MACHINE TOOLS &

METROLOGY
MET307 RISHAD A R

MODULE 1
Course Outcomes

CO 1 Analyze various machining process and calculate relevant quantities

such us velocities, forces and powers.
CO 2 Analyze of the tool nomenclature with surface roughness obtainable in
each machining processes.
CO 3 Understand the limitations of various machining process with regard to
shape formation and surface texture.
CO 4 Demonstrate knowledge of the underlying principles of measurement, as
they relate to mechanical measurement, electronic instrumentation, and
thermal effects.
CO 5 Get an exposure to advanced measuring devices and machine tool
metrology.
 Module 1
 General purpose machine tools – types and classification of machine tools –types
and classification of lathe – methods of holding work and tool –

 lathe accessories and attachments –lathe operations -tool room lathe – duplicate
lathe –capstan and turret lathe –horizontal and vertical-single spindle and multi
spindle screw machines -

 Shaping, Plaining and Slotting machines – Work holding devices-types of operations

- surface roughness

 obtainable indexing - Drilling and boring Machines – -Drill bit nomenclature- cutting
forces in drilling – tool and

 work holding devices-boring tools and reamers

Lathe
 Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the
world.

 It is commonly known as the mother of all other machine tools.

 The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a job to give it the
required shape and size.

 The job is securely and rigidly held in the chuck or in between centers on the
lathe machine and then turn it against a single-point cutting tool which will
remove metal from the job in the form of chips.
 Working principle of lathe machine

 Besides the simple turning operation as described above, lathe can be used to
carry out other operations also, such as drilling, reaming, boring, taper turning,
knurling, screwthread cutting, grinding etc.
TYPES OF LATHE

 Speed lathe
 Engine lathe
 Bench lathe
 Tool Room lathe
 Capstan & Turret lathe
 Special purpose lathe
 Automatic lathe
Speed lathe
 Speed lathe is the simplest of all types of lathes in construction and
operation.

 The important parts of the speed lathe are following-

 Bed, head stock, tail stock & Tool post mounted on an adjustable
slide.

 It has no feed box, leadscrew, or conventional type of carriage.

 The tool is mounted on the adjustable slide and is fed into the work
by hand control.

 The speed lathe finds applications where cutting force is least such
as in woodworking, spinning, centering, polishing etc.
 Engine lathe or centre lathe
 The engine lathe has all the basic parts, e.g., bed, headstock, and tailstock.

 But its headstock is much more robust in construction and contains additional
mechanism for driving the lathe spindle at multiple speeds.

 Unlike the speed lathe, the engine lathe can feed the cutting tool both in cross and
longitudinal direction with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a carriage,
feed rod and lead screw.

 Centre lathes or engine lathes are classified according to methods of transmitting

power to the machine.

 The power may be transmitted by means of belt, electric motor or through gears.
Bench lathe
 This is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench.

 It has practically all the parts of an engine lathe or speed lathe and it
performs almost all the operations.

 This is used for small and precision work.

Tool Room Lathe
 This lathe has features similar to an engine lathe but it is much
more accurately built.

 It has a wide range of spindle speeds ranging from a very low to

a quite high speed up to 2500 rpm.

 This lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, dies, gauges
and in machining work where accuracy is needed.
Capstan & Turret Lathe
 These are vastly used for mass production work.

 The distinguishing feature of this type of lathe is that the tailstock of an

engine lathe is replaced by a hexagonal turret, on the face of which
multiple tools may be fitted and fed into the work in proper sequence.

 Due to this arrangement, several different types of operations can be done

on a job without re-setting of work or tools, and a number of identical
parts can be produced in the minimum time.
 Capstan Lathe Turret Lathe

 The turret head is mounted on the  The turret head is directly mounted
ram and the ram is mounted on the on the saddle and the saddle slides
saddle. over the bed.
 The saddle is fixed during  The saddle is moved along with the
machining.
turret head during machining.
 The turret head can’t be moved
 The turret head can be moved
crosswise.
crosswise.
 The lengthwise movement of turret
 The lengthwise movement of turret
is less.
is more.
Capstan Lathe Turret Lathe
 Special purpose lathe machine
 These lathes are constructed for special purposes and for jobs, which cannot be
accommodated or conveniently machined on a standard lathe.

 The wheel lathe is made for finishing the journals and turning the tread on the
railroad car and locomotive wheels.

 The gap bed lathe, in which a section of the bed adjacent to the headstock is
removable, is used to swing extra-large-diameter pieces.

 The T-lathe is used for the machining of rotors for jet engines. The bed of this lathe
has a T-shape.

 Duplicating lathe is one for duplicating the shape of a flat or round template on to
the job.
 Automatic lathe

 These lathes are so designed that all the working and job
handling movements of the complete manufacturing process for
a job are done automatically.

 These are high speed, heavy duty, mass production lathes with
complete automatic control.
LATHE COMPONENTS
 Bed

 Head stock

 Tail stock

 Carriage

 Feed mechanism

 Thread cutting mechanism

Tail stock of centre lathe

 Bed
 The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are mounted.

 It is massive and rigid single-piece casting made to support other active parts of lathe.

 On left end of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is located while on right side tailstock is located.

 The carriage of the machine rests over the bed and slides on it.

 On the top of the bed there are two sets of guideways-innerways and outerways.

 The innerways provide sliding surfaces for the tailstock and the outerways for the carriage.

 The guideways of the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V shape.

 Generally cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium material is used for manufacturing of the lathe

bed.
 Head stock
 The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe.

 It comprises of the headstock casting to accommodate all the parts within it including gear train
arrangement.

 The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses a live centre to which the work can be attached.

 It supports the work and revolves with the work, fitted into the main spindle of the headstock.

 The cone pulley is also attached with this arrangement, which is used to get various spindle speeds
through electric motor.

 The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining a wide range of slower speeds.

 Some gears called change wheels are used to produce different velocity ratio required for thread
cutting.
Tail stock
 It is commonly used for the objective of primarily giving an outer bearing and
support the circular job being turned on centers.

 Tail stock can be easily set or adjusted for alignment or non-alignment with respect
to the spindle centre and carries a centre called dead centre for supporting one end
of the work.

 Both live and dead centers have 60° conical points to fit centre holes in the circular
job, the other end tapering to allow for good fitting into the spindles.

 The dead centre can be mounted in ball bearing so that it rotates with the job
avoiding friction of the job with dead centre as it important to hold heavy jobs.
 Carriage
 Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it can move in a
direction parallel to the spindle axis.

 It comprises of important parts such as apron, cross-slide, saddle, compound rest,

and tool post.

 The lower part of the carriage is termed the apron in which there are gears to
constitute apron mechanism for adjusting the direction of the feed using clutch
mechanism and the split half nut for automatic feed.

 The cross-slide is basically mounted on the carriage, which generally travels at

right angles to the spindle axis.

 On the cross-slide, a saddle is mounted in which the compound rest is adjusted

which can rotate and fix to any desired angle.
Tool post of centre lathe
 The compound rest slide is actuated by a screw, which
rotates in a nut fixed to the saddle.

 The tool post is an important part of carriage, which

fits in a tee-slot in the compound rest and holds the tool
holder in place by the tool post screw.
Feed Mechanism
 Feed mechanism is the combination of different units through which
motion of headstock spindle is transmitted to the carriage of lathe
machine.

 Following units play role in feed mechanism of a lathe machine

 End of bed gearing

 Feed gear box

 Lead screw and feed rod

 Apron mechanism
 The gearing at the end of bed transmits the rotary motion of headstock spindle to the
feed gear box.

 Through the feed gear box the motion is further transmitted either to the feed shaft or
lead screw, depending on whether the lathe machine is being used for plain turning or
screw cutting.

 The feed gear box contains a number of different sizes of gears.

 The feed gear box provides a means to alter the rate of feed, and the ration between
revolutions of the headstock spindle and the movement of carriage for thread cutting
by changing the speed of rotation of the feed rod or lead screw.

 The apron is fitted to the saddle.

 It contains gears and clutches to transmit motion from the feed rod to the carriage, and
the half nut which engages with the lead screw during cutting threads.
Thread cutting mechanism

 The half nut or split nut is used for thread cutting in a lathe.

 It engages or disengages the carriage with the lead screw so that the
rotation of the leadscrew is used to traverse the tool along the workpiece
to cut screw threads.

 The direction in which the carriage moves depends upon the position of
the feed reverse lever on the headstock.
 SPECIFICATION OF LATHE

 Swing or maximum diameter that can be rotated over the bed ways

 Maximum length of the job that can be held between head stock and tail stock centres

 Bed length, which may include head stock length also

 Maximum diameter of the bar that can pass through spindle or collect chuck of capstan lathe.
Machining parameters

 Cutting speed - Cutting speed for lathe work may be defined as the rate
in meters per minute at which the surface of the job moves past the
cutting tool

 Machining at a correct cutting speed is highly important for good tool life
and efficient cutting.

 Too slow cutting speeds reduce productivity and increase manufacturing

costs whereas too high cutting speeds result in overheating of the tool
and premature failure of the cutting edge of the tool.
Cutting velocity (Vc)
 Feed rate - Feed is defined as the distance that a tool advances into the work
during one revolution of the headstock spindle. (mm/rev)

 It is usually given as a linear movement per revolution of the spindle or job.

 During turning a job on the center lathe, the saddle and the tool post move
along the bed of the lathe for a particular feed for cutting along the length of
the rotating job.

 Depth of cut – Indicates how much the tool penetrates into the component to
remove material in the current pass (mm). Depth of cut is measured in a
direction perpendicular to the workpiece axis, for one turning pass.
Method of holding work in lathe

 Lathe centers
 Carriers or driving dog or catch plate
 Chucks
 Face plates
 Angle plates
 Mandrels
 Rests
Lathe centres
 The most common method of holding the job in a lathe is between the
two centers generally known as live centre (head stock centre) and
dead centre (tailstock centre).

 They are made of very hard materials to resist deflection and wear and
they are used to hold and support the cylindrical jobs.
 Carriers or driving dog and catch plates
 These are used to drive a job when it is held between two centers.

 Carriers or driving dogs are attached to the end of the job by a setscrew.

 A use of lathe dog for holding and supporting the job.

 Catch plates are either screwed or bolted to the nose of the headstock spindle.

 A projecting pin from the catch plate or carrier fits into the slot provided in
either of them.

 This imparts a positive drive between the lathe spindle and job.
 Chucks
 Chuck is one of the most important devices for holding and rotating a job in

a lathe.

 It is basically attached to the headstock spindle of the lathe.

 The internal threads in the chuck fit on to the external threads on the spindle nose.

 Short, cylindrical, hollow objects or those of irregular shapes, which cannot be

conveniently mounted between centers, are easily and rigidly held in a chuck.

 Jobs of short length and large diameter or of irregular shape, which cannot be
conveniently mounted between centers, are held quickly and rigidly in a chuck.

 Different types of chucks include three jaws or universal, four jaw independent
chuck, magnetic chuck, collet chuck, drill chuck & combination chuck.
 Face plates
 Face plates are employed for holding jobs, which cannot be conveniently
held between centers or by chucks.

 A face plate possesses the radial, plain and T slots for holding jobs or
work-pieces by bolts and clamps.

 Face plates consist of a circular disc bored out and threaded to fit the
nose of the lathe spindle.

 They are heavily constructed and have strong thick ribs on the back.

 They have slots cut into them, therefore nuts, bolts, clamps and angles
are used to hold the jobs on the face plate.

 They are accurately machined and ground.

Angle plates
 Angle plate is a cast iron plate having two faces machined to
make them absolutely at right angles to each other.

 Holes and slots are provided on both faces so that it may be

clamped on a faceplate and can hold the job or workpiece on
the other face by bolts and clamps.

 The plates are used in conjunction with a face plate when the
holding surface of the job should be kept horizontal.
Mandrels
 A mandrel is a device used for holding and rotating a hollow job that has been
previously drilled or bored.

 The job revolves with the mandrel, which is mounted between two centers.

 It is rotated by the lathe dog and the catch plate and it drives the work by friction.

 Different types of mandrels are employed according to specific requirements.

 It is hardened and tempered steel shaft or bar with 60° centers, so that it can be
mounted between centers.

 It holds and locates a part from its center hole.

 The mandrel is always rotated with the help of a lathe dog; it is never placed in a
chuck for turning the job.
Rests
 A rest is a lathe device, which supports a long slender job, when it is
turned between centers or by a chuck, at some intermediate point to
prevent bending of the job due to its own weight and vibration set up
due to the cutting force that acts on it.

 The two types of rests:

 Commonly used for supporting a long job in an engine lathe are the
steady or centre rest and the follower rest.
Lathe operations
 SHAPING MACHINE
 Shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool in which the
ram moves the cutting tool backwards and forwards in a
straight line.

 It is intended primarily to produce flat surfaces.

 These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical, or inclined. In

general, the shaper can produce any surface composed of
straight-line elements.

 A shaper is used to generate flat (plane) surfaces by means of a

single point cutting tool similar to a lathe tool.
 Working principle of shaper
 A single point cutting tool is held in the tool holder, which is mounted on the ram.

 The workpiece is rigidly held in a vice or clamped directly on the table. The table may be
supported at the outer end.

 The ram reciprocates and thus cutting tool held in tool holder moves forward and
backward over the workpiece.

 In a standard shaper, cutting of material takes place during the forward stroke of the ram.

 The backward stroke remains idle and no cutting takes place during this stroke.

 The feed is given to the workpiece and depth of cut is adjusted by moving the tool
downward towards the workpiece.
Principal parts of shaper
 Function of each components of shaping
machine
 Base - It is rigid and heavy cast iron body to resist vibration and takes up high compressive
load. It supports all other parts of the machine, which are mounted over it.

 Column - The column is a box shaped casting mounted upon the base. It houses the ram-
driving mechanism. Two accurately machined guide ways are provided on the top of the
column on which the ram reciprocates.

 Cross rail - Cross rail of shaper has two parallel guide ways on its top in the vertical plane
that is perpendicular to the rail axis. It is mounted on the front vertical guide ways of the
column. It consists mechanism for raising and lowering the table to accommodate different
sizes of jobs by rotating an elevating screw which causes the cross rail to slide up and down
on the vertical face of the column.
 Table - The table is a box like casting having T -slots both on the top and sides
for clamping the work. It is bolted to the saddle and receives crosswise and
vertical movements from the saddle and cross rail.

 Ram - It is the reciprocating part of the shaper, which reciprocates on the

guideways provided above the column. Ram is connected to the reciprocating
mechanism contained within the column.

 Saddle - The saddle is located on the cross rail and holds the table on its top.
Crosswise movement of the saddle by rotation the cross feed screw by hand or
power causes the table to move sideways.

 Tool head - The tool head of a shaper performs the following functions

✓ It holds the tool rigidly,

✓ It provides vertical and angular feed movement of the tool, and

✓ It allows the tool to have an automatic relief during its return stroke.
 Specification of shaper

 The size of a shaper is specified by the maximum length of stroke or

cut it can make.

