation, transmitters employing this method have a small operating
range i.e. the messages cannot be transmitted over long distances.
10.2.2 Frequency modulation (FM)
When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with
the intensity of the signal, the process is called frequency modulation.
In frequency modula-tion, the amplitude and phase of the carrier
wave remains constant. Only, the frequency of the carrier wave is
changed in accordance with the signal.
The frequency variation of the carrier wave depends upon the
instantaneous amplitude of the signal as shown in Fig 10.9a. When the
signal voltage is zero at A,C,E and G, the carrier frequency is
unchanged. When the signal approaches its positive peaks at B and F,
the carrier frequency is increased to maximum as shown by closely
spaced cycles in Fig 10.9c. But during the negative peak of signal as at
D, the carrier frequency is reduced to minimum as shown by widely

207
 F
spaced cycles in Fig. 10.9c. B

The louder signal causes

greater frequency change in
A C E G (a) Signal
modulated carrier as
indicated by increased
bunching and spreading of D
the waves as compared with
relatively weaker signal.
(b) Carrier
The frequency of an FM
transmitter without signal
input is called the resting
frequency or centre frequency
(fo ) and this is the allotted
frequency of the transmitter. (c) FM wave

When the signal is applied,

the carrier frequency A B C D E F G

deviates up and down from

Fig 10.9 Frequency Modulation
its resting value fo.
The change or shift either above or below the resting frequency is
called frequency deviation (∆f). The total variation in frequency from the
lowest to the highest is called carrier swing (CS). Hence,
Carrier swing = 2 × frequency deviation
= 2 × ∆f
For the purposes of FM broadcasts, it has been internationally
agreed to restrict maximum deviation to 75 kHz on each side of the
centre frequency for sounds of maximum loudness.
Advantages
(i) It gives noiseless reception. Noise is a form of amplitude
variation and a FM receiver will reject such noise signals.
(ii) The operating range is quite large.
(iii) The efficiency of transmission is very high.
Disadvantages
(i) A much wider channel is required by FM.
(ii) FM transmitting and receiving equipments tends to be more
complex.

208
10.2.3 Phase modulation (PM)
In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier wave is varied in
accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal and the rate of
variation is proportional to the signal frequency. The waveform of the
phase modulated wave is similar to that of FM wave. The phase
modulation, generally uses a smaller bandwidth than FM. In other
words, more information can be sent in a given bandwidth in phase
modulation. Therefore, phase modulation facilitates highest transmission
speeds on a given bandwidth. In phase modulation also, there is a
frequency shift in the carrier wave frequency. The frequency shift
depends on (i) amplitude of the modulating signal and (ii) the frequency
of the signal. One great advantage of the phase modulation lies in the
fact that the FM signal produced from PM signal is very stable. Also, the
centre frequency called resting frequency is extremely stable.

10.3 Antennas
In radio, TV, Radar and mobile phone communication systems, an
electromagnetic wave travels from the transmitter to the receiver
through space and antennas are required at both ends for the purpose
of coupling the transmitter and the receiver to the space link.
An antenna is a long conductor (wire and rod) that acts as a
conversion device. It converts an electrical signal into electromagnetic
energy when used as a transmitting antenna. In receiving antenna,
the electromagnetic energy is converted into an electrical signal.
An antenna is characterised by an important parameter,
directivity. Directivity is the ability of the antenna to concentrate the
electromagnetic waves in the most desired directions (during
transmission) or to have maximum reception from most preferred
directions (during reception).

10.4 Radio transmission and reception

10.4.1 Radio transmission
After modulation, the radio waves are transmitted over long
distances with the help of electronic circuits called transmitters. The
simplest form of transmitter consists of an oscillator, generating a high
frequency wave connected to an antenna.

209
 In this section, we shall discuss the amplitude and frequency
modulated transmitters.
Amplitude modulated (AM) transmitter
Fig 10.10 gives the block diagram of amplitude modulated radio
transmitter. It consists of two sections (i) Audio frequency (AF) section
and (ii) Radio frequency (RF) section.
AF section
The AF section of the transmitter generates the modulating
wave (signal). The conversion of sound energy into electrical energy is
performed by the microphone.
Transmitting
Antenna

RF section

Crystal Buffer RF power

Modulator
Oscillator amplifier amplifier

Micro AF AF power
phone amplifier amplifier

AF section

Fig 10.10 Functional block diagram of amplitude

modulated radio transmitter
The electrical energy available from the microphone is very low.
Hence, it is amplified through an amplifier. The output from the AF
amplifier is fed to the AF power amplifier. The power amplifier provides
the required audio frequency power. The output of the AF power
amplifier is given to the modulator. A modulator is an electronic
circuit with transistor and passive components, which performs the
process of modulation.
RF section
In the RF section, the high frequency carrier wave is generated
by a crystal controlled oscillator. The output of the crystal controlled

