CHAPTER OUTLINE STRUCTURES Marwan and Waseem AL-raqi 4/1 In Chapter 3 we studied the equilibrium of a single rigid body or a system of connected members treated as a single rigid body. We first drew a free-body diagram of the body showing all forces external to the isolated body and then we applied the force and moment equations of equilibrium. In Chapter 4 we focus on the determination of the forces internal to a structure, that is, forces of action and reaction between the connected members. An engineering structure is any connected system of members built to support or transfer forces and to safely withstand the loads applied to it. To determine the forces internal to an engineer- ing structure, we must dismember the structure and analyze separate free-body diagrams of individual members or combinations of members. This analysis requires careful application of Newton’s third law, which states that each action is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction. In Chapter 4 we analyze the internal forces acting in several types, of structures, namely, trusses, frames, and machines. In this treatment we consider only statically determinate structures, which do not have more supporting constraints than are necessary to maintain an equilib- rium configuration. Thus, as we have already seen, the equations of equi- librium are adequate to determine all unknown reactions. ‘The analysis of trusses, frames and machines, and beams under con- centrated loads constitutes a straightforward application of the material developed in the previous two chapters. The basic procedure developed in Chapter 3 for isolating a body by construeting a correct free-body diagram is essential for the analysis of statically determinate structures, [TRODUCTION ‘wow gigapedia.com 165166 Chapter4 Structures Figure 4/1 Commonly Used Roof Trusses Figure 4/2 Marwan and Waseem A-raqi ‘wow gigapedia.com/2 PLANE TRUSSES A framework composed of members joined at their ends to form a rigid structure is called a truss. Bridges, roof supports, derricks, and other such structures are common examples of trusses. Structural mem- bers commonly used are I-beams, channels, angles, bars, and special shapes which are fastened together at their ends by welding, riveted connections, or large bolts or pins. When the members of the truss lie essentially in a single plane, the truss is called a plane truss. For bridges and similar structures, plane trusses are commonly uti- lized in pairs with one truss assembly placed on each side of the struc- ture. A section of a typical bridge structure is shown in Fig. 4/1. The combined weight of the roadway and vehicles is transferred to the lon- gitudinal stringers, then to the cross beams, and finally, with the weights of the stringers and cross beams accounted for, to the upper joints of the two plane trusses which form the vertical sides of the structure. A simplified model of the truss structure is indicated at the left side of the illustration; the forces L represent the joint loadings, Several examples of commonly used trusses which can be analyzed as plane trusses are shown in Fig. 4/2. ‘Simple Trusses ‘The basic element of a plane truss is the triangle. Three bars joined by pins at their ends, Fig. 4/3a, constitute a rigid frame. The term rigid is used to mean noncollapsible and also to mean that deformation of the members due to induced internal strains is negligible. On the other hand, four or more bars pin-jointed to form a polygon of as many sides constitute a nonrigid frame. We can make the nonrigid frame in Fig. 4/3b rigid, or stable, by adding a diagonal bar joining A and D or B and C and thereby forming two triangles. We can extend the structure by adding additional units of two end-connected bars, such as DE and CE or AF and DF, Fig. 4/3c, which are pinned to two fixed joints. In this, way the entire structure will remain rigid. Structures built from a basic triangle in the manner described are known as simple trusses. When more members are present than are needed to prevent collapse, the truss is statically indeterminate. A stat ically indeterminate truss cannot be analyzed by the equations of equi librium alone. Additional members or supports which are not necessary for maintaining the equilibrium configuration are called redundant. To design a truss we must first determine the forces in the various ‘members and then select appropriate sizes and structural shapes to withstand the forces. Several assumptions are made in the force analysis of simple trusses. First, we assume all members to be two-force members. A two-force member is one in equilibrium under the action of two forces only, as defined in general terms with Fig. 3/4 in Art. 3/3. Each member of a truss is normally a straight link joining the two points of application of force, The two forces are applied at the ends of the member and are necessarily equal, opposite, and collinear for equilibrium, ‘The member may be in tension or compression, as shown in Fig. 4/4, When we represent the equilibrium of a portion of a two-force mem- ber, the tension T’ or compression C acting on the cut section is the same Marwan and Waseem AL-raqi winw.gigapedia.com Article 4/2 Plane Trusses 167 2 A ; > fl 4 o KD /\ ’ e nes ¢ c r c co ie rte ‘Two-Force Members Figure 4/4Chapter 4 Structures @ o Figure 4/6 rd ‘Compression ‘Tension Figure 4/7 Marwan and Waseem Alraqi for all sections. We assume here that the weight of the member is small compared with the force it supports. If it is not, or if we must account for the small effect of the weight, we can replace the weight W of the member by two forces, each W/2 if the member is uniform, with one force acting at each end of the member. These forces, in effect, are treated as loads externally applied to the pin connections. Accounting for the weight of a member in this way gives the correct result for the average tension or compression along the