 Usually the size of shaper ranges from 175 to 900 mm.

 Besides the length of stroke, other particulars, such as the type of

drive (belt drive or individual motor drive), floor space required,
weight of the machine, cutting to return stroke ratio, number and
amount of feed, power input etc. are also sometimes required for
complete specification of a shaper.
 Shaper mechanism
 In a shaper, rotary motion of the drive is converted into reciprocating motion
of the ram by the mechanism housed within the column or the machine.

 In a standard shaper metal is removed in the forward cutting stroke, while the
return stroke goes idle and no metal is removed during this period.

 The shaper mechanism is so designed that it moves the ram holding the tool at
a comparatively slower speed during forward cutting stroke, whereas during
the return stroke it allow the ram to move at a faster speed to reduce the idle
return time.

 This mechanism is known as quick return mechanism.

Crank & slotted link quick return
mechanism
Crank & slotted link quick return mechanism
 The motion is transmitted to the bull gear through a pinion which receives its motion from a motor.

 Bull gear is a large gear mounted within the column.

 A crank pin which is fitted to the bull gear moves a sliding block which is located in a slot of slotted
link.

 One end of slotted link is pivoted at the bottom and other end is connected to the ram.

 Rotation of bull gear causes the crank pin to revolve at a uniform speed.

 This will cause the sliding block to move up and down.

 The up and down movement of slider causes the slotted lever (link) to oscillate.

 Thus the oscillating motion of slotted lever imparts a reciprocating motion to the ram.
 Whitworth quick return mechanism

❖ The Whitworth quick return mechanism is a mechanical device that converts

rotational motion into reciprocating motion.
 Whitworth quick return mechanism
 The mechanism consists of a rotating crankshaft connected to a connecting rod,
which is in turn connected to a sliding block or slider.

 The slider moves along a straight guide or slider crank, creating a back-and-forth
motion.

 The mechanism works as follows: as the crankshaft rotates, the connecting rod
translates the circular motion of the crankshaft into linear motion, causing the
slider to move forward.

 The Whitworth quick return mechanism finds its application in various machines
where a reciprocating motion is required, with a quick forward stroke and a slower
return stroke.
Hydraulic shaper mechanism
 Hydraulic shaper mechanism
 Hydraulic shaper mechanism mainly consists of oil collecting tank, gear pump,

valves, pipes, piston cylinder arrangement, ram, dogs and reversing lever.

 Inside the hydraulic cylinder a piston reciprocates.

 Between the piston and the ram a piston rod is connected.

 So, the ram reciprocates along with the piston.

 Two entries are provided near the each end of the cylinders.

 A four-way control valve connects these two entries with the reservoir which contains the

fluid.

 The reservoir is connected to the valve with the help of a drain pipes and a supply pipe.
 Hydraulic shaper mechanism
➢ The supply pipe is again connected to the reservoir by a pump and relief
valve.

➢ The valve is actuated by the lever and trip dog fitted to the ram.

➢ Oil is sucked by the gear pump from the reservoir at a particular pressure.

 This high pressure oil goes to the cylinder through the four-way valve.

 The oil allowed from the pump to the left side of the piston which forces the
piston to move the ram towards right.

 It is called as forward or cutting stroke.

 In this stroke, oil flows out on the right side entry to the reservoir through the
four-way valve and drain pipe.
 Hydraulic shaper mechanism
 The lever hits one trig dog at the end of this stroke.

 Now, the lever position is changed.

 Due to this, the supply pipe supplies the oil on the right side of the piston which
moves the ram towards left called as return stroke or non-cutting stroke in this stroke
the high pressure oil covers on lesser area on the cylinder.

 Due to this, the pressure force will increase.

 Hence, this return stroke is faster by supplying the same quantity of oil.
 Machining parameters of shaping process
 Cutting speed - The cutting speed of a shaper is the speed at which the metal is
removed by the cutting tool in one minute. In other words, only the forward cutting
stroke is considered. The speed is expressed in meter per minute.

 Feed - Feed is the relative movement of the work or tool in a direction perpendicular
to the axis of reciprocation of the ram per double stroke. It is expressed in mm per
stroke.

 Depth of cut - Depth of cut is the thickness of metal that is removed during
machining. The perpendicular distance measured between the machined surface and
the uncut surface of the workpiece is taken. It is expressed in mm or in inches.
Planer
 Like a shaper, planer is used primarily to
produce horizontal, vertical or inclined flat
surfaces by a single point cutting tool.

 But it is used for machining large and heavy

workpieces that cannot be accommodated
on the table of a shaper.

 In addition to machining large work, the

planer is frequently used to machine
multiple small parts.
 WORKING PRINCIPAL OF PLANER
 In a planer, the work which is supported on the table
reciprocates past the stationary cutting tool and the feed
is imparted by the lateral movement of the tool.

 The tool is clamped in the tool holder and work on the

table.

 Like shaper, the planner is equipped with clapper box to

raise the tool in idle stroke.
Shaper Planer

 The work is held stationary and  In a planer, the tool is stationary and the
the cutting tool on the ram is workpiece travels back and forth under the tool.
moved back and forth across the
work.  A planer is meant for much larger jobs than can
be undertaken on a shaper. Jobs as large as 6
 It is used for shaping much
smaller jobs metre wide and twice as long can be machined on
a planer.
 A shaper is a light machine
 It is a heavy duty machine.
 Shaper can employ light cuts and
finer feed  Planer can employ heavier cuts and finer feed
 A shaper uses one cutting tool at coarse feed
a time  Several tools can cut simultaneously on a planer.
 The shaper is driven using quick-  The drive on the planer table is either by gears or
return link mechanism by hydraulic means
 It is less rigid and less robust  Because of better rigidity of planer, as compared
to that of a shaper, planer can give more accuracy
on machined surfaces.
 SLOTTER
 The slotter or slotting machine is also a reciprocating type of machine tool
similar to a shaper or a planer.

 It may be considered as a vertical shaper.

 The chief difference between a shaper and a slotter is the direction of the
cutting action.

 The machine operates in a manner similar to the shaper, however, the tool
moves vertically rather than in a horizontal direction.

 The job is held stationary.

 The slotter has a vertical ram and a hand or power operated rotary table.
SLOTTING MACHINE
 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF SLOTTER
 Bed or Base - It is made up of cast iron. It supports column, tables, ram, driving
mechanism etc. The top of the bed carries horizontal ways along which the worktable can
traverse.

 Table - It holds the work piece and is adjustable in longitudinal and cross-wise directions.
The table can be rotated about its centre.

 Column is the vertical member - They are made up of cast iron and it houses the driving
mechanism. The vertical front face of the column is accurately finished for providing ways
along which the ram moves up and down.

 Ram - It is provided to reciprocate vertically up and down. At its bottom, it carries the
cutting tool. It is similar to the ram of a shaper; but it is more massive and moves
vertically, at right angle to the worktable, instead of having the horizontal motion of a
shaper.
Operations performed on slotting
machine
 It is used for machining vertical surfaces
 It is used angular or inclined surfaces
 It is used for shaping internal and external forms or profiles
 It is used for internal machining of blind holes
 It is used for machining of shapes which are difficult to produce on shaper
 It is used for machining dies and punches.
❖ Since a slotter works slowly. It has less use in mass production work.
 Drilling Machine

 In drilling machine the drill is rotated and fed along its axis
of rotation in the stationary workpiece.

 A machine consists of a spindle that provides rotary motion

to the drilling tool, which finally makes the hole in the job
(workpiece).

 Drilling is basically a single purpose machine tool as its

main purpose is to make holes in the workpiece.
 Work holding devices
 The work should be held firmly on the machine table before performing any operation on it. The
devices used for holding the work in a drilling machine are:

 Drill vise - Vise is one of the important devices used for holding work piece on a drilling machine
table. The work is clamped in a vise between a fixed jaw and a movable jaw.

 T - bolts and clamps - The work pieces can be held directly on the machine table by means of ‘T’ -
bolts and clamps. The top of the machine table has ‘T’ - slots into which ‘T’ - bolts may be fitted.

 Step block - Available in various heights to support outer end of strap clamps.

 V-block - Used to holding cylindrical work pieces. The work may be supported in 2 or 3 V block
according to length of the work.

 Angle Plate - L-shaped pieces of cast iron having holes to support work piece supported to table.
 Main parts
 Bed - The bed is the main part of the machine on which the whole machine is being
mounted. The bed is made up of cast iron, so it has high compressive strength and
good wear resistance.

 Table - The table is the place where the workpiece is being mounted. The table is
attached to the column and it can be rotated around the column and can have an
upward and downward moment. The table can be adjusted at any angle as per the
requirement.

 Motor - The motor is present at the top of the column. The inside motor shaft is
there which is connected to a stepped pulley so that we can increase or decrease
the speed of the rotation of the motor.
 Spindle - Spindle arrangement is present at top of the column opposite to
the arrangement of the motor. The top of the spindle is attached to one of
the stepped pulleys. The bottom of the spindle is connected to the chuck.

 Chuck - Chuck is present at the bottom of the spindle. The basic function
of the chuck is to hold the cutting tool firmly.

 Drill bit - A drill bit is the actual cutting tool that is used to create a hole
in the workpiece.

 Hand Wheel - The basic function of the handwheel is to adjust the spindle
position as per the requirement.
Drill bit nomenclature
 Axis - It is the longitudinal centerline of the drill running through the centers of the

tang and the chisel edge.

 Body - It is the part of the drill from its extreme point to the commencement of the neck

 Shank - It is the part of the drill by which it is held and driven.

 Tang -The flattened end of the taper shank is known as tang.

 Neck - It is the part of the drill, which is diametrically undercut between the body and the
shank of the drill.

 Point - It is the sharpened end of the drill.

 Lip - It is the edge formed by the intersection of flank and face

 Land - It is the cylindrically ground surface on the leading edges of the drill flutes adjacent
to the body clearance surface.

 Flutes -The grooves in the body of the drill are known as flutes. Flutes form the cutting
edges on the point.
 Operations in drilling
 Drilling - It is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole be removing metal
by the rotating edge of a cutting tool called the “drill”.

 Reaming - It is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole which has been
previously drilled. Reamer cannot originate a hole. It simply follows the path
which has been previously drilled and removes a very small amount of metal.

 Boring - To enlarge a hole by means of an adjustable cutting tool with only one
cutting edge. This is necessary where suitable sized drill is not available or
where hole diameter is so large that it cannot be ordinarily drilled.

 Counter boring - It is a cylindrical flat-bottomed hole that enlarges another

coaxial hole, or the tool used to create that feature.
 Counter sinking - Countersinking is the operation of making a cone shaped
enlargement at the end of the hole. The included angle of the conical surface
may be in the range of 60° to 90°. It is used to provide recess for a flat headed
screw or a counter sunk rivet fitted into the hole.

 Spot facing - It is the operation of smoothing the surface around a hole for the
seat for a nut or the head of a screw. A counter bore or a special spot facing tool
may be employed forthis purpose.

 Tapping - It is the operation of cutting internal threads by means of a cutting

tool called a tap. When the tap is screwed into the hole it removes metal and
cuts internal threads which fit into external threads of the same size.
 Boring
 When the internal surface of a hollow part is
turned, that is, a single point tool is used for
enlarging a hole, the operation is called as “boring”.

 The single point cutting tool for this purpose is

mounted on a bar called “boring bar”.

 Boring operation is chiefly used for machining

holes with precise centre to centre distance in
housing type parts (engine blocks, gear boxes etc.).

 Boring is also used for machining large diameter

holes, since drills in larger sizes are relatively
expensive.
Boring Vs Reaming

 Boring can correct hole location, size, or alignment and can produce a good
finish if a fine feed and a correct tool are used. The reamer follows the hole
already in the workpiece and so can not correct location.

 Reaming is faster than boring but boring operation is often preferred

because of location correction advantage.

 Reaming involves the use of a tool of fixed size, which is different for each
size of hole and a large hole would require an expensive reamer, while a
boring tool can make a hole of any size.
 Boring tools
 A boring tool consists of a single point cutting tool (boring bit) held in a tool
holder known as boring bar.

 The boring bit is adjusted and held in position with the help of set screws.

 Boring tools are of two types: 1)Fixed type 2) Rotating type

 Fixed type boring tools are used on work rotating machines, such as
lathes, whereas rotating type boring tools are used on tool rotating
machines such as drill presses, milling machines and boring machines.

 For large jobs boring machines are used.

 Boring Machine
 Horizontal boring machines can be used to drill, bore and ream holes
and to mill flat surfaces.

 Such machines are widely used in piece and small-lot production for
machining housing type parts (gear boxes, machine tool headstocks
etc.).

 In mass production, holes of larger diameter are bored in multiple-

spindle boring machines, using boring cutter heads as tools.

 In horizontal boring machines, the tool revolves and the work is

stationary.
MACHINE TOOLS &
METROLOGY
MET307 RISHAD A R

MODULE 2
 Milling
 Milling is the process of removing metal by feeding the work past a rotating multipoint
cutter.

 MRR can be increased by increasing the speed of cutter or by increasing number of

teeth on the cutter.

 For cutting operation, the workpiece is fed against the rotary cutter.

 As the workpiece moves against the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in
form chips.

 Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work.

 The work to be machined is held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index
head, between centers, in a special fixture or bolted to machine table.
Milling machine

Column & knee type milling machine

 Main parts of milling machine
 Base - It is made of cast iron and supports all the other parts of the machine tool.

A vertical column is mounted upon the base.

 Column – It is mounted upon the base and is box shaped. It houses the mechanism for
providing drive for the spindle.

 Knee - It slides up and down on the guide ways of the column. An elevating screw mounted
on the base obtains this movement.

 Saddle - It is mounted on the guide ways of the knee and moves towards or away from the
face of the column.

 Table - The table is moved longitudinally either by power or manually on the guide ways of
the saddle.

 Spindle - It is located in the upper part of the column. It receives power from the

motor through belt, gears and clutches.

Milling methods

Up milling

Down milling
 MILLING METHODS
Up-milling or conventional milling

 In the up-milling or conventional milling, the metal is removed in form of small

chips by a cutter rotating against the direction of travel of the workpiece.

 In this type of milling, the chip thickness is minimum at the start of the cut and
maximum at the end of cut.

 As a result the cutting force also varies from zero to the maximum value per tooth
movement of the milling cutter.

 The major disadvantages of up-milling process are the tendency of cutting

force to lift the work from the fixtures and poor surface finish obtained.
Down-Milling or Climb Milling

 In this method, the metal is removed by a cutter rotating in the same direction of feed of
the workpiece.

 The effect of this is that the teeth cut downward instead of upwards.

 Chip thickness is maximum at the start of the cut and minimum in the end.

 In this method, it is claimed that there is less friction involved and consequently less heat
is generated on the contact surface of the cutter and workpiece.

 Climb milling can be used advantageously on many kinds of work to increase the
number of pieces per sharpening and to produce a better finish.

 With climb milling, saws cut long thin slots more satisfactorily than with standard milling.