210
oscillator is power amplified by RF power amplifier. The buffer* isolates
the RF power amplifier from the oscillator. This arrangement keeps the
frequency of the crystal controlled oscillator as a constant. In the
modulator the RF wave and modulating AF signal are mixed to produce
the amplitude modulated wave. The output of this section is fed to the
antenna for transmission.
Frequency modulated (FM) transmitter
Frequency modulated systems are operated usually at a
frequency above 40 MHz. Frequency modulated broadcasting is done in
television sound, mobile radio etc. The functional block diagram of a
FM transmitter employing phase modulation is shown in Fig 10.11.
The phase modulation is essentially a frequency modulation.
Transmitting
antenna

Crystal Buffer Phase Power

Oscillator amplifier modulator amplifier

Micro Pre-emphasis AF
phone network amplifier

Fig 10.11 FM transmitter

It consists of a crystal oscillator, which produces the carrier wave
and the output of this is fed into the phase modulator. The buffer is a
low frequency amplifier which isolates the crystal oscillator from the
phase modulator.
The modulating signal is produced from a microphone. Since this
AF modulating signal has uneven power, it is fed into a network called
pre-emphasis network, where all the frequencies in the modulating
signal are made to have equal power. The output of the pre-emphasis
network is then amplified and sent for phase modulation. The
* Buffer is an electronic circuit, used for the purpose of providing isolation
between two other stages. This also prevents the impedance change between the
two stages.

211
modulated output is then power amplified using a power amplifier and
then fed into the transmitting antenna for transmission.

10.4.2 Radio reception

A radio receiver has the function of selecting the desired signal
from all other unwanted signals, amplifying, demodulating it and
finally producing it in the desired manner.
A simple (or) straight radio receiver
The functional block diagram of a simple radio receiver is shown
in Fig 10.12. The receiving antenna receives the radiowaves from
different broadcasting stations. The desired radiowave is selected by the
radio frequency amplifier, which employs a tuned parallel circuit. The
tuned RF amplifier amplifies this selected radiowave. The amplified
radiowave is fed to the detector circuit which consists of a PN diode.
This circuit extracts the audio signal from the radiowave. The output
of the detector is the audio signal, which is amplified by one or more
stages of audio amplification. The amplified audio signal is given to
the loud speaker for sound reproduction.
Receiving
antenna

Loud
Speaker

RF AF
Detector
amplifier amplifier

Fig 10.12 Simple radio receiver

Disadvantages
Simple radio receiver circuit has
(i) poor sensitivity* and
(ii) poor selectivity**

* Sensitivity : the ability to amplify the weak signals

** Selectivity : the ability to select a particular wanted signal only and
rejecting the unwanted signals

212
Superheterodyne AM receiver
The shortcomings of straight radio receiver were overcome by
the invention of superheterodyne receiver. All the modern receivers
utilise the superheterodyne circuit.
The functional block diagram of AM receiving system of
superheterodyne type is shown in Fig 10.13.
Receiving
antenna

Loud
Speaker

RF IF AF
Mixer Detector
amplifier amplifier amplifier

Local
oscillator

Fig 10.13 Superhet AM receiver

(i) RF amplifier
The RF amplifier uses a tuned parallel circuit. The radiowaves
from various broadcasting stations are intercepted by the receiving
antenna and are coupled to this stage. This stage selects the desired
radiowave and enhances the strength of the wave to the desired level.

(ii) Mixer and local oscillator

The amplified output of RF amplifier is fed to the mixer stage,
where it is combined with the output of a local oscillator. The two
frequencies beat together and produce an intermediate frequency (IF).
The intermediate frequency is the difference between oscillator
frequency and radio frequency. The output of this section is always
equal to the intermediate frequency 455 kHz.
For example, if 600 kHz station is tuned, then local oscillator will
produce a frequency of 1055 kHz and consequently the output from the
mixer will have frequency of 455 kHz. By achieving this fixed
intermediate frequency, the amplifier circuit in such receivers can be
made to operate with maximum stability, selectivity and sensitivity.

213
(iii) IF amplifier
The output of the mixer circuit is fed to the tuned IF amplifier.
This amplifier is tuned to one frequency (i.e. 455 KHz ) and is amplified.
(iv) Detector
The output from the IF amplifier is coupled with input of a
detector. The audio signals are extracted from the IF output. Usually a
diode detector circuit is used because of its low distortion and excellent
audio fidelity (reproducing ability).

(v) AF amplifier
The detected AF signal is usually weak and so it is further
amplified by the AF amplifier. Then, the output signal from the
amplifier is fed to the loud speaker, which converts the audio signal
into sound waves corresponding to the original sound at the
broadcasting station.

FM Superheterodyne receiver
An FM receiver is a superheterodyne type like a typical AM
receiver. The functional block diagram of an FM receiver is shown in
Fig 10.14.
Receiving
antenna

Mixer and
RF IF amplifier FM
local
section and limiter detector
oscillator
Loud
speaker

De-emphasis AF
network amplifier

Fig 10.14 FM receiver

The RF section selects the incoming modulated signals and is
amplified. It is then fed into the mixer and local oscillator. Here the
frequency of the modulated signal is changed to intermediate frequency.
For FM receivers, this IF is 10.7 MHz. The intermediate frequency
wave is amplified using IF amplifier and then its amplitude is

214
maintained constant using a limiter*. The output of this section is
applied to the FM detector which demodulates the modulated wave.
The AF signal from the FM detector is then passed on through a de-
emphasis network, where the various frequencies attain their original
power distribution. Finally it is fed into the loud speaker after
performing AF amplification.