member but will not account for the effect of bending of the member. ‘Truss Connections and Supports When welded or riveted connections are used to join structural members, we may usually assume that the connection is a pin joint if the centerlines of the members are concurrent at the joint as in Fig. 4/5. We also assume in the analysis of simple trusses that all external forces are applied at the pin connections. This condition is satisfied in ‘most trusses. In bridge trusses the deck is usually laid on cross beams which are supported at the joints, as shown in Fig. 4/1. For large trusses, a roller, rocker, or some kind of slip joint is used at one of the supports to provide for expansion and contraction due to temperature changes and for deformation from applied loads. Trusses and frames in which no such provision is made are statically indeter- minate, as explained in Art. 3/3. Fig. 3/1 shows examples of such joints. ‘Two methods for the force analysis of simple trusses will be given. Each method will be explained for the simple truss shown in Fig. 4/6a, ‘The free-body diagram of the truss as a whole is shown in Fig. 4/6b. The external reactions are usually determined first, by applying the equilibrium equations to the truss as a whole. Then the force analysis of the remainder of the truss is performed. 4/3 MetwHop oF Joints ‘This method for finding the forces in the members of a truss consists of satisfying the conditions of equilibrium for the forces acting on the connecting pin of each joint. ‘The method therefore deals with the equi- librium of concurrent forces, and only two independent equilibrium equations are involved. ‘We begin the analysis with any joint where at least one known load exists and where not more than two unknown forces are present. The solution may be started with the pin at the left end. Its free-body dia- gram is shown in Fig. 4/7. With the joints indicated by letters, we usu- ally designate the force in each member by the two letters defining the ends of the member. The proper directions of the forces should be evi- dent by inspection for this simple case, The free-body diagrams of por- tions of members AF and AB are also shown to clearly indicate the mechanism of the action and reaction. 'The member AB actually makes contact on the left side of the pin, although the force AB is drawn from the right side and is shown acting away from the pin. Thus, if we con- sistently draw the force arrows on the same side of the pin as the mem- ber, then tension (such as AB) will always be indicated by an arrow away wow gigapedia comArticle 4/3 Method of J from the pin, and compression (such as AF) will always be indicated by an arrow foward the pin. The magnitude of AF is obtained from the equation 2, = 0 and AB is then found from 3F, = 0. Joint F may be analyzed next, since it now contains only two un- knowns, EF and BF. Proceeding to the next joint having no more than two unknowns, we subsequently analyze joints B, C, £, and D in that order. Fig. 4/8 shows the free-body diagram of each joint and its corre- sponding force polygon, which represents graphically the two equi rium conditions SF, = 0 and F, = 0. The numbers indicate the order in which the joints are analyzed. We note that, when joint D is finally reached, the computed reaction Ry must be in equilibrium with the forces in members CD and ED, which were determined previously from the two neighboring joints. This requirement provides a check on the correctness of our work. Note that isolation of joint C shows that the force in CE is zero when the equation YF, = 0 is applied. The force in 1 AKy 2 ‘EF EF i AB oe Ry ZL s\n : = . CE=0 Ry 8 BF ‘BC 5 pr BE BE BE, DE D\ wu AB BC . we 7 : : LN , 4 B é vo Marwan and Waseem Al-raqi www gigapedia.comer4 Structures Marwan and Waseem A-raqi this member would not be zero, of course, if an external vertical load were applied at C. It is often convenient to indicate the tension 7’ and compression C of the various members directly on the original truss diagram by draw- ing arrows away from the pins for tension and toward the pins for com- pression. This designation is illustrated at the bottom of Fig. 4/8. Sometimes we cannot initially assign the correct direction of one or both of the unknown forces acting on a given pin. If so, we may make an arbitrary assignment. A negative computed force value indicates that the initially assumed direction is incorrect. Internal and External Redundancy Ifa plane truss has more external supports than are necessary to ensure a stable equilibrium configuration, the truss as a whole is stati cally indeterminate, and the extra supports constitute external redun- dancy. If a truss has more internal members than are necessary to prevent collapse when the truss is removed from its supports, then the extra members constitute internal redundancy and the truss is again statically indeterminate. For a truss which is statically determinate externally, there is a definite relation between the number of its members and the number of its joints necessary for internal stability without redundancy. Because we can specify the equilibrium of each joint by two scalar force equa- tions, there are in all 2j such equations for a truss with j joints. For the entire truss composed of m two-force members and having the maximum of three unknown support reactions, there are in all m + 3 unknowns (m tension or compression forces and three reactions). Thus, for any plane truss, the equation m + 3 = 2j will be satisfied if the truss is statically determinate internally. A simple plane truss, formed by starting with a triangle and adding two new members to locate each new joint with respect to the existing structure, satisfies the relation automatically. ‘The condition holds for the initial triangle, where m = j = 3, and m increases by 2 for each added joint while j increases by 1. Some other (nonsimple) statically determinate