 Another advantage is that slightly lower power consumption is obtainable by climb

milling, since there is no need to drive the table against the cutter.
OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON MILLING
MACHINE
 Plain milling or slab milling - It is a method of producing a plain, flat, horizontal surface
parallel to the axis of rotation of the cutter.

 Face milling - it is a method of producing a flat surface at right angles to the axis of the
cutter.

 Side milling - It is the operation of production of a flat vertical surface on the side of a
work-piece by using a side milling cutter.

 Angular milling - it is a method of producing a flat surface making an angle to the axis of
the cutter.

 Gang-milling - It is a method of milling by means of two or more cutters simultaneously

having the same or different diameters mounted on the arbor of the milling machine.

 Form milling - it is, a method of producing a surface having an irregular outline.

 Straddle milling - It is a method of milling two sides of a piece of work by
employing two side-milling cutters at the same time.
Milling cutters
 Milling cutters may have teeth on the periphery or ends only, or on both
the periphery and ends. Peripheral teeth may be straight or parallel to the
cutter axis, or they may be helical, sometimes referred as spiral teeth.
Milling cutter nomenclature
 Body of cutter: The part of the cutter left after exclusion of the teeth and the

portion to which the teeth are attached.

 Face: The portion of the teeth next to the cutting edge is known as face.

 Land: The relieved back portion of the tooth adjacent to the cutting edge. It is

relieved to avoid interference between the surface being machined and the

cutter.

 Central hole: It refers to the hole present at the centre of the cutter. A keyway

is cut inside the hole.

 Fillet: The curved surface at the bottom of gash which joins the face of one

tooth to the back of the tooth immediately ahead.

 Gash: The chip space between the back of one tooth and the face of the next

tooth.
 Outside diameter : The diameter of the circle passing through the peripheral
cutting edge.

 Root diameter: The diameter of the circle passing through the bottom of the
fillet.

 Cutting edge: The edge formed by the intersection of the face and the circular
land or the surface left by the provision of primary clearance.

 Relief angle : It is the angle between the tooth’s land and the tangent to the
outside diameter of the cutter at the cutting edge of the particular tooth.
(approx. 7.5°)

 Primary clearance angle: It is the angle between the back of the tooth and
the tangent drawn to the outside diameter of the cutter at the cutting edge.
(approx. 15°)
 Secondary clearance angle: It is the angle formed by the secondary
clearance surface and the tangent to the periphery of the cutter at the cutting
edge.

 Rake angle: The angle measured in the diametral plane between the face of
the tooth and a radial line passing through the tooth’s cutting edge.

 Lip angle: The included angle between the land and the face of the tooth, or
alternatively the angle between the tangent to the back at the cutting edge
and the face of the tooth.

 Helix angle: The cutting edge angle which a helical cutting edge makes with a
plane containing the axis of a cylindrical cutter.
CALCULATION OF MACHINING TIME (Tm)

Tm = n (L/ f N) L= l+A+O

 L=Length of tool travel (mm)

 f= Feed (mm/rev)
 n=number of cuts
 l=Milling length of work piece (mm)
 A=Length of tool approach (mm)
 O= Length of tool over travel (mm)
 N = rotational speed of milling cutter (rpm)
 Cutting forces in milling

 At any instant during the rotation, there is a cutting force component known as
the tangential cutting force, Ft, acting on the edge of the cutter that is tangent to
the cutter body.

 There are also components of the cutting force directed from the edge towards the
tool’s center, and along its axis. However, in practice these radial and axial cutting
force components are normally a small fraction of the tangential force; so we will
concentrate only on the tangential cutting force, calling it the cutting force.

 As this figure shows, the cutting force is not constant in either magnitude or
direction. This is a characteristic of almost all milling operations because of multi
point cutting tool.
 Indexing heads

 An important function and use of milling machines is

for cutting slots, grooves etc. which are to be equally
spaced around the circumference of a blank, for
example, gear cutting, ratchet wheels, milling cutter
blanks, reamers etc.

 This necessitates holding of the blank (workpiece) and

rotating it the exact amount for each groove or slot to
be cut.
Fig (a)
 This process is known as “Indexing”.
 The workpiece is rotated by turning the index crank by means of handle.

 Since the gear ratio of the worm and worm wheel is 40 : 1, it takes 40 turns of the
crank to rotate the spindle and hence the workpiece through one complete
revolution.

 Thus one turn of the crank rotates the work a turn. If divisions other than factors
of 40 are required “Index plates” are used.

 An index plate has several circles of holes (each circle containing a different
number of holes) and is mounted on the worm shaft.

 A pin on the crank can be adjusted to a radius such that it will fit in any

desired circle of holes. By using different circles of holes and index plates,

any fractional part of a turn of the index crank can be obtained.

 The two sector arms shown on the front of the index plate, determine the angle
through which the index crank is turned for indexing.
 Types of Dividing heads
 Plain - A plain dividing head has a fixed spindle axis and the spindle rotates only
about a horizontal axis.

 Universal - In these models, the spindle can be rotated at different angles in the
vertical plane from horizontal to vertical. A universal dividing head performs the
following functions : indexes the workpiece, imparts a continuous rotary
motion to the workpiece for milling helical grooves (flutes of drills, reamers,
milling cutters etc.) and setting the workpiece in a given inclined position in
reference to the table.

 Optical - These models are used for high precision angular setting of the
work piece with respect to the cutter. For reading the angles, an optical system
is built into the dividing head.
 Indexing methods
 Direct Indexing - In direct indexing, the index plate is directly
mounted on the dividing head spindle.

 For indexing, the index pin is pulled out on a hole, the work and the
index plate are rotated the desired number of holes and the pin is
engaged.

 Both plain and universal heads can be used in this manner.

 Direct indexing is the most rapid method of indexing, but fractions of

a complete turn of the spindle are limited to those available with the
index plate.

 With a standard indexing plate having 24 holes, all factors of 24 can

be indexed, that is, the work can be divided into 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and
24 parts.
 Simple Indexing - In simple or plain indexing, an index plate selected for the
particular application, is fitted on the worm shaft and locked through a locking
pin, (Fig. a). (page no.18)

 To index the work through any required angle, the index crank pin is withdrawn
from a hole in the index plate.

 The spindle and hence the work is indexed through the required angle by
turning the index crank through a calculated number of whole revolutions and
holes on one of the hole circles, after which the index pin is relocated in the
required hole.

 If the number of divisions on the job circumference (that is number of

indexings) needed is z, then the number of turns that the crank must be rotated
for each indexing can be found from the formula,

n= 40 / z
 Grinding
 Grinding operation is a method of machining workpieces by the use of a rotary
abrasive tool, called “grinding wheel”.

 Such wheels are made of fine grains of abrasive materials held together by a
bonding material, called a ‘bond’.

 Each individual and irregularly shaped grain acts as a cutting element (a single
point cutting tool).

 The grinding operation can be : rough grinding or finishing (precision grinding).

 Rough grinding is a commonly used method for removing excess material from
castings, forgings and weldments or as a method for removing or snagging thin
fins, sharp corners, burrs or other unwanted projections from various shapes of
workpieces.
 Precision grinding is the principal production method of cutting materials that are
too hard to be machined by other conventional tools or for producing surfaces on
parts to higher dimensional accuracy and a finer surface finish as compared to other
manufacturing methods.

 Since cutting edges of the grits are extremely thin it is possible to remove much
smaller chips and refine surfaces to a much greater accuracy of finish and dimension
than with other machining methods.

❖ Abrasives - Abrasives include fine crushed substances in the form of grains and
powders obtained by crushing natural or synthetic materials.

 The main characteristics of abrasive materials are: grain size and shape, hardness,
toughness, resistance to attrition and friability.

 There are two types of abrasives used in metal machining : Natural and Artificial or
Synthetic.
 Natural abrasives - The natural abrasive materials are : Sandstone or
Solid quartz, emery (50 to 60% crystalline Al2O3 + Iron oxide),
corundum (75 to 90% crystalline Al2O3 + Iron oxide) and natural
diamond.

 Natural abrasives lack uniformity of properties and reliability and have

been largely replaced by manufactured abrasives.

 Artificial abrasives - These abrasives include : Aluminium oxide, Silicon

carbide, boron carbide and Cubic Boron nitride. The manufactured
abrasives have well defined and controlled properties of hardness,
toughness and type of structure.
❖ Grain Size - For manufacturing abrasive tools and for application of
abrasives in finishing and polishing operations, abrasive materials are
crushed to obtain particles of desired size. These particles are known as
“grains” or “grits”. For some applications, the crushing is continued until
the abrasive becomes a fine powder.

 Grain size is denoted by a number indicating the number of meshes per

linear inch of the screen through which the grains pass when they are
graded after crushing.

 A grain size of 60 means that the abrasive will pass through a screen
having 60 openings per linear inch.
❖ Bonding materials - A grinding wheel consists of abrasive grains that are supported
or held together by a bond.

 All bonds must be sufficiently strong to with stand the stresses of the high speed
rotating grinding wheel.

 They must be capable of holding the abrasive grains firmly, yet must not be so dense as
to impede the cutting action.

 Bonding materials commonly used in grinding wheels are:

 Vitrified bond - It is made of refractory clay, feldspar and quartz. It hardens to a glass
like structure on heating. The advantages of vitrified bond are : it is strong, highly
porous, resistant to heat, highly chemically stable.

 Silicate bond - This bond consists of water glass (NaSiO3) mixed with zinc oxide, lime
and other fillers. It hardens on heating at about 260°C.
 Resinoid bond - A resinoid bond is a synthetic resin or plastic. Grinding wheels
with a resinoid bond are very strong and elastic, highly stable under variable loads,
but their porosity is lower than that of vitrified-bonded wheels.

 Rubber bond - It basically consists of synthetic rubber with vulcanizing additions

and fillers. This mixture is pressed in heated moulds; rubber becomes hard and
retains elasticity when heated to 150°C. These wheels are also used for centreless
grinding control wheels.

 Shellac bond - This bond is primarily used for making strong, thin wheels having
some elasticity.

 Metallic bond - Metallic bond is used for holding together the grains of diamond
and cubic boron nitride. Copper, tin, aluminium and their alloys are used as
bonding materials.
❖ Structure - The structure indicates the abrasive grains spacing
(porosity)in the grinding wheel. The grinding wheels are made with
a specified structure. The grinding wheel may have open (porous) or
a dense (close) structure. A grinding wheel with an open structure
has more voids than one with dense structure. It indicates average
distance between two abrasive particles. The structures are denoted
by numbers from 0 to 12 inversely proportional to the content of
abrasive grains in the wheel.

❖ Grade - This indicates degree of hardness, of a wheel and the

hardness varies according to the tenacity with which the bond holds
the abrasive grains. Soft grades are generally used for machining
harder materials. Hard grades are generally used for machining soft
materials.
 Grinding Wheel Specification
Abrasive type Grain size Grade Structure Bond type

A –Al2O3 0-30-coarse A-H - soft 0-3 -dense V-vetrified

B-Boron 30-80-medium I-P-medium 4-8-medium S-silicate

S-SiC 80-200-fine Q-Z-hard 9-14-open S-shellac

D-Diamond 200-1000-very B-resinoid

fine bond
R-rubber bond
Factors affecting selection of grinding
wheel
❖ Constant factors
 material to be removed
 amount of material to be removed
 wheel contact
 type of grinding machine
❖ Variable factors
 wheel speed
 work speed
 condition of the machine
 skill of operators
Standard marking system of grinding
wheels
 The Indian standard marking system for grinding wheels has been
prepared with a view of establishing a uniform system of marking of
grinding wheels to designate their various characteristics.
 Prefix Manufacturer’s abrasive type symbol
 First element (letter) Type of abrasive
 Second element (number) Size of abrasive
 Third element (letter) Grade of bond
 Fourth element (number) Structure of the grinding wheel
 Fifth element (letter) Type of bond
 Suffix Manufacturer’s symbol
 Honing
 It is a grinding process. In it, a very little material is removed.

 This process is used primarily to remove the grinding or tool marks left on the
surface by previous operations.

 The cutting action is obtained from abrasive sticks (aluminium oxide or silicon
carbide) mounted in a mandrel or fixture.

 A floating action between the work and the tool prevails so that any pressure
exerted on the tool is exerted and transmitted equally on all sides.

 Honing tool is given a slow reciprocating motion as it rotates, having resultant

honing speeds from 15 to 60 mpm.
 This action results in rapid removal of stock and at the same time, the
generation of a straight and round surface.

 Defects such as slight eccentricity, a wavy surface, or a slight taper caused by

previous operations can be corrected by this process.

 Most honing is done on internal surfaces, or holes, such as automobile

cylinders.

 There are a few applications of honing to external surfaces.

 Parts can be of any shape, but the surface must be cylindrical.

 Practically any material can be honed.

 Soft materials which cannot be lapped, can be honed because of the use of
bonded abrasive.

 Hard and soft cast iron, steel, carbides, bronze, aluminium, brass and silver,
as well as glass, ceramics and some plastic can be honed.
 Lapping
 Lapping is a surface finishing process used on flat or cylindrical surfaces
(mainly external).

 Lapping is the abrading of a surface by means of a lap (which is made of a

 material softer than the material to be lapped), which has been charged with
the fine abrasive particles.

 When the lap and the work surface are rubbed together with the fine abrasive
particles between them, these particles become embedded in the softer lap.

 It then becomes a holder for the hard abrasive.

Lapping is done:
(i) to produce geometrically true surface.
(ii) to correct minor imperfections is shape.
(iii) to obtain fine dimensional accuracy to provide a very close fit between the contact surfaces.
(iv) to secure a fine surface finish.
 Burnishing
 It involves rubbing of a smooth hard object under considerable pressure over
the work surfaces.

 Burnishing is used for finishing crank pins, piston rods, shock absorbers.

 Burnishing is basically a cold surface plastic deformation process.

 Cold working of surfaces improves the surface finish and induces surface
compressive residual stresses, thus improving the fatigue life of the
component.

 It improves wear resistance and surface finish (0.2-0.4μm).

Grinding operations

 Surface grinding

 Cylindrical grinding

 Centreless grinding
Surface grinding
 Flat surfaces are ground on surface grinding
machines.

 Heavy workpieces are clamped on the table by

means of pads, strap clamps and other devices or
they are held in fixtures.

 Small work is usually held by a magnetic chuck.

 The surface grinders are available with horizontal

spindle and vertical spindle and with either
reciprocating table or rotary table.
 In horizontal-spindle reciprocating table grinders, Fig.(a), grinding is done with
the periphery of a straight wheel, besides its rotary motion, the grinding wheel
also has a cross feed motion at each full stroke of the table (back and forth).

 The other motion is the infeed of the wheel in which it is fed to the depth of cut.
Horizontal-spindle rotary-table grinders Fig. (b) also use the periphery of the
grinding wheel, but the workpieces are held, usually by a magnetic chuck, on a
revolving table.