10.5 Television
Television is one of the marvels that has been achieved in the
field of electronics. “Television” literally means “seeing at a distance.”
The principle of television broadcasting is essentially the same as that
of sound broadcasting. In sound broadcasting, sound waves are
converted into equivalent electrical signals using microphone, which
are modulated and transmitted. In picture broadcast (television), the
bright and dark spots of a scene are systematically scanned to produce
equivalent electrical signals. These picture signals are modulated and
are then transmitted. At the receiving end, the picture signals are
extracted from the modulated wave. These are made to reproduce the
bright and dark spots of the original scene on the fluorescent screen of
a cathode ray tube called viewing tube. The sound associated with the
scene is transmitted simultaneously to provide a complete picture and
sound reproduction at the receiver. Although the end result required is
a motion picture, television is basically a system for reproducing a still
picture. Many of these are shown one after the other in rapid sequence
during each second, to give the illusion of motion. Therefore, the first
requirement of the television system is that it should be capable of
transmitting and receiving a simple still picture. Usually sound signals
are frequency modulated, while picture signals are amplitude
modulated.

10.5.1 Vidicon camera tube

Vidicon camera is a television camera which converts the light
energy into electrical energy. It functions on the principle of photo
conductivity, where the resistance of target material decreases when
exposed to light.
* A limiter is a device that prevents a signal voltage from exceeding a certain peak
value. Limiters are used in FM receivers for the purpose of reducing the response
to variations in signal amplitude.

215
 Grid 2 (accelerator)

Grid 1
Target

Light image
Glass face
plate

Grid 3 (beam focus)

Horizontal and vertical
50 V Load Video deflecting coils
resistor output

Fig 10.15 Vidicon camera tube

Construction
The Vidicon consists of a glass envelope with an optically flat face
plate (Fig 10.15). A photosensitive, target plate is available on the inner
side of the face plate. The target plate has two layers. To the front,
facing the face plate, is a thin layer of tin oxide. This is transparent to
light but electrically conductive. The other side of the target plate is
coated with a semiconductor, photosensitive antimony trisulphide. The
tin oxide layer is connected to a power supply of 50V.
Grid-1 is the electron gun, consisting a cathode and a control
grid. The emitted electrons are accelerated by Grid-2. The accelerated
electrons are focussed on the photo conductive layer by Grid-3. Vertical
and Horizontal deflecting coils, placed around the tube are used to deflect
the electron beam for scanning the target.
Working
The light from a scene is focussed on the target. Light passes
through the face plate and tin oxide, incident on the photo conductive
layer. Due to the variations in the light intensity of the scene, the
resistance of the photo conductive layer varies. The emitted electrons
from antimony trisulphide reach the positive tin oxide layer. So, each
point on the photo conductive layer acquires positive charge. Hence, a
charge image that corresponds to the incident optical image is produced.
As the electron beam from the gun is incident on the charge image,
drop in voltage takes place. As a result, a varying current is produced.
This current produces the video-signal output of the camera.

216
10.5.2 Scanning and synchronising
A still picture is fundamentally an arrangement of many dark
and light areas. Each small area of light or shade is called a picture
element. All the elements contain the visual information in the scene.
If they are transmitted and reproduced in the same degree of light or
shade as original and in proper position, the picture will be reproduced.
In order to produce video signal for all the elements in the picture,
it is scanned by the electron beam, one element at a time, in sequential
order. The scanning is done in the same way as a written page is read
to cover all the words in one line and all lines on the page. Hence,
scanning is the process by which an electron beam spot is made to
move across a rectangular area, so as to cover it completely. This
rectangular area may be the target surface in a television camera or the
screen of a picture tube in a television receiver.

V(H) Start
of line End
of line
V(H) max
M ce P R
Trace etra
R

Retrace
Trace

O N Q S t
1 Line
st nd
2 Line
rd
3 Line
(a) (b)
Fig 10.16 Simple scanning process
The scene is scanned rapidly both in the horizontal and vertical
directions simultaneously. This provides sufficient number of complete
pictures or frames per second to give the illusion of continuous motion.
In most of the television systems, the frame repetition rate (scanning
frequency) is 25 per second.
For scanning the picture elements, saw tooth potentials can be
used. Saw tooth potentials are produced by using a unijunction
transistor and a R-C network. Saw tooth potentials are applied to
horizontal and vertical deflector plates in a TV camera. When the saw

217
tooth potential is applied to the horizontal plates called line
synchronising pulse, the electron beam at A travels along a slanting line
AB by the voltage variation of OM and reaches the point B (Fig 10.16a
and b). From B, the scanning spot travels along a line BC by the voltage
variation MN. In order that no picture should be scanned during the
return journey (i.e. the beam from the right horizontal end to the
beginning of the next line), a blanking pulse, which is a high negative
potential, is applied to the control grid of electron gun during the
duration of the return journey. This prevents the emission of electrons
from electron gun. Then the electron beam starts to scan the next line
and the process gets repeated till the whole picture is scanned. On
reaching the right bottom corner, the scanning spot quickly moves up
to the top left corner by the application of saw tooth potential to the
vertical deflector plates, called frame synchronising pulse. Thus for
scanning the picture, the three synchronising pulses are used. These
synchronising pulses along with the output of the TV camera are
modulated on an ultra high frequency carrier and transmitted. The
accompanying sound is frequency modulated and transmitted via the
same antenna.

Interlaced scanning
In India, the frame repetition rate has been standardised at 25
frames per second. This repetition rate is enough to cause an illusion
of continuity. But, the brightness of one frame blends (mix) smoothly
into the next, through this time when the screen is blanked between
successive frames. This results in definite flicker of light, that is very
annoying to the observer, when the screen becomes alternatively bright
and dark. To eliminate this flicker, each frame is scanned twice.
In this scanning, the total number lines are divided into two
groups called fields. During the presentation of the first field, only the
odd numbered lines are scanned, while during the second field all the
even numbered lines are scanned. Half way along the bottom of the first
field, the vertical retrace returns the scanning beam to the top of the
image and completes the unfinished lines. (i.e) The remaining even
numbered lines are then scanned during second field. This method of
scanning is known as interlaced scanning. In the 625 line TV system,
for successful interlaced scanning, the 625 lines of each frame or

218
 nd
Beginning of 2 field
Beginning of
1st field

Retrace lines not shown

st
End of 1 field
End of
nd
2 field
Fig 10.17 Principle of Interlaced scanning

picture are divided into sets of 312.5 lines and each set is scanned
alternatively to cover the entire picture area. The principle of
interlaced scanning is shown in Fig 10.17.
Hence, with the interlaced scanning the flicker effect is
eliminated without increasing the speed of scanning, which in turn
does not need any increase in channel bandwidth.

Horizontal and vertical scanning frequencies

The movement of electron beam spot from left to right and back,
so as to start a new line in the same direction is termed as horizontal
scanning. The horizontal scanning frequency is defined as the number
of lines scanned per second. In a 625 line system, transmitting 25
frames per second, the horizontal frequency is 625 × 25 = 15,625 Hz.
1
Consequently, time taken to scan one line is = 64 µs.
15,625
Vertical scanning is the movement of the electron beam spot in
the vertical direction. One frame consists of two fields, resulting into
1
50 fields per second with a vertical field scan time of = 20 ms.
50

219
10.6 Monochrome picture tube

The picture tube is a special form of cathode ray tube, the face
plate of which serves as a screen of the television receiver. The
various parts of a monochrome picture tube are shown in Fig 10.18.
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is housed in a bell-shaped glass enclosure.
A filament heats a cathode that emits electrons. The negatively
charged electrons are attracted and accelerated by positive-bias
voltages on the elements in an electron gun assembly. The electron
gun also focuses the electrons into narrow beam.
A control grid that is made negative with respect to the cathode,
controls the intensity of the electron beam and brightness of the spot
it makes. The beam is accelerated towards the screen by a very high
voltage applied to an internal metallic coating called aquadag. The face
or front of the picture tube is coated internally with a phosphor, that
glows and produces white light, when it is struck by the electron beam.
Around the neck of the picture tube is a structure of magnetic
coils called the deflecting yoke. The horizontal and vertical current
linear saw tooth waves generated by the sweep and synchronising
circuits are applied to the yoke coils. This produces the magnetic field
inside the tube that influence the position of the electron beam. When
the electrons flow, a magnetic field is produced around the conductor
through which the current flows. In a CRT, the electron beam is moved
or deflected by the magnetic field produced by the deflection coils in
the yoke. Thus the electron beam is swept across the face of the
picture tube.
As the beam is being swept across the face of the tube to trace
out the scene, the intensity of the electron beam is varied by the
luminance or Y signal. The Y signal is applied to the cathode or in
some cases to the control grid. The control grid is an element in the
electron gun, that is negatively biased with respect to the cathode. By
varying the grid voltage, the beam can be made weaker or stronger,
thereby varying the intensity of the light spot produced by the beam,
when it strikes the phosphor. Any shade of grey from white to black
can be reproduced.

220
 Yoke
(Magnetic deflection
coils deflect beam)

Electron gun focuses

the beam
Cathode emits Phosphor coating
electrons glows when struck
by electronis
Electron Beam
Light spot
Heater
filament
Narrow electron
heats
beam
cathode
Glass neck

221
Control grid
varies beam Yoke
intensity + Bias voltages (Magnetic deflection
coils deflect beam) Metallic coating inside

High voltage

Fig 10.18 Monochrome picture tube

10.7 Monochrome TV transmission
An over simplified block diagram of a monochrome TV
transmitter is shown in Fig 10.19. The functional block diagram can
be broadly divided into two sections, viz. an amplitude modulated
transmitter and a frequency modulated transmitter. Former is used for
video modulation, whereas latter is used for audio modulation.