 Here, as before, the wheel has rotation, cross feed parallel to the surface being
ground, and infeed. The vertical-spindle machines use a cup-, cylinder-, or
segmental wheel. They may be either of the reciprocating-table, Fig.(c), or
rotary-table, Fig. (d).
Cylindrical grinding
 Principle - the work piece is held between two centres & the rotating
grinding wheel is fed against it.

External cylindrical grinding Internal cylindrical grinding

 Internal cylindrical grinding is employed chiefly for finishing accurate
holes in hardened parts, and also when it is impossible to apply other
more productive methods of finishing accurate holes, for example,
precision boring, honing etc.

 External cylindrical grinding is one of the most common grinding

processes and is mainly used for grinding rotationally symmetrical
workpieces. The most common type of clamping in external cylindrical
grinding is between centers. This means that the workpieces must be
centered at the front and are driven by a workpiece driver.
Centreless Grinding
 Centre less grinding is performed on workpieces which do not or can not
have centres, such as, pistons, valves, rings, tubes, balls, wrist pins, drills,
bushings, drill rods, shafts and balls and rollers for bearings etc.
 The centre less grinding machine consists of two abrasive wheels one is
grinding wheel and other is governing wheel (regulating wheel) or (control
wheel).

 Both the wheels rotate in the same direction but at different speeds.

 The work piece is supported on a work rest blade provided between two
wheels.

 Grinding wheel remove material from the work piece and regulating wheel
regulates the work piece.

 Centre less : means work piece is not held between centres.

 The work peace centre is above wheel axis.

 Operations in centre less grinding
 Through feed grinding - in this type of grinding the work piece has a uniform
diameter and is fed through the wheels which have been set at a fixed distance
apart to give the correct work diameter. It is used for parallel work of any length
which has no surface obstruction.

 In feed grinding - it is used for multi diameter work or any form of work that
cannot be passed completely through the wheels. The control wheel is usually tilted
slightly to hold the work piece.

 End feed grinding - This process of centre less grinding is used for headed
components which are too long to be ground by the in feed method, i.e. when the
length of work piece is greater than the width of the grinding wheel.
Through feed In feed End feed
 Advantages of Centre Less Grinding
 The main advantage is its high productivity, which is several times higher
than cylindrical grinding between centres.

 The operator need be less skilled.

 The work is rigidly supported and there is no chatter or deflection of the

work.

 Size of the work is easily controlled.

 As a true floating condition exists during the grinding process, less grinding
stock is required.
 Disadvantage of centreless grinding
 Work with flats and keyways can not be ground.

 Work having several diameters is not easily handled.

 In hollow work, there is no assurance that the outside diameter will be

concentric with the inside diameter.

 Changeover of a centreless grinder to grind other sizes requires considerable

time. Hence, it can be more expediently used in large lot production.
MACHINE TOOLS &
METROLOGY
MET307 RISHAD A R

MODULE 3
 BROACHING MACHINES
 Broaching is a cutting process using a multi toothed tool having successive cutting
edges, moved linearly relative to the work peace in the direction of the tool axis.

 The cutting tool is called a broach, and the machine tool is called a broaching
machine.

 Broaching is used for machining through holes of any cross sectional shape,
straight and helical slots, external surfaces of various shape, external and internal
toothed gears, splines.

 High speed steel (H.S.S.) is by far the most widely used material for the broaches.
Horizontal broaching machine
Horizontal broaching machine
 Mostly all are pull type.

 Both internal and external broaching can be done.

 Consists of a box type bed having length is twice the length of stroke.

 All modern machines are provided with hydraulic drive housed in the bed.

 Here, the broach is pulled over the top surface of the workpiece held in the
fixture on the worktable.

 The cutting speed range from 3 to 12 mpm with a return speed upto 30 mpm.

 Horizontal broaching machines are used primarily used for broaching round
holes, keyways, splines and other internal shapes or contours.
Vertical broaching machine

 It has a box shape column 5 which houses electric

drive 6 with the units of hydraulic drive.

 Broaching tools 4 are mounted on slide 3 which is

hydraulically driven and accurately guided on the
column ways.

 Slide with the broaches travels at various speeds

controlled by the hydraulic drive.
 Vertical broaching machine
 Its stroke is adjusted to suit the broaching operation to be performed.

 The slide has a rapid return stroke.

 The worktable 1 is mounted on the base in front of the column.

 It can be retracted to unload and load the broaching fixture and advanced to a preset

 broaching position.

 Workpiece 2 is held in a broaching fixture mounted on the table.

 After advancing the table to the broaching position, it is clamped and the slide with the
broach travels downwards, machining the workpiece.

 The table then recedes to load a new workpiece and the slide returns to its upper
position.
Continous broaching machine
 A continuous chain 4 travels in a horizontal plane over sprockets
mounted in box-shaped base 2.

 Fixtures 1 for locating and holding workpieces 3 are mounted at

intervals on the chain.

 Broach 5 is fixed horizontally above the chain, under bracket 7

mounted on the base.

 A rigid guiding member 6 is arranged under the chain in the zone

where the workpieces pass under the broach and provides for
horizontal motion of the chain so that a definite amount of stock is
removed from the workpieces.
Continous broaching machine

 The workpieces are loaded into the fixtures at station A where they are
clamped either manually or automatically.

 The workpieces, located and clamped on the travailing chain, passes

between the broach and the guiding plate and then are automatically
unclamped and ejected at station B where they drop into hopper 8 of the
machine.

 Continous surface broaching machine increases the productivity.

Surface broaching machine

 Surface broaching machines have their broaching tools attached to a ram or rams
forced in a straight path along guideways past the workpiece.

 On some machines the ram moves horizontally, on others vertically.

 When two rams are used, the machine is called a duplex broach.
 Nomenclature of broach tooth
 Pitch- linear distance between the cutting edge of the tooth and the corresponding edge of the
next tooth.

 Land- it is the top portion of the tool and is ground to provide a side clearence.

 Back off- correspondence to clearence angle of single point cutting tool.

 Hook or face angle- it is equal to rake angle of single point cutting tool.

 Tooth gullet or chip space - chips may curl up in the gullet or chip space.

 The front rake angle (face angle or hook angle) refers to rake angle

of a single point cutting tool and the back –off angle (relief angle) is

provided to prevent rubbing of tool with workpiece.

 Hook angle: 15° to 20° for steel; 6° to 8° for C.I. Back-off angle: 1° to 3°.
Cutter for broach
Examples of various shapes of broaching
 The front taper (5 to 20 mm) facilitates the insertion of the front pilot in the
hole.

 The first set of teeth behind the front pilot, removes most of the material
and are called “roughing teeth”.

 Theses are followed by a few teeth called “semifinishing teeth” where the
depth of cut of individual tooth is quite small.

 Finally, there are finishing or sizing teeth which are all of the same size and
have the shape of the finished hole.

 The “rear pilot” supports the broach after the last tooth leaves the hole.
Classification

 According to type of operation

 Internal broach - for enlarging existing hole to desired shape

 External broach - for machining external surface to desired shape, offers

better surface finish with high dimensional accuracy.

 According to method of operation

 Push type broach

 Pull type broach

Internal Broaching External Broaching
Push type broach Pull type broach
 broach is pushed through work  broach is pulled through work
while broaching while broaching
 broach must be shock to prevent  it is larger and subjected to
bending under compressive load tensile load.
 material removal rate is less, used  material removal rate is high, all
for sizing the hole & cutting surface broach are pull type
keyways.
Gear cutting
 Gear – provides positive power transmission and increase torque in many
kind of mechanical devices.

 Gears may be manufactured by casting, stamping, machining or by powder

metallurgical processes.

 Out of all such processes, the most common and accurate method of
production of gears is by machining.

 The different methods of production of gears by machining operations are

described below.
 Gear generating process
 Gear shaping - Gear shaping is one of the gear generating
methods.

 In this process gear tooth are accurately sized and shaped

by cutting them by a multipoint cutting tool.

 This process uses a pinion shaped cutter carrying

clearance on the tooth face and sides and a hole at its
centre for mounting it on a stub arbor or spindle of the
machine.

 The cutter is mounted by keeping its axis in vertical

position.
 It is also made reciprocating along the vertical axis up and down with
adjustable and predecide amplitude.

 The cutter and the gear blank both are set to rotate at very low rpm about their
respective axis.

 The relative rpm of both (cutter and blank) can be fixed to any of the available
value with the help of a gear train.

 This way all the cutting teeth of cutter come is action one-by-one giving
sufficient time for their cooling and incorporating a longer tool life.

 The specific advantages of the process over other processes, its product cycle
time is very low and negligible dimensional variability from one unit to other in
case of mass production.
 Gear hobbing – In addition to the gear shaping process another
process used for gear generation is gear hobbing.

 In this process, the gear blank is rolled with a rotating cutter

called hob.

 Gear hobbing is done by using a multipoint cutting tool called

gear hob.

 It looks like a worm gear having a number of straight flutes all

around its periphery parallel to its axis.

 These flutes are so shaped by giving proper angles to them so

that these work as cutting edges.
 In gear hobbing operation, the hob is rotated at a suitable rpm and
simultaneously fed to the gear blank.

 The gear blank is alos kept as revolving.

 Rpm of both, gear blank and gear hob are so synchronized that for each
revolution of gear hob the gear blank rotates by a distance equal to one pitch
distance of the gear to be cut.

 Motion of both gear blank and hob are maintained continuously and steady.

 Advantages - Continous cutting action makes it fastest generating process, does

not requires reciprocating and indexing motions, rate of production is high.

 Disadvantages - Hob is complicated and expensive tool, requires careful

regrinding, cannot cut internal gears, bevel gears, gear with adjacent shoulders.
Gear finishing
 Surface of gear teeth produced by any of the generating process is not
accurate and of good quality (smooth).

 Dimensional inaccuracies and rough surface generated so become the

source of lot of noise, excessive wear, play and backlash between the pair of
gears in mesh.

 These all result in loss of power to be transmitted and incorrect velocity

ratios.

 This can be summarized as inefficient power transmission.

 In order to over come these problems some finishing operations are

recommended for the produced gears.
 Gear finishing operations
 Gear shaving – it uses accurate shaving tools to remove
small amounts of material from a roughed gear to
correct profile errors and improve surface finish. A gear
shaving tool is of a type of rack or pinion having
hardened teeth provided with serrations. These
serrations serve as cutting edges which do a scrapping
operation on the mating faces of gear to be finished. Both
are gears in mesh are pressed to make proper mating
contact.
Gear burnishing schematic view
 Gear burnishing - The gear to be finished is mounted on a vertical
reciprocating shaft and it is kept in mesh with three hardened burnishing
compatible gears. The burnishing gears are fed into the cut gear and
revalued few revaluations in both the directions. Plastic deformation of
irregularities in cold state takes place to give smooth surface of the gear.

 Gear honing - It is used for super finishing of the generated gear teeth.
Honing machines are generally used for this operation. The hones are
rubbed against the profile generated on the gear tooth. Mainly used to
improve surface finish of the tooth profile. Gear honing is mostly used to
reduce the noise produced by spur gears and helical gears.
 Gear grinding - In this operation abrasive grinding wheel of a
particular shape and geometry are used for finishing of gear teeth.
Gear to be finished is mounted and reciprocated under the grinding
wheel. Each of the gear teeth is subjected to grinding operations
this way.

 Gear lapping - The process of lapping is used to improve surface

finish of already made teeth. In this process the gear to be lapped is
run under load in mesh with cast iron toothed laps. Abrasive paste
is introduced between the teeth. It is mixed with oil and made to
flow through the teeth. One of the mating members (either gear or
lapping tool) is reciprocated axially along with the revaluations.
 Roll finishing - This process involves use of two
hardened rolling dies containing very accurate tooth
profile of the gear to be finished. The gear to be
finished is et in between the two dies as shown in
figure and all three are revalued about their axis.
Pressure is exerted by both the rolling dies over the
gear to be finished. The material of the die is very
hard as compare to the material of gear so there is a
plastic deformation of high points and burrs on the
profile of gear tooth resulting to smooth surface.
Gear forming process / Form cutters
 Gear Milling - The gear milling operation is used for gear cutting.

 All types of gears can be made by using gear milling.

 Milling cutter is selected specifically for a particular type of gear and

module.

 The periphery of the gear blank is divided into required number of equi-
spaced parts.

 The required number of parts should be equal to the number teeth to be

made on the gear blank.

 The method of dividing the periphery is called indexing which is an

integral part of the operation of gear milling.
 In gear form cutting, the cutting edge of the cutting tool has a shape
identical with the shape of the space between the gear teeth.
 Gear broaching - The formed tooth principle can be utilised in a broaching
machine by making the broaching tool, conforming to the tooth space.

 In this process, full form finished gears are produced in one pass by a circular
broach having inward-facing teeth.

 It is important that adequate chip space provided and provision be made of

staggered chip breakers on successive broach teeth.

 However, this process has limited application, because of high initial cost of tooling
and is only used where mass production technique is to be applied.

 Gears can be broached accurately since a number of elements are controlled by the
accuracy of the broach.

 It can also produce fine finish.

 It is usually used only for internal spur and helical gears though it can be used for
external gears also.
 Bevel gear cutting procedure
 In manufacture of bevel gears, first the blanks performed by casting or forging
followed by machining to desired dimensions in lathes or special purpose
machine.

 Then the teeth are produced in the blank by machining.

 The way of machining and machine tool are chosen based on the form of teeth
and volume of production as follows.

 Straight toothed bevel gear

 Forming by milling cutter - low productivity and quality hence employed for
production requiring less volume and precision

 Generation - high accuracy and finish, hence applied for batch to mass
production.
Worm gear cutting procedure
 Worm gear includes worm wheel and worm.

 Hobbing of worm wheels: When cutting worm wheels,

the axis of the hob is set perpendicular to the axis of
rotation of the blank.

 The following principal motions are shown in figure.

 Principal rotary cutting motion of the hob.

 Continuous indexing rotary motion of the gear blank.

 Feed motion of the hob may be either one of the

following: Worm wheel hobbing through radial infeed;
Worm wheel hobbing through tangential feed.
Worm gear cutting
 The radial infeed method has a higher production capacity, however, a
small part of the hob in the mid length is actually doing the cutting. As a
result, the hob wears nonuniformly, if high gear accuracy is required, the
tangential feed method is used.

 Manufacture of worm: The screw like single or multi-start worms (gears)

made of steel are gener ally made by machining like long thread milling or
by cold rolling like thread rolling followed by heat treatment for surface
hardenining and finishing by grinding.
MACHINE TOOLS &
METROLOGY
MET307 RISHAD A R

MODULE 4
Metrology
 Metrology is the science of measurement which mainly deals with
measurement of size, form and positions.

 In general for any kind of quantity to be measured there must be a unit of

measurement and it should be possible to express the quantity in
numbers.

 Hence metrology is concerned with the establishment of units of

measurements and their standards.