Crystal RF Power AM Picture Signal

Modulator
oscillator amplifier amplifier

Scanning and
synchronising
Transmitting
circuits
Antenna

Light
AM
Television Video
modulating
camera amplifier
amplifier

Combining
Microphone network

Audio FM modulating FM Sound

amplifier amplifier Transmitter FM Sound
Signal

Fig 10.19 Functional block diagram of a

monochrome television transmitter
The synchronising and scanning circuits produce sets of pulses
for providing synchronising pulses for proper functioning of the TV
system. This timing unit contains number of wave generating and wave
shaping circuits. The repetition rate of its various output pulse trains
is controlled by a frequency stabilised master oscillator.
The output signal of a camera tube corresponding to the image
to be televised is amplified through a number of video amplifier stages.
The image signals together with the synchronising and blanking
pulses are raised to a level suitable for modulating the RF carrier wave
generated in the RF channel. The allotted picture carrier frequency is
generated by the crystal controlled oscillator. The continuous wave
output is given large amplification before feeding to the power amplifier.
In the modulator, its amplitude is made to vary in accordance with the
modulating signal received from the modulating amplifier.

222
 The microphone converts the sound associated with the picture
being televised into proportionate electrical signal. The audio signal
from the microphone after amplification is frequency modulated,
employing the assigned carrier frequency. The output of the sound FM
transmitter is finally combined with the AM picture transmitter
output, through a combining network and fed to a common antenna for
radiation of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

10.8 Monochrome TV receiver

The simplified block diagram of a black and white TV receiver is

shown in Fig 10.20. The receiving antenna intercepts radiated RF
signals and the tuner selects the desired channel frequency band. The
antenna provides RF picture and sound signals for the RF amplifier
stage. The RF amplifier stage is then coupled into the mixer stage.
The mixture is connected to the local oscillator. The RF audio and
video signals are heterodyned into intermediate frequency by the
mixer and local oscillator. The RF amplifier, mixer and local oscillator
stages are combinely called as the RF tuner. The output signal from
the tuner circuit is amplified by using a common IF amplifier. Then
the video and audio components are separated by a detector. The
sound signals are detected from FM waves, amplified and then fed into
the loud speaker, which reproduce the sound.

The video components are first passed into a detector which

separates the picture signal from the synchronising pulses. The line
synchronising pulses and the frame synchronising pulses are fed into
the horizontal and vertical deflector plates of the picture tube. The
blanking pulses are given to the control grid of the electron gun of the
picture tube. The picture signals are applied to the filament of the
electron gun of the picture tube. According to the variations of
potential in the picture, electrons are emitted from the electron gun.
Thus, the intensity of the fluorescent screen of the picture tube is in
accordance with the variation of potential in the picture and the
picture is reproduced.

223
 Loud
speaker
Sound IF FM sound Audio
amplifier demodulator amplifier
Receiving
antenna
Picture
tube

RF Common IF Video Video

amplifier Mixer amplifier detector amplifier

224
Light

Local Scanning &

oscillator synchronising
circuits
RF tuner

Fig 10.20 Elementary block diagram of a monochrome TV receiver

10.9 RADAR
The term RADAR is an acronym for RAdio Detection And
Ranging. It is a system which uses radio waves to detect and to fix the
position of targets at a distance.
10.9.1 Principle of radar
Radar works on the principle of ‘radio echoes’. The transmitter in
a radar, radiates the high power electrical pulses into space. When
these pulses are incident on any distant target such as a mountain,
ship or aircraft, they get scattered in all directions. The transmitter
antenna receives a part of the scattered energy. This transmitter
antenna also acts as receiving antenna for the receiving pulse. The
pulse travels with the speed of light 3 × 108 ms–1. In other words, these
pulses cover a distance of 300 metres for every micro second. Hence
by measuring the time taken by the pulse to reach the target and back
to the transmitter, the range or distance of the target can be easily
determined. To locate the direction of the target, directional antennas
are used.
10.9.2 Transmission and reception of radar
The block diagram of a simple radar system is shown in
Fig 10.21. This block diagram indicates that the radar system consists
of both the transmitting and the receiving system.
The transmitting system consists of a transmitter and a pulser.
The receiving system consists of a receiver and an indicator. In most of
the cases, a single antenna is used for both transmission and reception
and this is achieved with the use of TR switch (Transmitter Receiver
Switch). This switching arrangement is called as ‘duplexer’. This
connects the antenna to the transmitter during transmission and to the
receiver during reception. Moreover, this switch isolates the sensitive
receiver from the damaging effects of the high power transmitter.
The transmitter is essentially a high power magnetron oscillator
which generates high power pulses. This transmitter is turned on and
off with a periodic pulse from the pulser. Thus the transmitter
generates periodic pulses of very short duration. These short pulses
are fed to the antenna which radiates them into the space. The
antenna is highly directional.