 Metrology is used in many areas such as machine tool building, automobile

engineering, biomedical engineering, space applications, building science,
marine science and many other scientific and engineering fields.
Definition of metrology
 It is the science of measurement.
 There are national metrology institutes around the world to make sure
that the measurements we use are fit for the purpose.
Metrology has 3 basic activities.
1. The first one is defining the internationally accepted units of measurement.
2. Realization of units.
3. Establishing traceability.
Terminologies in measurement.
 Range - Range is defined as the difference between the lower and higher
values that an instrument is able to measure.

 Span - Span is the difference between maximum value and minimum value
of the quantity to be measured.

 Error - The deviation of the true value from the measured value.

 Sensitivity - Sensitivity of the instrument is defined as the ratio of the

magnitude of the output signal to the magnitude of the input signal. It
denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the
instruments responds. Sensitivity has no unique unit. It has wide range of
the units which dependent up on the instrument or measuring system.
 Repeatability - It is defined as the closeness of agreement among the
number of consecutive measurement of the output for the same value of
input under the same operating conditions. It may be specified in terms of
units for a given period of time.

 Calibration - Calibration is the process of determining and adjusting an

instruments accuracy to make sure its accuracy is with in manufacturing
specifications. It is the procsess of determining the values of the quantity
being measured corresponding to a pre established arbitrary scale. It is
the measurement of measuring instrument The quantity to be measured is
the input to the measuring instrument.
 Accuracy
 Accuracy is how close an individual value is to the true or accepted value.

 How close the measured value agree with true value?

 When an instrument has uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of
scale range.

 For example, the accuracy of a thermometer having a range of 5000C may be

expressed as ± 0.5 percent of scale range.

 This, means that the accuracy ,of the thermometer when the reading is 5000C is ±0.5
percent.

 Factors affecting accuracy - The ability of the operator, variation of temperature,

methods adopted for measurement, deformation of the instrument.
Precision
 Precision is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured.

 It expresses quality of the instrument.

 Precision is the consistency of a series of measurements

 Degree of exactness for which an instruments designed or intended to

perform.

 Precision is defined as the degrees of exactness for which an instrument is

designed or intended to perform.

 It can also defined as the ability of the instruments to reproduce a group of

the instruments as the same measured quantity under the same conditions.
Difference between accuracy &
precision
 Accuracy Precision
 Accuracy is closeness with the  Precision is a measure of the
true value of the quantity being reproducibility of the measurement.
measured.
 Measurement can be precise but not
 Measurement can be accurate but necessarily accurate.
not necessarily precise.
 It need several measurements to be
 It can be determined with a single
determined.
measurement.
 Precision may be affected with random
 Accuracy may be affected with
error.
systematic error.
 Precise values may or may not be
 Accurate values have to precise in
accurate.
most cases.
 Degree of reproducibility.
 Degree of conformity.
Error
 The difference between the true value and the mean value of the set of
readings on the same component is termed as an error.

 Error can also be defined as the difference between the indicated value and

the true value of the quantity measured.

 E = Vm − Vt where E is the error, Vm the measured value, and Vt the true value.

 Relative error is expressed as the ratio of the error to the true value of the
quantity to be measured.

 Accuracy of an instrument can also be expressed as % error.

 % error = Error / True value × 100

 % error = Vm − Vt/ Vt × 100

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

 While performing physical measurements, it is important to note that the

measurements obtained are not completely accurate, as they are
associated with uncertainty.

 Thus, in order to analyse the measurement data, we need to understand

the nature of errors associated with the measurements.

 Two broad categories of errors in measurement have been identified:

systematic and random errors.
 Systematic error Random error
 Not easy to detect  Easy to detect

 Cannot be eliminated by repeated  Can be minimized by repeated measurements

measurements
 Statistical analysis required
 Can be assessed easily
 Minimization of random errors increases
 Minimization of systematic errors
repeatability and hence precision of the measurement
increases the accuracy of measurement
 Calibration has no effect on random errors
 Calibration helps reduce systematic
errors  Characterized by mean, standard deviation, and
variance
 Characterization not necessary
 Random in nature and can be both positive and
 Reproducible inaccuracies that are
negative
consistently in the same direction
Measurement
 Measurement is defined as the quantification of a physical variable using a

measuring instrument.

 During the process of measurement, a specific value is assigned to the

unknown quantity after due comparison with a predefined standard.

Standards of Measurement
 The term standard is used to denote universally accepted specifications for
devices.

 A standard provides a reference for assigning a numerical value to a

measured quantity.

 The role of standards is to achieve uniform, consistent and repeatable

measurements through out the world.
For linear measurement there are three
standard
 Line standard

 End standard

 Wave length standard

Line standard & end standard
 When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two
lines, then it is called "Line Standard".

 Examples: Measuring scales, Imperial standard yard, International

prototype meter, etc.

 When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two
parallel faces, then it is called "End standard".

 End standards can be made to a very high degree of accuracy. Examples:

slip gauges, gap gauges, Ends of micrometer anvils, etc.

 Characteristics of Line Standards
 A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range of measurements.

 Even though scales can be engraved accurately, it is not possible to take full
advantage of this accuracy. The engraved lines themselves possess thickness, making
it difficult to perform measurements with high accuracy.

 The wear on the leading ends results in ‘under sizing’

 A scale does not have a built-in datum, which makes the alignment of the scale with
the axis of measurement difficult. This leads to undersizing.

 Scales are subjected to parallax effect, thereby contributing to both positive and
negative reading errors.

 A magnifying lens or microscope is required for close tolerance length

measurement.
 Characteristics of End Standards
 These standards are highly accurate and ideal for making close tolerance
measurement.

 They measure only one dimension at a time, thereby consuming more time.

 The measuring faces of end standards are subjected to wear.

 They possess a built-in datum because their measuring faces are flat and
parallel and can be positively located on a datum surface.

 Groups of blocks/slip gauges are wrung together to create the required size;
faulty wringing leads to inaccurate results.

 End standards are not subjected to parallax errors, as their use depends on
the feel of the operator.

 Dimensional tolerance as close as 0.0005 mm can be obtained.

 Line standard End standard
 Distance between two engraved  Distance between two flat and parallel
lines is used as a measure of length surfaces is used as a measure of length

 Limited accuracy of ±0.2 mm;  High accuracy of measurement; close

magnifying lens or microscope is tolerances upto ±0.0005 mm can be
required for high accuracy
obtained
 Measurements made using a scale
 Measurements made depend on the skill
are quick and easy
of the operator and are time consuming
 Markings on the scale are not
 Measuring surfaces are subjected to
subjected to wear. Wear may occur
wear
on leading ends, which results in
undersizing
Line standard End standard

 Alignment with the axis of  Alignment with the axis of

measurement is not easy, as they measurement is easy, as they possess
do not contain a built-in datum a built-in datum

 Manufacturing process is simple  Manufacturing process is complex

 Wringing does not exist  Slip gauges are wrung together to

build the required size

 Eg : Scale (yard and meter)  Eg : Slip gauges, end bars, ends of

micrometer anvils, and vernier
callipers
Material standard
 Two standard systems for linear measurement that have been accepted
and adopted worldwide are English and metric (yard and metre) systems.

 Most countries have realized the importance and advantages of the metric
system and accepted metre as the fundamental unit of linear
measurement.

 Yard or metre is defined as the distance between two scribed lines on a

bar of metal maintained under certain conditions of temperature and
support.
 Yard - The imperial standard yard is a bronze bar 1 sq. inch in cross-section
and 38 inches in length, having a composition of 82% Cu, 13% tin, and 5%
Zn.

 The bar contains holes of ½-inch diameter × ½-inch depth. It has two round
recesses, each located one inch away from either end and extends up to the
central plane of the bar.

 A highly polished gold plug having a diameter of 1/10 of an inch comprises

three transversely engraved lines and two longitudinal lines that are inserted
into each of these holes such that the lines lie in the neutral plane.

 The top surface of the plug lies on the neutral axis.

▪ Yard is then defined as the distance between the two central transverse
lines of the plug maintained at a temperature of 62°F.

Imperial standard yard

 Metre - This standard is also known as international prototype
metre, which was established in 1875.

 It is defined as the distance between the centre positions of the

two lines engraved on the highly polished surface of a 102 cm
bar of pure platinum–iridium alloy (90% platinum and 10%
iridium) maintained at 0°C under normal atmospheric
pressure and having the cross-section of a web, as shown in fig.

 The top surface of the web contains graduations coinciding

with the neutral axis of the section.

International prototype metre

 Disadvantages of Material Standards
 Material standards are affected by changes in environmental conditions such
as temperature, pressure, humidity, and ageing, resulting in variations in
length.

 Preservation of these standards is difficult because they must have

appropriate security to prevent their damage or destruction.

 Replicas of material standards are not available for use at other places.

 They cannot be easily reproduced.

 Comparison and verification of the sizes of gauges pose considerable difficulty.

 While changing to the metric system, a conversion factor is necessary.

 Wavelength standard
 By using wavelengths of a monochromatic light as a natural and invariable unit
of length, the dependency of the working standard on the physical standard can
be eliminated.

 The definition of a standard of length relative to the metre can easily be

expressed in terms of the wavelengths of light.

 The use of the interference phenomenon of light waves to provide a working

standard may thus be accepted as ultimate for all practical purposes.

 However, there were some objections to the use of the light wavelength
standard because of the impossibility of producing pure monochromatic light,
as wavelength depends upon the amount of isotope impurity in the elements.
Advantages of using wave length
standards:
 Length does not change.

 It can be easily reproduced easily if destroyed.

 This primary unit is easily accessible to any physical laboratories.

 It can be used for making measurements with much higher accuracy than
material standards.

 Wavelength standard can be reproduced consistently at any time and at

any place.
CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS BASED ON
ACCURACY
 Primary standards - For defining the unit precisely, there shall be one and only
one material standard.

 Primary standards are preserved carefully and maintained under standard

atmospheric conditions so that they do not change their values.

 This has no direct application to a measuring problem encountered in engineering.

 These are used only for comparing with secondary standards.

 International yard and international metre are examples of standard units of

length.

 The primary standard for meter is the distance traveled by light in vacauum
during 1/299,792,458 seconds.
 Secondary standards - These are derived from primary standards and resemble
them very closely with respect to design, material, and length.

 Any error existing in these bars is recorded by comparison with primary

standards after long intervals.

 These are kept at different locations under strict supervision and are used for
comparison with tertiary standards (only when it is absolutely essential).

 These safeguard against the loss or destruction of primary standards.

 Eg: Standards in National Physical Laboratory (NPL), Delhi.

 Tertiary standards - Primary and secondary standards are the ultimate controls
for standards; these are used only for reference purposes and that too at rare
intervals.

 Tertiary standards are reference standards employed by NPL and are used as the
first standards for reference in laboratories and workshops.
 Working standards - These are used more frequently in workshops and
laboratories.

 When compared to the other three standards, the materials used to make
these standards are of a lower grade and cost.

 These are calibrated with secondary standards and are used for
calibration of commercial and industrial measuring instruments.

 Eg: Gauge blocks, angle blocks, etc..

Limits, Fits, and Tolerances
 When machining, it is impossible to manufacture a number of pieces to an
exact measurement.

 There will always be some difference in size. As a result limits are set.

 This means that what the machinist manufactures can differ from the proper
size by the small amount stated by the limits, and still be able to be used.

 The required size of the component, before the limits are set, is called the basic
size or nominal size. Then the Upper Limit and the Lower Limit are set.

 The limits are the maximum and minimum sizes allowable.

 E.g. 22.00 mm …. Nominal size, 22.02 mm… upper limit , 21.97 mm….
lower limit
 To get the :
 Upper Deviation ---- Subtract the Nominal Size from the Upper Limit. i.e.
0.02 mm
 Lower Deviation ---- Subtract the Lower Limit from the Nominal Size. i.e.
0.03 mm
 Limits are usually written in this way:

❖ These Limits tell the manufacturer that the component can be any size
between 22.02mm and 21.97mm.
Taylor’s principle

 Go Limit : It refers to upper limit of the shaft and lower limit of a hole.
Correponds to maximum material condition.

 No Go limit : It refers to the lower limit of the shaft and upper limit of the
hole. Corresponds to minimum material condition.
 Tolerance
 The tolerance is the difference between the upper limit and the lower limit. i.e.
0.05 mm in this case.

 The tolerance is the total amount by which the size of the component can differ
from the nominal size.

 A tolerance is said to be bilateral if it is spread over both sides of the nominal size.
The above example is an example of a bilateral tolerance.

 A Tolerance is said to be unilateral if it is only on one side of the nominal size.

 E.g.

❖ These Limits tell the manufacturer that the component can be any size between
22.00mm and 22.02mm.
 FITS
 The relationship between the two mating parts with respect to the difference in
their dimensions before assembly is called fit.

 In other words, degree of tightness or looseness between the two mating parts
is known as fit.

 In any machine, parts must fit together in certain ways in order to operate.

 The fit is determined by the size of the mating parts.

 There are 3 types of fits: Clearance fit, Transition fit, Interference fit.
 In the case of a Clearance fit, the shaft is always smaller than the hole.

 Eg. Axle in a bearing, the axle must be free to rotate without friction.

 With a Transition Fit some shafts may be a little smaller than the hole and
some may be a little larger.

 Eg. The lid of a pen. The lid must fit on securely but not be too difficult to
remove. This is a push fit.

 In the case of an Interference Fit, the shaft is always larger than the hole.

 Eg. Bearing in a chassis. The bearing must not rotate in the chassis. This is
a force fit.
NOTE:
 Minimum clearence = Lower limit of hole – Upper limit of shaft
= Difference between max. material limits
 Maximum clearence = Upper limit of hole – Lower limit of shaft
= Difference between min. material limits
 Minimum interference = Lower limit of shaft – Upper limit of hole
= Difference between min. material limits
 Maximum interference = Upper limit of shaft – Lower limit of hole
= Difference between max. material limits
 Allowance
 Allowance is the difference between maximum material limits.

 Allowance = Lower limit of hole – Upper limit of shaft

 Allowance = LLH – ULS

 Allowance may be positive or negative.

 When the shaft size is less than hole size, then the allowance is positive.

 When the shaft size is greater than the hole size, then the allowance is negative.

 Clearance fit indicates positive allowance

 Transition fit indicates negative allowance (with tolerance overlap)

 Interference fit indicated by a negative allowance (without tolerance overlap)

 Basis of Limit System

Hole basis system Shaft basis system

❖ When the hole is kept as a constant member and different fits are obtained by
varying the shaft size, then the limit system is said to be on a hole basis.
❖ When the shaft is kept as a constant member and different fits are obtained by
varying the hole size, then the limit is said to be on a shaft basis.
 PRINCIPLE OF INTERCHANGEABILITY & its
advantages
 Modern production techniques require that a complete product be broken into
various component parts so that the production of each part becomes an
independent process, leading to specialization.

 When interchangeable manufacture is adopted, any one component selected at

random should assemble with any other arbitrarily chosen mating component. In
order to assemble with a predetermined fit, the dimensions of the components must
be confined within the permissible tolerance limits.