225
 Pulse
Target
Antenna

Echo
pulse
RF pulse T.R. Switch
(Duplexer)
T R

Transmitter Receiver
(RF Oscillator) (Superhet)

Pulse to turn Detected pulse

on transmitter

Pulser
(modulator) Indicator

Synchronising
pulse Synchronising pulse
Timer
(Synchroniser)

Fig 10.21 Block diagram of a radar system

If the transmitted pulse hits any target, a weak echo signal
returns to the same antenna. But, now the TR switch puts the antenna
in contact with the receiver. This echo signal is amplified and
demodulated by the superhet receiver. The sensitivity of the receiver
is very high. The detected output is sent to the indicator. The indicator
is a cathode ray tube. The CRT displays the original transmitted pulse
as well as the detected echo pulse along a horizontal base line. The
synchronising pulse generated by the ‘timer’ is supplied to both
transmitting and receiving systems. So, the indicator records the
transmitted pulse as well as the returning pulse simultaneously. The
returning echo pulse appears slightly displaced from the transmitted
pulse and this displacement is a measure of the range of the target.
Some applications of radar
(i) Air and sea navigation is made entirely safe, with radar
installations. High flying planes and ship at sea, can get detailed
reports of mountains, ice bergs, rivers, lakes, shore lines etc., which
they can avoid.

226
 (ii) Radar systems are used for the safe landing of air crafts. On
approaching the air field, the pilot is guided by signals from a radar set,
so that it flies along the line of the runway and lands safely, whatever
be the visibility.
(iii) Rain drops may reflect suitable radar signals and thus enable
meteorologists to measure the distance of the clouds, with great
accuracy for forecasting.
(iv) The pulses can be used for discovering the position of buried
metals, oils and ores.
10.10 Analog communication and digital communication
Based on the type of signals transmitted, communication
electronics can be classified as,
(i) Analog communication and
(ii) Digital communication
10.10.1 Analog communication
In analog communication, analog signals are used. An analog
signal is a continuously varying voltage or current. Traditionally, in
telephone and radio systems, the messages consisted of information
conveyed by voice. The voice signal is an analog signal and so could
take on any value within the overall range allowed. For example, if the
telephone system were set up to handle voice signals, which ranged
from 0 to 1 volt, the values transmitted at any instant
could be 0.345 V, 0.179 V, and so on. This is called analog signal
communication, because the signal can be any value within the range.
Shortcomings of analog communication
The greatest technical problem with an analog communication
system is noise. Noise that comes from any part of the system – the
modulator, the transmitter, the communication link, the receiver or
the demodulator – can corrupt the signal.
Analog system do not offer opportunities for identifying corrupted
signals.
10.10.2 Digital Communication
A digital communication system offers many advantages to the
user, that cannot be achieved with an analog system. Digital
communications system may make use of analog links and concepts.

227
 A digital system is a more general case of a binary system. In
binary system, only two signal values can exist. They are often called
0 and 1, but these names represent specific voltages.
The term data is commonly used in digital communication
systems. Data is any form of information, that has been put into digital
form, so that it can be handled by a digital system. The data itself is
measured as bit. (bit is a contraction of the term ‘binary digit’)
The binary signals are easy to generate and process with digital
circuits. These digital circuits are available in the IC form and can
generate and process digital data at high speeds.
Advantages
(i) The transmission quality is high and almost independent of
the distance between the terminals.
(ii) The capacity of the transmission system can be increased.
(iii) The newer types of transmission media such as light beams
in optical fibers and wave guides operating in the microwave frequency
extensively use digital communication.
Disadvantages
(i) A digital system requires larger bandwidth.
(ii) It is very difficult to gradually change over from analog to
digital transmission.
10.10.3 Modem
The name modem is the abbreviation of the term Modulator and
Demodulator. As the name implies, both functions are included in a
modem. A modem is used to convert digital signals into analog signals
capable of being transmitted over telephone lines. At the receiving end
of the system, modem is used to demodulate the analog signals and
reconstruct the equivalent digital output. Modems are placed at both
ends of the communication circuit as shown in Fig 10.22.

Video terminal
Telephone

(or)
network

Computer Modem Modem Computer

(or)
Business machine

Fig 10.22 Communication circuit using modem

228
10.10.4 Fax (or) Facsimile
Fax (or) Facsimile, is an electronic system for transmitting
graphical information by wire or radio. It is used to send printed
material by scanning and converting it into electronic signals. These
signals modulate a carrier to be transmitted over the telephone lines.
Since modulation is involved, fax transmission can also take place by
radio.
Fax machine Fax machine

Telephone
lines
Modem Modem

Document Reproduced
being document
scanned Internal

Fig 10.23 Components of a fax system

The components of a fax system are illustrated in Fig 10.23.
Although facsimile is used to transmit pictures, it is not TV because it
does not transmit sound messages or live scenes and motion. However,
it does use scanning techniques that are in same way generally similar
to those used in TV. A scanning process is used to break up a printed
document into many horizontal scan lines which can be transmitted
and reproduced serially.
10.10.5 Wire and Cable
The medium is the actual path for the electromagnetic energy of
the link or channel of the communication system. Through the medium,
the energy representing the data of the sender can reach the receiver.
This path can take many forms : an electrical conductor such as wire,
vacuum or optical fiber.
Copper is an inexpensive metal that is easily made into wire,
Fortunately, it is also an excellent conductor of electricity. When
separate wires are collected into bundles and are given special
protective jacketing, the term ‘cable’ is often used.
The main types of wire and cable used in data communications
are (a) Twisted pair (b) Multiconductor flat cable and (c) Coaxial cable
and are represented in Fig 10.24.

229
 (a) Twisted wire pairs (b) Multiconnector (c) Coaxial wire
flat cable
Fig 10.24 Different types of wire and cable used for communications

Twisted pair cable is the simplest and lowest cost cable. It

consists of two insulated wire twisted around each other in a
continuous spiral as shown in Fig 10.36a. The wire is twisted to
minimise the external noise. Twisted pair is used between telephones
and the central office. It is difficult to use, when many signals must be
brought from one place to another.
The multiconductor flat cable consists of many parallel wires in
a common plastic jacket as shown in Fig. 10.36b. A cable of this type
can have any number from 10 to about 50 wires. All the wires are
grouped mechanically and they can be used with a single connector at
each end. Flat cable is more expensive than twisted pair.
For some applications, coaxial cable (coax) must be used. It
consists of a solid-centre conductor surrounded by a plastic insulator
such as teflon. Over the insulator, is a second conductor, a tubular
braid or shield made of fine wires. An outer plastic insulation protects
and insulates the braid. It is fairly expensive to buy and can be difficult
to install, because of its mechanical stiffness and thickness.
10.10.6 Fiber optical communication
Coherent light can be generated with laser or light emitting
diodes and may be detected by photo-diodes. Optical fibers are used for
transmission of light.
An optical fiber is a thin transparent rod, usually made of glass
or plastic, through which light can propagate. The light signals travel
through the rod from the transmitter to the receiver and can be easily
detected at the receiving end of the optical fiber. The principle of total

230
internal reflection is used for the transmission of light signals through
the optical fiber.
Advantages
(i) Transmission loss is low.
(ii) Fiber is lighter and less bulky than equivalent copper cable.
(iii) More information can be carried by each fiber than by
equivalent copper cables.
(iv) There is no interference in the transmission of light from
electrical disturbances or electrical noise.
Applications
The various applications of fiber in communication area are,
voice telephones, video phones, message services, data network etc.
10.10.7 Satellite Communication
Space technology has witnessed a phenomenal growth, since the
launch of man-made satellite Sputnik in 1957. One of the most
significant applications of space technology has been in the field of
communications. The people over world watch international events
like Olympic games via satellite. A number of countries are using
satellites for military communications, which include services to
ships, air crafts and land mobile terminals. Several direct TV
broadcasting satellite systems are also being used.
Satellite communication is basically a microwave link repeater.
A satellite receives energy from an earth station, amplifies it and
returns it to each at a frequency about 2 GHz away from the uplink
frequency (earth to satellite) . This prevents interference between the
uplink and the downlink (satellite to earth). Satellite so used is a
geostationary satellite which appears to be stationary at a given spot
above the equator. Actually, it moves with the same angular velocity
as the earth i.e. it completes one revolution per 24 hours and hence
appears to be stationed over one spot on the globe. Satellite orbiting
the earth will be geostationary when it is about 36,000 km away from
the earth.
Fig 10.25 gives the general structure of a satellite
communications system. A satellite in space links many earth stations.
The user is connected to the earth station through terrestrial network.

231
 Earth station Earth station

Downlink
Terrestrial Uplink Terrestrial
system system

User User

Fig 10.25 Configuration of a satellite communication

This network may assume various configurations including a
telephone switch or a dedicated link to the earth station. Signal
generated by the user is processed and transmitted from the earth
station to the satellite. The satellite receives the modulated RF carrier
at the pre-determined uplink frequencies from all the earth stations
in the network, amplifies these frequencies and then re-transmits
them back to earth at downlink frequencies. The downlink
frequencies are kept different from the uplink frequencies in order to
avoid interference. The modulated carrier received at receiving earth
station is processed to get back the original baseband signal. This
signal is then sent to the user through a terrestrial network.
As per WARC (World Administrative Radio Conference) 1979
allocation, commercial communication satellites use 500 MHz band-
width near 6 GHz for uplink transmission and use 500 MHz bandwidth
near 4 GHz for downlink transmission. In actual practice, uplink of 5.725
– 7.075 GHz is used while downlink of 3.4 – 4.8 GHz is used.
Merits
(i) Mobile communication can be easily established by satellite
communication.
(ii) Satellite communication is economical compared with
terrestrial communication particularly where long distances are
involved.

232
 (iii) Compared to the optical fiber communication, satellite
communication has the advantages that, quality of transmitted signal
and location of sending and receiving stations are independent of
distance.
(iv) For thin traffic remote areas like north east regions in India,
Ladakh etc., satellite communication is most economical.
(v) For search, rescue and navigation, satellite communication is
far superior and economical compared to other systems.
Demerits
(i) Between talks there is a time gap which becomes quite
annoying. This time delay also reduces the efficiency of satellite in data
transmission.
(ii) An imperfect impedance match may cause echo, received
back after a delay. Echo suppressor has to be used.
(iii) Repair of satellite is almost impossible, once it has been
launched.