 By interchangeable assembly, we mean that identical components, manufactured by

different operators, using different machine tools and under different environmental
conditions, can be assembled and replaced without any further modification during
the assembly stage and without affecting the functioning of the component when
assembled.
 Production on an interchangeable basis results in an increased productivity with
a corresponding reduction in manufacturing cost.

 For example, consider the assembly of a shaft and a part with a hole. The two
mating parts are produced in bulk, say 1000 each. By interchangeable assembly
any shaft chosen randomly should assemble with any part with a hole selected at
random, providing the desired fit.

 Advantages - The assembly of mating parts is easier. Since any component

picked up from its lot will assemble with any other mating part from another lot
without additional fitting and machining, it enhances the production rate, the
standardization of machine parts and manufacturing methods is decided, it
brings down the assembling cost drastically, replacement of worn out parts is
easy, repairing of existing machines or products is simplified because component
parts can be easily replaced.
 Universal & local interchangeability
 When the parts that are manufactured at different locations are randomly
chosen for assembly, it is known as universal interchangeability. To achieve
universal interchangeability, it is desirable that common standards be
followed by all and the standards used at various manufacturing locations be
traceable to international standards.

 When the parts that are manufactured at the same manufacturing unit are
randomly drawn for assembly, it is referred to as local interchangeability. In
this case, local standards are followed, which in turn should be traceable to
international standards, as this becomes necessary to obtain the spares from
any other source.
 Selective Assembly Approach
 The selective assembly can be referred to as a concept where the subcomponents
are assembled to form a proper final assembly which will in return provide the
highest tolerance specification.

 Using selective assembly when the parts are being manufactured, the selective
assembly resembles an old concept of inspection, in which the component is being
identified as good or bad. If all the parts are correct and the component is good
then it will be used for assembly or else it will be used for scrap purposes.

 In selective assembly, if the components are divided into different categories, then
the groups will be organized according to the sizes and dimensions. We have to
make sure that all the parts are grouped together and all are ready for mating so
that every component will match with the corresponding sized component to form
an assembled part.
 If a small shaft is mated with small holes, then large holes will be mated with
large shafts. For clearance and interference fits in selective assembly, the
minimum value increases and maximum value decreases, where as for
transition fit the maximum value of clearance and interference fit decreases.

 Selective assembly finds application in aerospace and automobile industries.

 A very pertinent and practical example is the manufacture and assembly of ball
and bearing units, as the tolerances desired in such industries are very narrow
and impossible to achieve economically by any sophisticated machine tools.

 Balls are segregated into different groups depending on their size to enable the
assembly of any bearing with balls of uniform size.

 In a broader sense, a combination of both interchangeable and selective

assemblies exists in modern-day manufacturing industries, which help to
manufacture quality products.
 Limit Gauges
 These are the gauges which are used to check the limits of a part.
These are two types.
 GO Gauge
 NO GO Gauge
 Materials used for gauges : High carbon steel, Mild Steel, Case hardened
steel, Chromium plated & Hard alloys, Cast Iron, Glass, Invar.
Design of limit gauges:
❖ During designing of limit gauges it is required to satisfy the principles.

✓ The basic principle : According basic principle no rejectable component is

allowed to accept but there is no problem in rejecting the acceptable
component.
 Limit Gauges
 Limit gauges are inspection tools of rigid design, without a scale, used for
checking the size, shape and relative positions of various parts.

 Limit gauges do not indicate the actual value of the dimensions of the
inspected part but they are used to determine whether the part is made
within specified limit or not.

 The gauges required to check the dimensions of the components

correspond to two sizes conforming to the maximum and minimum limits
of the components. They are called GO gauges or NO GO or NOT GO gauges,
which correspond, respectively, to the MML and LML of the component.
Desirable properties of Gauge Materials:
❖ The essential considerations in the selection of material of gauges are;

 Hardness to resist wear.

 Stability to preserve size and shape

 Corrosion resistance

 Machinability for obtaining the required degree of accuracy.

 Low coefficient of friction of expansion to avoid temperature effects.

Tailors Principle of Limit Gauges
 GO-Gauge is made for the maximum material limit of the component and it
has to incorporate as many dimension as it is possible to inspect in one
stroke at one stage.

 NO-GO-Gauge is made for the minimum material limit of the component.

 Separate NO-GO-Gauges must be used for each and every dimension.

Plain plug gauges
 Plain plug gauge
 Gauges that are used for gauging holes are known as plug gauges.

 Plain plug gauges are manufactured using hardened and stabilized wear-
resistant steel.
 The gauging surface of the plug gauges are ground and lapped to make it
smooth.
 Handles for these plug gauges may be made using any suitable steel.

 Handles made from light metal alloys can be used for heavy plain plug gauges.

 For smaller plain plug gauges, handles can be made using a suitable non-
metallic material.

 Double-ended-type plug gauges for sizes up to 63 mm and single-ended-

type gauges for sizes above 63 mm are recommended as standards.
 In order to protect the plug gauges against climatic conditions, they are
normally coated with a suitable anticorrosive coating.
 Plain plug gauges are designated by specifying
1. nominal size
2. ‘GO’ and ‘NOT GO’ on the GO and NOT GO sides, respectively
3. class of tolerance of the workpiece to be gauged
4. the manufacturer’s name and trademark
5. marking the NOT GO side with a red colour band to distinguish it from the
GO side, irrespective of whether the gauge is single or double ended.

 For example, if the plain plug is designated (according to Indian standard IS:
3484) as ‘GO and NOT GO plain plug gauge 40 H7, IS: 3484’, it means that it is
a plain plug gauge for gauging a bore having a nominal size of 40 mm with a
tolerance of H7 and is as per Indian standard.
Plain ring gauges
Plain Ring Gauge
 A circular measuring device of a standard size that is used to inspect
cylindrical parts.

 Plain ring gauges are used to check whether the obtained dimension of shaft
lies within the specified limit or not.

 They are made up of suitable wear resisting steel and the gauging surfaces
(contact surfaces) are suitably hardened Gauging surfaces are first suitably
stabilized using proper heat treat ment process and then ground (using
grinder) and lapped.

 An anti-corrosive coating is provided on the gauging or contact surfaces, to

prevent against corrosion.
 Double ended type ring gauges are not found.

 Only single ended ring gauges are available in two designs.

1. GO ring gauges 2. NO GO ring gauges

 They are available in two ranges

1. 3 to 70 mm in 10 steps 2. 70 to 250 mm in 17 steps

 Figure above shows 'GO' type of ring gauge (single ended), used to check diameter
of shaft.

 A shaft is treated as acceptable, if it enters into hole of ring gauge.

 Similarly, we can draw a NO GO type planning gauge (single ended) to check

diameter of same shaft.

 Only difference found in NO GO ring gauge is slight decrease in its hole diameter.

 A shaft is treated as acceptable if shaft does not enter into hole of NO GO ring
gauge.
 They are designated with following parameters marked on handle
1. Nominal size
2. Class of tolerance
3. Actual values of tolerance
4. The word 'GO' on GO side
5. The word NO GO on NO GO side
6. Manufacturer’s trademark
 Example: GO and NO GO plain ring gauge 25h7,I.S : 3484.
 Snap gauges

Double ended snap gauge Progressive snap gauge

Snap Gauges
 Snap gauges are used to gauge the shaft to ascertain whether the
dimensions of the shafts are well within the tolerance limits.

 These gauges like plug gauges are also manufactured using hardened and
stabilized wear-resistant steel.

 The gauging surface is ground and lapped.

 Shafts of sizes ranging from 3 to 100 mm can conveniently be gauged using

double-ended snap gauges.

 For sizes over 100 and up to 250 mm, single-ended progressive-type snap

gauges are used.

 They are designated with following parameters marked on handle
1. Nominal size
2. Class of tolerance
3. Actual values of tolerance
4. The word ‘GO’ on GO side
5. The word ‘NO GO’ on NO GO side
 The ‘NO GO’ side is always painted with red band.
 Example : GO and NO GO snap gauge 25h7, IS:3484.
 Slip gauges
 Slip gauges are used as standards of measurement for checking the accuracy of
measuring instruments such as micrometres, vernier callipers, snap gauges,
dial indicators etc.

 Slip gauges are referred as precision gauge blocks. They can be used as

❖ Length standards , For accurate measuring machines

❖ Height standards for setting up sine bars for angular measurements

 Construction – These are rectangular blocks of section about 30mm x 10mm x

thickness. The common type of material used to make slip gauges is 'Alloy steel’.
They are hardened and quenched before being finished to required size In
order to obtain a very high order of accuracy in flatness and parallelism of
opposite faces, the contact surfaces of slip gauges are super finished by
grinding and lapping.
Slip gauges
 Slip gauges are graded according to their accuracy as Grade 0, Grade I &
Grade II.

 Grade II is intended for use in workshops during actual production of

components, tools & gauges.

 Grade I is of higher accuracy for use in inspection departments.

 Grade 0 is used in laboratories and standard rooms for periodic

calibration of Grade I & Grade II gauges.
Sets of slip gauges
Important notes on building of Slip
Gauges
 Always start with the last decimal place.

 Then take the subsequent decimal places.

 Minimum number of slip gauges should be used by selecting the largest

possible block in each step.

 If in case protector slips are used, first deduct their thickness from the
required dimension then proceed as per above order.

 Wringing of slip gauges : Slip gauges are wrung together to give a stack of the
required dimension
Wringling
 Wringing is the phenomenon of adhesion of two flat and smooth surfaces
when they are brought into close contact with each other.

 The force of adhesion is such that the stack of a set of blocks will almost
serve as a single block, and can be handled and moved around without
disturbing the position of individual blocks.

 More importantly, if the surfaces are clean and flat, the thin layer of film
separating the blocks will also have negligible thickness.

 This means that stacking of multiple blocks of known dimensions will give
the overall dimension with minimum error.
Wringling of slip gauges
 Process of wringling
 For wringing together two slip gauges, their contact surfaces should be washed

with degreasing agents.

 These two contact surfaces are made completely dry using a clean leather.

 Slip gauges are held across one another at right angle and then wrung by giving a

rotary motion It reduces the amount of surface rubbing

 Gauges are wrung together by hand through combined sliding and twisting

motions

 Initially, one slip gauge is oscillated slightly over the other slip gauge labelled as

by applying slight pressure.

 This process is performed to detect presence of any foreign particle
between the two contact surfaces.

 One gauge is then placed over the other using standard gauging pressure
at 900. It means, both the slip gauges are held across one another at right
angle.

 Then rotary motion is imparted to the upper slip gauge, until it becomes
exactly aligned with lower slip gauge.

 Rotary motion is combination of slide and twist.

 This method of applying rotary motion decrease the amount of rubbing

between two contact surfaces of two slip gauges, thereby avoiding early
wear of contact surfaces. Thus, life of slip gauges can be increased.
Dial indicator
 Figure shows the mechanism used in a dial indicator in order to achieve high

magnification using a set of gears and pinions.

 The plunger and spindle are usually one piece.

 The spindle attached to the bottom of the rack is the basic sensing element.

 A coil spring resists the measurement movement and thereby applies the
necessary gauging pressure.

 Thus, the application of gauging pressure is built into the mechanism rather
than leaving it to the technician.

 It also returns the mechanism to the ‘at-rest’ position after each measurement.

 The plunger carries a rack, which meshes with a gear (marked pinion A in the
figure).
 A rack guide prevents the rotation of the plunger about its own axis.

 A small movement of the plunger causes the rack to turn gear A.

 A larger gear, B, mounted on the same spindle as gear A, rotates by the same
amount and transfers motion to pinion C.

 Attached to pinion C is another gear, D, which meshes with pinion E.

 Gear F is mounted on the same spindle as the indicator pointer.

 Thus, the overall magnification obtained in the gear train A–B– C–D–E is given
by TD/TE × TB/TC, where TD, TE, TB, and TC are the number of teeth on the
gears D, E, B, and C, respectively.

 The magnification is further enhanced at the tip of the pointer, depending on

the length of the pointer.
 A hair spring loads all the gears in the train against the direction of
gauging movement.

 This eliminates backlash that would be caused by gear wear.

 The gears are precision cut and usually mounted on jewelled bearings.
Feeler gauge
 A feeler gauge is a tool used to measure gap widths.

 Feeler gauges are mostly used in engineering to measure the clearance

between two parts. They consist of a number of small lengths of steel of
different thicknesses with measurements marked on each piece.

 They are flexible enough that, even if they are all on the same hinge,
several can be stacked together to gauge intermediate values.

 Feeler gauge available in of the blade like 10. 13, 20 and 28 with a step of
0.05and 0.10mm.

 The thickness of the blades is in fractions of mm and inches, usually

ranging from 0.03mm to 1mm.
 The feeler gauge has two major parts, a body or block which acts like a
protective case and a large number of blades of different thickness.

 The body is the base that holds the blades together.

 Feeler gauges are made entirely of steel so that they are corrosion free and
the blades do not rust easily.

 The working of feeler gauge is easy.

 The blades are kept on the vacant gap that needs to be measured, initially
one blade of standard thickness is kept, then if there are extra gaps other
blades are adjusted and joined together and used.
 Gauge tolerance
 Gauges like any other job, require a manufacturing tolerance, to
compensate for imperfections in the gauge making. This is known as
gauge tolerance.

 The gauges have to be manufactured to their required dimensions

corresponding to their maximum metal conditions.

 Gauges, like any other component, cannot be manufactured to their exact

size of dimensions.

 In order to accommodate these dimensional variations which arise due to

the limitations of the manufacturing process, skill of the operator, etc.
some tolerance must be allowed in the manufacture of gauges.
 Thus, the tolerance that is allowed in the manufacture of gauges is termed
gauge maker's tolerance or simply gauge tolerance.

 Logically, gauge tolerance should be kept as minimum as possible.

however, this increases the gauge manufacturing cost.

 There is no universally accepted policy for deciding the amount of

tolerance to be provided on gauges.

 The normal practice is to take gauge tolerance as 10% of the work

tolerance.
Wear allowance
 The measuring surfaces of Go gauges, which frequently rubs against the
surfaces of the work and it result in wearing of the surfaces of the gauges.

 The size of the GO plug gauges is reduced due to wear and hence a wear
allowance is added to the Go plug gauge in the direction opposite to
wear.

 The size of the GO ring gauges is increased due to wear and hence a wear
allowance is subtracted from the Go ring gauge in the direction opposite
to wear.
MACHINE TOOLS &
METROLOGY
MET307 RISHAD A R

MODULE 5
 Instruments for checking straightness, flatness and squareness
 Straightness measurement – spirit level, straight edges, autocollimator
 Flatness measurement – spirit level, optical flat, NPL flatness interferometer
 Squareness measurement – optical square , square master, NPL Tester
 Angular measurement – vernier bevel protractor, sine bar, angle gauges,
clinometer
 Optical measuring instruments – Interferometer, optical flat, tool
makers’ microscope, autocollimator
 Comparators - mechanical, optical, pneumatic, electric and
electronic comparators.
 Measurements of surface roughness
 Measurements of screw & gear
 Advanced measuring devices - Laser interferometers, Coordinate
Measuring Machine (CMM)
Straightness measurement
 Perfect straightness is one of the important geometrical parameters of
many of the surfaces on an object/part of machine in order to serve its
intended function.