233
 Solved problems
10.1 A 10 MHz sinusoidal carrier wave of amplitude 10 mV is
modulated by a 5 kHz sinusoidal audio signal wave of amplitude
6 mV. Find the frequency components of the resultant modulated
wave and their amplitude.
Data: Frequency of the carrier = f c = 10 MHz
Frequency of the signal = f s= 5 kHz = 0.005 MHz
Amplitude of the carrier signal = Ec = 10 mV
Amplitude of the audio signal = Es = 6 mV
Frequency components of modulated wave = ?
Amplitude of the components in the modulated wave = ?
Solution : The modulated carrier wave contains the following
frequencies :
(i) Original carrier wave of frequency = f c = 10 MHz
(ii) Upper side band frequency, f c + f s = 10 + 0.005
= 10.005 MHz
(iii) Lower side band frequency f c – f s = 10 − 0.005
= 9.995 MHz
The modulation factor is,
Es 6
m = E = 10 = 0.6
c

mEc 0.6 × 10
∴ Amplitude of USB = Amplitude of LSB = = = 3mV
2 2
10.2 An FM signal has a resting frequency of 105 MHz and highest
frequency of 105.03 MHz when modulated by a signal. Determine
(i) frequency deviation and (ii) carrier swing.
Data : Resting frequency (f) = 105 MHz
Frequency of the signal (f s ) = 5 kHz
Highest frequency of the modulated wave, (fm ) = 105.03 MHz
Frequency deviation = ∆f = ? Carrier swing (CS) = ?
Solution : Frequency deviation (∆f) = fm – f
∆f = 105.03 – 105 = 0.03 MHz
Carrier swing = 2 × ∆f = 2 × 0.03 = 0.06 MHz = 60 kHz

234
 Self evaluation
(The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples.
In the same way any question and problem could be framed from the text
matter. Students must be prepared to answer any question and problem
from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.)

10.1 High frequency waves follow

(a) the ground wave propagation
(b) the line of sight direction
(c) ionospheric propagation
(d) the curvature of the earth
10.2 The main purpose of modulation is to
(a) combine two waves of different frequencies
(b) acquire wave shaping of the carrier wave
(c) transmit low frequency information over long distances
efficiently
(d) produce side bands
10.3 In amplitude modulation
(a) the amplitude of the carrier wave varies in accordance with
the amplitude of the modulating signal.
(b) the amplitude of the carrier wave remains constant
(c) the amplitude of the carrier varies in accordance with the
frequency of the modulating signal
(d) modulating frequency lies in the audio range
10.4 In amplitude modulation, the band width is
(a) equal to the signal frequency
(b) twice the signal frequency
(c) thrice the signal frequency
(d) four times the signal frequency
10.5 In phase modulation
(a) only the phase of the carrier wave varies
(b) only the frequency of the carrier wave varies.
(c) both the phase and the frequency of the carrier wave varies.
(d) there is no change in the frequency and phase of the carrier
wave

235
10.6 The RF channel in a radio transmitter produces
(a) audio signals
(b) high frequency carrier waves
(c) both audio signal and high frequency carrier waves
(d) low frequency carrier waves.
10.7 The purpose of dividing each frame into two fields so as to
transmit 50 views of the picture per second is
(a) to avoid flicker in the picture
(b) the fact that handling of higher frequencies is easier
(c) that 50 Hz is the power line frequency in India
(d) to avoid unwanted noises in the signals
10.8 Printed documents to be transmitted by fax are converted into
electrical signals by the process of
(a) reflection (b) scanning
(c) modulation (d) light variation
10.9 What are the different types of radio wave propagation?
10.10 Explain the ground wave propagation.
10.11 Explain the wave propagation in ionosphere.
10.12 What is meant by skip distance?
10.13 What is the necessity of modulation?
10.14 Explain amplitude modulation.
10.15 Define modulation factor.
10.16 Define bandwidth.
10.17 What are the limitations of amplitude modulation?
10.18 Explain frequency modulation.
10.19 What is phase modulation?
10.20 Define directivity.
10.21 Draw the block diagram of AM radio transmitter.
10.22 Explain the function of FM transmitter with neat block diagram.
10.23 What is meant by scanning?

236
10.24 What is interlaced scanning?
10.25 Explain the function of a vidicon camera tube.
10.26 Explain the functions of various units in the monochrome
television transmission.
10.27 Explain the functional block diagram of a monochrome TV
receiver.
10.28 Explain the principle of radar.
10.29 What are the applications of radar?
10.30 Explain the principle of modem.
10.31 What are the different types of wire and cable used for
telecommunication system ?
10.32 What are the advantages of fiber optic communication system?
10.33 In a broadcasting studio, a 1000 kHz carrier is modulated by an
audio signal of frequency range, 100−5000 Hz. Find (i) maximum
and minimum frequencies of USB (ii) maximum and minimum
frequencies of LSB and (iii) width of the channel.

Answers

10.1 (c) 10.2 (c) 10.3 (a) 10.4 (b)

10.5 (c) 10.6 (b) 10.7 (a) 10.8 (b)

10.33 1005 kHz and 1000.1 kHz,

999.9 kHz and 995 kHz, 10 kHz.

237