 Straightness can be defined as one of the qualitative representations of

a surface in terms of variation/departure of its geometry from a
predefined straight line or true mean line.

 Commonly used methods for straightness measurement are: spirit level,

straight edges, autocollimator.
Flatness measurement
 Flatness is the deviation of the surface from the best-fitting plane, i.e., the
macro-surface topography.

 According to IS: 2063-1962, a surface is deemed to be flat within a range

of measurement when the variation of perpendicular distance of its points
from a geometrical plane (to be tested, it should be exterior to the surface
under study) parallel to the general trajectory of the plane to be tested
remains below a given value.

 The most common methods of testing flatness include: Beam comparator

method, optical flat, NPL flatness interferometer.
Squareness measurement
 Squareness measurement determines the out-of-squareness of two
nominally orthogonal axes, by comparing their straightness values.

 Squareness errors can have a significant effect on the positioning accuracy

and contouring ability of a machine.

 The most common instruments for squareness measurement are : Optical

square, NPL tester, square master.
Spirit level

 A spirit level is a basic ‘bubble instrument’, which is widely used in

engineering metrology for straightness or flatness measurement.

 The base, called the reference plane, is seated on the machine part for
which straightness or flatness is to be determined.
 Spirit level
 When the base is horizontal, the bubble rests at the centre of the graduated
scale, which is engraved on the glass.

 When the base of the spirit level moves out of the horizontal, the bubble shifts
to the highest point of the tube.

 The position of the bubble with reference to the scale is a measure of the
angularity of the machine part.

 This scale is calibrated to directly provide the reading in minutes or seconds.

 The sensitivity of the spirit level depends on the radius of curvature of

the bubble, and the base length of its mount.

 Angular measurement
 The precise measurement of angles is an important requirement in workshops
and tool rooms.
 We need to measure angles of interchangeable parts, gears, jigs, fixtures, etc
 There are a wide range of instruments, starting from simple scaled instruments
to sophisticated types that use laser interferometry techniques for angular
measurement.
 Commonly used angle measuring instruments are:
 Sine bar
 Vernier Bevel Protractor
 Angle gauges
 Clinometer
 Angle dekkor
Sine Bar
 SINE BAR
 Rollers of diameter ”d” are used
 The distance between the centers of the rollers is taken as length of sine bar.
 Measuring with Sine Bar:

 As “θ” increases sinθ does not increase at the same rate, hence for higher levels
of “θ” even a small error in “h” or “L” will cause greater errors than at lower
values of “θ”

Let h = height of slip gauge combination

L = length of sine bar

θ = setting/measuring angle

sinθ = h/L
Angle gauges
 Angle gauges, which are made of high-grade wear-resistant steel, work on
a principle similar to slip gauges.

 While slip gauges can be built to give linear dimensions, angle gauges can
be built to give the required angle.

 The gauges come in a standard set of angle blocks that can be wrung
together in a suitable combination to build an angle.

 The set of angle gauges consists of the following gauges.

 16 Gauge set consist of :

 Six blocks of 1°, 3°, 5°, 15°, 30°, and 45°

 Five blocks of 1', 3', 5', 20', and 30'
 Five blocks of 1", 3", 5", 20", and 30"

 It may be noted that each angle gauge is engraved with the symbol ‘<’, which
indicates the direction of the included angle.

 Obviously, when the angles of the gauges need to be added up, the symbol <
of all gauges should be in line.

 On the other hand, whenever an angle gauge is required to be subtracted

from the combination, the gauge should be wrung such that the symbol < is in
the other direction.
 Let us consider an angle 42°35′20'', which is to be built using the 16-gauge
set. Starting from degrees, the angle of 42° can be built by subtracting a 3°
block from a 45° block.

 The angle of 35' can be obtained by combining a 30' gauge with a 5' gauge.

 A 20" gauge is readily available.

 Angle gauges are used for measurement and calibration purposes in tool
rooms.

 It can be used for measuring the angle of a die insert or for inspecting
compound angles of tools and dies.

 They are also used in machine shops for either setting up a machine (e.g., the
revolving centre of a magnetic chuck) or for grinding notches on a cylindrical
grinding machine.
Clinometer
Clinometer working
 A clinometer is a special case of a spirit level.

 While the spirit level is restricted to relatively small angles, clinometers

can be used for much larger angles.

 It comprises a level mounted on a frame so that the frame may be turned

to any desired angle with respect to a horizontal reference.

 Clinometers are used to determine straightness and flatness of surfaces.

 They are also used for setting inclinable tables on jig boring machines and
angular jobs on surface grinding machines.

 They provide superior accuracy compared to ordinary spirit levels.

 To measure with clinometers, the base is kept on the surface of the
workpiece.

 The lock nut is loosened, and the dial comprising the circular scale is
gently rotated until the bubble in the spirit level is approximately at the
centre.

 Now, the lock nut is tightened and the fine adjustment nut is operated until
the bubble is exactly at the centre of the vial scale.

 The reading is then viewed through the eyepiece.

 Most clinometers in a metrology laboratory provide readings up to an

accuracy of 1’.

 Precision clinometers can be used if the accuracy requirement is up to 1".

Optical measuring instruments
 Optical measurement provides a simple, easy, accurate, and reliable means
of carrying out inspection and measurements in the industry.

 Since optical instruments are used for precision measurement, the

projected image should be clear, sharp, and dimensionally accurate.

 The design of mechanical elements and electronic controls should be

compatible with the main optical system.

 In general, an optical instrument should have the following essential

features:
 A light source

 A condensing or collimating lens system to direct light past the work part
and into the optical system

 A suitable stage or table to position the work part, the table preferably
having provisions for movement in two directions and possibly rotation
about a vertical axis

 The projection optics comprising lenses and mirrors

 A viewing screen or eyepiece to receive the projected image

 Measuring and recording devices wherever required

 When two light waves interact with each other, the wave effect leads to a
phenomenon called interference of light.

 Instruments designed to measure interference are known as

interferometers.

 Application of interference is of utmost interest in metrology.

 Microscopic magnification enables micron-level resolution for carrying out

inspection or calibration of masters and gauges.

 Lasers are also increasingly being used in interferometers for precision

measurement.
 INTERFEROMETERS(same principle of
optical flat)
 Interferometers are optical instruments that are used for very small linear
measurements.

 They are used for verifying the accuracy of slip gauges and measuring
flatness errors.

 It is provided with arrangements in order to control the lay and orientation

of fringes.

 It is also provided with a viewing or recording system, which eliminates

measurement errors.
 Laser Interferometers
 In interferometry, laser light exhibits properties similar to that of any ‘normal’
light.

 It can be represented by a sine wave whose wavelength is the same for the same
colours and amplitude is a measure of the intensity of the laser light.

 From the measurement point of view, laser interferometry can be used for
measurements of small diameters as well as large displacements.
Laser interferometer working
 The fixed unit called the laser head consists of laser, a pair of semi-reflectors,
and two photodiodes.

 The sliding unit has a corner cube mounted on it.

 The corner cube is a glass disk whose back surface has three polished faces that
are mutually at right angles to each other.

 The corner cube will thus reflect light at an angle of 180°, regardless of the
angle at which light is incident on it.

 The photodiodes will electronically measure the fringe intensity and provide an
accurate means for measuring displacement.
 Laser interferometer working
 Laser light first falls on the semi-reflector P, is partially reflected by 90° and falls
on the other reflector S.

 A portion of light passes through P and strikes the corner cube.

 Light is turned through 180° by the corner cube and recombines at the semi-
reflector S.

 If the difference between these two paths of light (PQRS − PS) is an odd number
of half wavelengths, then interference will occur at S and the diode output will be
at a minimum.

 On the other hand, if the path difference is an even number of half wavelengths,
then the photodiodes will register maximum output.
 It must have now become obvious to you that each time the moving slide is
displaced by a quarter wavelength, the path difference (i.e., PQRS − PS)
becomes half a wavelength and the output from the photodiode also
changes from maximum to minimum or vice versa.

 This sinusoidal output from the photodiode is amplified and fed to a high-
speed counter, which is calibrated to give the displacement in terms of
millimetres.

 The purpose of using a second photodiode is to sense the direction of

movement of the slide.
Laser interferometer purpose
 Laser interferometers are used to calibrate machine tables, slides, and axis
movements of coordinate measuring machines.

 The equipment is portable and provides a very high degree of accuracy

and precision.
Optical flats
 An optical flat is a disk of high-quality glass or
quartz.

 The surface of the disk is ground and lapped to a

high degree of flatness. Sizes of optical flats vary
from 25 to 300 mm in diameter, with a thickness
ranging from 25 to 50 mm.

 When an optical flat is laid over a flat reflecting

surface, it orients at a small angle θ, due to the
presence of an air cushion between the two
surfaces.
 When light from a monochromatic light source is made to
fall on an optical flat, which is oriented at a very small angle
with respect to a flat reflecting surface, a band of alternate
light and dark patches is seen by the eye.

 Figure illustrates the typical fringe pattern seen on a flat

surface viewed under an optical flat.

 In case of a perfectly flat surface, the fringe pattern is

regular, parallel, and uniformly spaced.

 Any deviation from this pattern is a measure of error in the

flatness of the surface being measured.
 Fringe patterns provide interesting insights into the
surface being inspected.

 They reveal surface conditions like contour lines on a

map.

 Figure illustrates typical fringe patterns, and table

offers useful hints about the nature of surfaces
corresponding to the patterns.

 Once we recognize surface configurations from their

fringe patterns, it is much easier to measure the
configurations.
 Fringe pattern and the resulting surface
conditions
Fringe Surface condition
pattern
A Block is nearly flat along its length.
B Fringes curve towards the line of contact, showing that the surface is convex and high in the centre.
C Surface is concave and low in the centre.
D Surface is flat at one end but becomes increasingly convex.
E Surface is progressively lower towards the bottom left-hand corner.
F There are two points of contact, which are higher compared to other areas of the block.
NOTE : RETICLE
 The element that makes a microscope a measuring
instrument is the reticle.

 When the image is viewed through the eyepiece, the

reticle provides a reference or datum to facilitate
measurement.

 Specialized reticles have been developed for precise

setting. Types of reticles
 A typical reticle has two ‘crosswires’, which can be aligned
(a) Type A
with a reference line on the image of the workpiece. (b) Type B
(c) Type C
(d) Type D
Optical tool makers’ microscope
 It features a vertical supporting column, and the workpiece is loaded on an XY
stage, which has a provision for translatory motion in two principal directions in
the horizontal plane.

 Micrometers are provided for both X and Y axes to facilitate linear measurement
to a high degree of accuracy.

 The entire optical system is housed in the measuring head.

 The measuring head can be moved up and down along the supporting column
and the image can be focused using the focusing knob.

 The measuring head can be locked into position by operating the clamping screw.

 An angle dial built into the eyepiece portion of the optical tube allows easy angle
measurement.

 A surface illuminator provides the required illumination of the object, so that a

sharp and clear image can be obtained.
 Figure illustrates the procedure for linear measurement.

 A measuring point on the workpiece is aligned with one of the cross-wires and
the reading R1 on the microscope is noted down.

 Now, the XY table is moved by turning the micrometer head, and

another measuring point is aligned with the same cross-wire.

 The reading, R2 is noted down.

 The difference between the two readings represents the

dimension between the two measuring points.

 Since the table can be moved in two mutually perpendicular directions (both
in the longitudinal as well as transverse directions) using the micrometers, a
precise measurement can be obtained.

 In some tool maker’s microscopes, instead of a micrometer head, vernier

scales are provided for taking readings.
Applications of Tool Maker’s Microscope
 It is used in shop floor inspection of screw threads, gears, and other small
machine parts.

 Its application includes precision measurement of test tools in tool rooms.

 It helps determine the dimensions of small holes, which cannot be

measured with micrometers and callipers.

 It facilitates template matching inspection. Small screw threads and

involute gear teeth can be inspected using the optional template reticles.

 It enables inspection of tapers on small components up to an accuracy of

61.
Autocollimator
 It is a special form of telescope that is used to measure small angles with a
high degree of resolution.

 It is used for various applications such as precision alignment, verification

of angle standards, and detection of angular movement, among others.

 It projects a beam of collimated light onto a reflector, which is deflected by

a small angle about the vertical plane.

 The light reflected is magnified and focused on to an eyepiece or a photo

detector.

 The deflection between the beam and the reflected beam is a measure of
the angular tilt of the reflector.
 The reticle is an illuminated target with a cross-hair pattern, which is
positioned in the focal plane of an objective lens.

 A plane mirror perpendicular to the optical axis serves the purpose of

reflecting an image of the pattern back on to the observation point.

 A viewing system is required to observe the relative position of the image

of the cross-wires.

 This is done in most of the autocollimators by means of a simple eyepiece.

 If rotation of the plane reflector by an angle θ results in the displacement

of the image by an amount d, then, d = 2fθ, where f is the focal length of the
objective lens.
Applications Of Autocollimator

 Direct testing of machine tool slides.

 Measuring very small angles.

 Checking for similarities.

 Checking the base of the column.

 Checking the flatness of bed plates and surface tables.

 Measuring very small displacement.

 Checking for smaller linear displacement.

Advantages Of Autocollimator

 It has very high accuracy.

 It can measure a wide range of angles.

 It is very easy to install and operate.

 Calibration surpassing international standards.

 It can be used to visually or electronically view the result, i.e., on the

computer screen.

 A wide range of available accessories and levels.

Disadvantages Of Autocollimator

 Maintenance is required regularly.

 It is time-consuming.

 It requires sample cutting and processing for tracing by the detector.

 Comparators
 All measurements require the unknown quantity to be compared with a
known quantity, called the standard.

 A measurement is generally made with respect to time, mass, and length.

 In each of these cases, three elements are involved: the unknown, the
standard, and a system for comparing them.

 We came across linear measurement instruments, such as verniers and

micrometers, in which standards are in-built and calibrated.

 Hence, these instruments enable us to directly measure a linear dimension up

to the given degree of accuracy.

 On the other hand, in certain devices the standards are separated from the
instrument.
 It compares the unknown length with the standard.

 Such measurement is known as comparison measurement and the

instrument, which provides such a comparison, is called a comparator.

 In other words, a comparator works on relative measurement.

 It gives only dimensional differences in relation to a basic dimension or master

setting.

 Comparators are generally used for linear measurements, and the various
comparators currently available basically differ in their methods of amplifying
and recording the variations measured.
Direct measurement versus comparison
measurement
 As can be seen in the figure, a calibrated standard directly gives the
measured value in case of direct measurement.

 On the other hand, a comparator has to be set to a reference value (usually

zero setting) by employing a standard.

 Once it is set to this reference value, all subsequent readings indicate the
deviation from the standard.

 The deviation can be read or recorded by means of a display or recording

unit, respectively.

 Accuracy of direct measurement depends on four factors: accuracy of the

standard, accuracy of scale, least count of the scale, and accuracy of
reading the scale.
 Functional requirements of comparators
 A comparator should have a high degree of accuracy and precision.

 The scale should be linear and have a wide range.

 A comparator is required to have high amplification.

 A comparator should have good resolution, which is the least possible unit of
measurement that can be read on the display device of the comparator.

 There should be a provision incorporated to compensate for temperature

effects

 Finally, the comparator should be versatile. It should have provisions to select

different ranges, attachments, and other flexible means, so that it can be put
to various uses.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPARATORS
 With respect to the principle used for amplifying and recording
measurements, comparators are classified as follows:

1. Mechanical comparators (dial indicator – discussed in module 4)

2. Mechanical–optical comparators

3. Electrical and electronic comparators

4. Pneumatic comparators
Optical comparators
 As the name of the comparator itself suggests, this has a mechanical part and

an optical part.

 Small displacements of a measuring plunger are initially amplified by a lever

mechanism pivoted about a point, as shown in figure.

 The mechanical system causes a plane reflector to tilt about its axis.

 This is followed by a simple optical system wherein a pointed image is

projected onto a screen to facilitate direct reading on a scale.

 The plunger is spring loaded such that it is biased to exert a downward force

on the work part.

 This bias also enables both positive and negative readings, depending on

whether the plunger is moving up or down.

 The scale is set to zero by inserting a reference gauge below the plunger.

 Now, the reference gauge is taken out and the work part is introduced below
the plunger.

 This causes a small displacement of the plunger, which is amplified by the

mechanical levers.

 The amplified mechanical movement is further amplified by the optical

system due to the tilting of the plane reflector.

 A condensed beam of light passes through an index, which normally

comprises a set of cross-wires.

 This image is projected by another lens onto the plane mirror.

 The mirror, in turn, reflects this image onto the inner surface of a ground
glass screen, which has a scale.
 The difference in reading can be directly read on this calibrated screen, which
provides the linear difference in millimetres or fractions of a millimetre.

 Optical magnifications provide a high degree of precision in measurements

due to the reduction of moving members and better wear-resistance qualities.

 Mechanical amplification = l2/l1 and optical amplification = 2 (l4/l3).

 The multiplication factor 2 figures in the optical amplification because if the

mirror is tilted by θ°, then the image is tilted by 2θ° over the scale.

 Thus, the overall magnification of the system is given by 2 × (l4/l3) × (l2/l1).

Electrical Comparators
 Electrical and electronic comparators are in widespread use because of
their instantaneous response and convenience in amplifying the input.

 Electrical comparators generally depend on a Wheatstone bridge circuit

for measurement.

 A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is one of the most

popular electromechanical devices used to convert small mechanical
displacements (of the order of a few millimetres or fractions of a
millimetre) into amplified electrical signals.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
 Electrical transformer measuring linear displacement.

 Construction of LVDT- One Primary coil, Two symmetric

secondary coils, Ferromagnetic core. Primary coil

Ferromagnetic core
Secondary coils
 The primary coil is energized with a A.C.
 The two secondary coils are identical, symmetrically distributed.
 The two secondary coils are connected in opposition.
 Working -

 If the core is located midway between S1 and S2 - Equal flux is coupled to

each secondary. Voltage E1 and E2 are equal. The differential voltage
output, (E1 - E2 ), is zero. This core position is called null point.

 If the core is moved closer to S1 than to S2, more flux is coupled to S1 than
S2. The induced voltage E1 is increased while E2 is decreased. The
differential voltage is (E1 - E2).

 If the core is moved closer to S2 than to S1, more flux is coupled to S2 than
to S1, the induced E2 is increased as E1 is decreased. The differential
voltage is (E2 - E1).
Construction details of an LVDT Characteristic curve of an LVDT
Advantage of LVDT
1. It directly converts mechanical displacement into a proportional
electrical voltage. This is unlike an electrical strain gauge, which requires
the assistance of some form of elastic member.

2. It cannot be overloaded mechanically. This is because the core is

completely separated from the remainder of the device.

3. It is highly sensitive and provides good magnification.

4. It is relatively insensitive to temperature changes.

5. It is reusable and economical to use.

Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
 The term measuring machine generally refers to a single-axis measuring
instrument.

 Such an instrument is capable of measuring one linear dimension at a time.

 The term coordinate measuring machine refers to the instrument/machine

that is capable of measuring in all three orthogonal axes.

 A CMM enables the location of point coordinates in a three-dimensional (3D)

space.

 It simultaneously captures both dimensions and orthogonal relationships.

 Another remarkable feature of a CMM is its integration with a computer.

 The computer provides additional power to generate 3D objects as well as to
carry out complex mathematical calculations.

 Complex objects can be dimensionally evaluated with precision and speed.

 The primary application of CMM is for inspection.

 Since its functions are driven by an on-board computer, it can easily be

integrated into a computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) environment.

 Its potential as a sophisticated measuring machine can be used under the

following conditions:

 Multiple features The more the number of features (both dimensional and
geometric) that are to be controlled, the greater the value of CMM.
 Flexibility It offers flexibility in measurement, without the necessity to use
accessories such as jigs and fixtures.

 Automated inspection Whenever inspection needs to be carried out in a

fully automated environment, CMM can meet the requirements quite
easily.

 High unit cost If rework or scrapping is costly, the reduced risk resulting
from the use of a CMM becomes a significant factor.
 Figure illustrates the five basic configuration types:

 Cantilever The vertically positioned probe is carried by a cantilevered arm. The

probe moves up and down along the Z-axis, whereas the cantilever arm moves in
and out along the Y-axis (lateral movement). The longitudinal movement is
provided by the X-axis, which is basically the work table. This configuration
provides easy access to the workpiece and a relatively large work volume for a
small floor space. Fig (a)

 Bridge A bridge-type configuration is a good choice if better rigidity in the

structure is required. The probe unit is mounted on a horizontal moving bridge,
whose supports rest on the machine table. Fig (b)

 Column This configuration provides exceptional rigidity and accuracy. It is quite

similar in construction to a jig boring machine. Machines with such a
configuration are often referred to as universal measuring machines. Fig (c)
 Horizontal arm In this type of configuration, the probe is carried by the
horizontal axis. The probe assembly can also move up and down along a
vertical axis. It can be used for gauging larger workpieces since it has a large
work volume. It is often referred to as a layout. Fig (d)

 Gantry In this configuration, the support of the workpiece is independent of

the X- and Y-axis. Both these axes are overhead and supported by four
vertical columns from the floor. The operator can walk along with the probe,
which is desirable for large workpieces. Fig (e)
 Structure of CMM
 The basic version of a CMM has three axes, along three mutually perpendicular
directions.

 Thus, the work volume is cuboidal.

 A carriage is provided for each axis, which is driven by a separate motor.

 While the straight line motion of the second axis is guided by the first axis, the third
axis in turn is guided by the second axis.

 Each axis is fitted with a precision measuring system, which continuously records
the displacement of the carriage from a fixed reference.

 The third axis carries a probe. When the probe makes contact with the workpiece,
the computer captures the displacement of all the three axes.

 Depending on the geometry of the workpiece being measured, the user can choose
any one among the five popular physical configurations.
Modes of operation of CMM - Manual,
Semi-automated, Computer controlled
 The manual CMM has a free-floating probe that the operator moves along
the machine’s three axes to establish contact with part features. The
differences in the contact positions are the measurements.

 A semi-automatic machine is provided with an electronic digital display

for measurement. Many functions such as setting the datum, change of
sign, and conversion of dimensions from one unit to another are done
electronically.

 A computer-controlled CMM has an on-board computer, which increases

versatility, convenience, and reliability.
Probe
 The probe is the main sensing element in a CMM.

 Generally, the probe is of ‘contact’ type, that is, it is in physical contact with
the workpiece when the measurements are taken.

 Contact probes may be either ‘hard’ probes or ‘soft’ probes.

 Some CMMs also use a non-contact-type.

 A probe assembly comprises the probe head, probe, and stylus.

 The probe is attached to the machine quill by means of the probe head and
may carry one or more styli.

 Some of the probes are motorized and provide additional flexibility in

recording coordinates.
 The stylus is integral with hard probes and comes in various shapes such as
pointed, conical, and ball end.

 As a power feed is used to move the probe along different axes, care should
be exercised when contact is made with the workpiece to ensure that
excessive force is not applied on the probe.

 Excessive contact force may distort either the probe itself or the workpiece,
resulting in inaccuracy in measurement.

 Use of soft probes mitigates this problem to a large extent.

 Soft probes make use of electronic technology to ensure application of

optimum contact pressure between the probe and the workpiece.

 Linear voltage differential transformer heads are generally used in

electronic probes.
 Some measurement situations, for example, the inspection of printed circuit
boards, require non-contact-type probes.

 Measurement of highly delicate objects such as clay or wax models may also
require this type of probe.

 Most non-contact probes employ a light beam stylus.

 This stylus is used in a manner similar to a soft probe.

 The distance from the point of measurement is known as standoff and is

normally 50 mm.

 The system provides 200 readings per second for surfaces with good
contrast.

 The system has high resolution of the order of 0.00005 mm.

 However, illumination of the workpiece is an important aspect that must be

taken into consideration to ensure accurate measurement.
 CMM - Application
 A CMM can easily be integrated into an automated inspection system. The
computer controls easy integration in an automated environment such as an
FMS or a CIM. The major economic benefit is the reduction in downtime for
machining while waiting for inspection to be completed.

 A CMM may be interfaced with a CNC machine so that machining is corrected as

the workpiece is inspected. A further extension of this principle may include
computer-assisted design and drafting (CADD).

 CMM can be used for determining dimensional accuracy of the components.

 For aircraft and space vehicles, hundred percent inspections is carried out by
using CMM.
Surface Finish

 Surface Texture or surface defects produced on machined surface:

 Surface texture: This are small departures from its original geometric
form which occurring at regular (or) irregular interval tend to form a
pattern or texture on the surface.
 Roughness : Roughness is the short wavelength irregularities arising from
the production process which comprise individual scratch or tool marks
such as that produced by a single traverse of a planning tool across the
surface.

 Waviness : Waviness is the longer wavelength irregularities upon which

roughness is super imposed.

 Lay : The lay is the tool or scratch marks taken collectively which
characterizes the particular process.

 Flaw or defect : A defect present on the machined surface.

ANALYSIS OF SURFACE TRACES
 It is required to assign a numerical value to surface roughness in order to
measure its degree.

 This will enable the analyst to assess whether the surface quality meets
the functional requirements of a component.

 Various methodologies are employed to arrive at a representative

parameter of surface roughness.

 Some of these are 10-point height average (Rz), centre line average height
(Ra).
 Ten-point Height Average Value - It is also referred to as the peak-to-
valley height.

 In this case, we basically consider the average height encompassing a

number of successive peaks and valleys of the asperities.

 As can be seen in fig. line AA parallel to the general lay of the trace is
drawn.

 The heights of five consecutive peaks and valleys from the line AA are
noted down.

 The average peak-to-valley height Rz is given by the

following expression:
 Centre Line Average Value - The Ra value is the prevalent standard for

measuring surface roughness.

 It is defined as the average height from a mean line of all ordinates of the
surface, regardless of sign.

 With reference to fig, it can be shown that Ra = (A1+A2+ A3+ …. An )/L

= ∑A/L
Surface finish symbol
Tomilson’s surface meter
The Tomlinson surface meter is
constructed using the following parts
 Skid
 Stylus
 Diamond probe
 Body
 Spring
 Arm
 Diamond
 scriber
 Smoked glass screen
 Skid - Skid is placed on the workpiece and it is carried by the body of the
instrument. It helps in positioning the stylus.

 Stylus - The stylus is similar to the plunger, used as a sensing element to

detect the surface roughness of the component. It is constrained to move in a
vertical direction.

 Diamond probe - At the bottom of the stylus, there is an adjustable diamond-

tipped probe. The height of the diamond probe is adjusted by using a skid at
the bottom. The diamond probe tip is about 2 microns in radius.

 Spring - This instrument consists of a helical coil spring and a leaf spring.
Both springs are used to hold and attach the stylus to the frame.

 Arm - A moving arm is attached to the looped cylinder. It is placed in between

the stylus and fixed rollers. The arm is also called a light lever.
 Body - The body act as a support for this instrument. One end of the helical
spring and leaf spring is fastened to the body for support. The fixed rollers
are also attached to the body.

 Diamond scriber - A diamond scriber is carried by the arm at its tip. It is

placed against the smoked glass screen.

 Smoked glass screen - A smoked glass screen helps to trace the surface
texture of the component with the help of a diamond scriber. It is also
called black glass in other words. It rests on the needlepoint of the
diamond scriber.

 These are the following parts used for the construction of Tomlinson
surface meter.
Construction & working principle
 A stylus with a diamond probe and skid are attached together and they are
restrained to move in a vertical direction.

 They are restrained by a coil spring and a Leaf Spring.

 The stylus is held by the tension of both springs against the lapped
cylinder.

 The tension in the Coil spring is the same as the tension in the leaf string.

 An arm with a diamond scriber is attached to the lapped cylinder. This

lapped cylinder is placed against a pair of fixed rollers and a stylus.

 A smoked glass screen is rested on the diamond scriber to trace the

surface of the texture of the component or workpiece.
 When a component with surface roughness or surface irregularities is kept
under the diamond probe, the stylus moves in a vertical direction (up and
down).

 This vertical motion of the stylus depends on the roughness or irregularities

on the surface of the component.

 Since the stylus is held by springs on both sides, a similar tension is created
in both coil spring and leaf spring due to the vertical displacement of the
stylus.

 These two tension forces of both springs hold the lapped cylinder along with
the arm in the position between the stylus and fixed rollers.

 The vertical displacement of the stylus causes the lapped cylinder to roll.

 This motion is further magnified by the arm.

 The diamond scriber carried by the arm traces the profile on the smoked
glass screen depending on the surface roughness or irregularities on the
workpiece.

 The traced profile along with the smoked glass screen is transferred to a
profile projector (type of optical comparator) for further magnification.

 Under the profile projector, it is further projected to X50 to X100

magnifications to examine the exact surface texture of the component.
Taylor–Hobson Talysurf
 The stylus is attached to an armature, which pivots about the centre of piece of
an E-shaped stamping.

 The outer legs of the E-shaped stamping are wound with electrical coils.

 A predetermined value of alternating current (excitation current) is supplied

to the coils.

 The coils form part of a bridge circuit.

 A skid or shoe provides the datum to plot surface roughness.

 The measuring head can be traversed in a linear path by an electric motor.

 The motor, which may be of a variable speed type or provided with a gear box,
provides the required speed for the movement of the measuring head.

 As the stylus moves up and down due to surface irregularities, the armature is
also displaced.
 This causes variation in the air gap, leading to an imbalance in the bridge
circuit.

 The resulting bridge circuit output consists of only modulation.

 This is fed to an amplifier and a pen recorder is used to make a permanent

record (above figure).

 The instrument has the capability to calculate and display the roughness
value according to a standard formula.