trusses, such as the K-truss in Fig. 4/2, are arranged dif- ferently, but can be seen to satisfy the same relation. ‘This equation is a necessary condition for stability but it is not a sufficient condition, since one or more of the m members can be ar- ranged in such a way as not to contribute to a stable configuration of Ifm + 3 > 3j, there are more members than inde- s, and the truss is statically indeterminate internally with redundant members present. If m + 3 < Qj, there is a deficiency of internal members, and the truss is unstable and will collapse under load. ‘Special Conditions We often encounter several special conditions in the analysis of trusses, When two collinear members are under compression, as indi- cated in Fig. 4/9a, it is necessary to add a third member to maintain wow gigapedia com@) ©) Figure 4/9 alignment of the two members and prevent buckling. We see from a force summation in the y-direction that the force F in the third member must be zero and from the x-direction that F; = F>. This conclusion holds regardless of the angle @ and holds also if the collinear members are in tension. If an external force with a component in the y-direction were applied to the joint, then Fy would no longer be zero. When two noncollinear members are joined as shown in Fig. 4/96, then in the absence of an externally applied load at this joint, the forces in both members must be zero, as we can see from the two force summations. When two pairs of collinear members are joined as shown in Fig. 4/9c, the forces in each pair must be equal and opposite. This conclusion follows from the force summations indicated in the figure. ‘Truss panels are frequently cross-braced as shown in Fig. 4/10a. Such a panel is statically indeterminate if each brace can support either tension or compression. However, when the braces are flexible members incapable of supporting compression, as are cables, then only the tension member acts and we can disregard the other member. It is usually evi dent from the asymmetry of the loading how the panel will deflect. If the deflection is as indicated in Fig. 4/108, then member AB should be retained and CD disregarded. When this choice cannot be made by inspection, we may arbitrarily select the member to be retained. If the assumed tension turns out to be positive upon calculation, then the choice was correct. If the assumed tension force turns out to be negative, then the opposite member must be retained and the calculation redone, ‘We can avoid simultaneous solution of the equilibrium equations for two unknown forces at a joint by a careful choice of reference axes. Thus, for the joint indicated schematically in Fig. 4/11 where L is known and F and F, are unknown, a force summation in the x-direction eliminates reference to F' and a force summation in the x’-direction eliminates reference to F, When the angles involved are not easily found, then a simultaneous solution of the equations using one set of reference direc- tions for both unknowns may be preferable. Marwan and Waseem A-raq) www gigapedia.com @ cy) Figure 4/11 requires F, requires Fy )172_Chapter4 Structures Sample Problem 4/1 Compute the force in each member of the loaded cantilever truss by the method of joints, Solution. If it were not desired to calculate the external reactions at D and E, the analysis for a cantilever truss could begin with the joint at the loaded end. However, this truss will be analyzed completely, so the first step will be to com- pute the external forces at D and E from the free-body diagram of the truss as a whole. The equations of equilibrium give My = 01 8T = 20(5) ~ 30110) = 0 T = 80 kN DF, = 901 80 cos 90°- FE, = 0 By = 69.3 kN (BR, = 0) 80 sin 30° + B, ~ 20 - 30 = 0 E, = 10kN ‘Next we draw free-body diagrams showing the forces acting on each of the connecting pins. The correctness of the assigned directions of the forces is verified when each joint is considered in sequence. There should be no question about the correct direction of the forces on joint A. Equilibrium requires GF, = 0) 0.8664B - 30-0 AB=346KNT Ans. BF, - 0) AC - 0.51846) = 0 AC = 17.52 KNC Ans. where T stands for tension and C stands for compression, Joint B must be analyzed next, since there are more than two unknown, forces on joint C. 'The force BC must provide an upward component, in which ‘case BD must balance the force to the left. Again the forces are obtained from [EF = 0] 0.866BC - 0.866(34.6) SF, = 0} BD ~ 20.5)(84.6) 0 BC=346kNC Ans, 0 BD=346kNT Ans, Joint C now contains only two unknowns, and these are found in the same way as before: [3F, = 0] 0.866CD — 0.866(34.6) ~ 20 = 0 CD = 51.7KNT Ans, (SF, = 0] CE ~ 17.82 ~ 05(94.6) — 0567.7) = 0 CE = 63.5 kN C Ans, Finally, from joint E there results SF, = 0} O.866DE = 10 DE = 11.55 kNC Ans. and the equation SF, = 0 checks Marwan and Waseem A-iraqi www gigapedia.com y | yaB 1 1 i/o BD. aB= Koy 34.6 KN, AX ea [30 kan Joint A Joint B Helpful Hint © It should be stressed that the ten- sion/compression designation refers to the member, not the joint. Note that we draw the force arrow on the same side of the joint as the member which exerts the force. In this way tension (arrow away from the joint) is distinguished from compression (arrow toward the joint)PROBLEMS Introductory Problems 4/1 Determine the force in each member of the simple equilateral truss. Ans. AB = 736 NT, AC = 368 N T, BC = 736 N.C A 2m 2m| B Fm 5 kg a Problem 4/1 4/2 Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss, Discuss the effects of varying the angle of the 45° support surface at C. A 6 Problem 4/2 4/3 Determine the force in each member of the truss, Note the presence of any zero-force members. 4/4 Calculate the forces in members BE and BD of the loaded truss. 11000 Ib Problem 4/4 '5 Determine the foree in each member of the loaded me Ans. AB = 12 KN T, AE = 3KNC BC = 5.20 KN T, BD = 6KNT BE = 5.20 kN C, CD = DE = 6kNC Problem 4/5 4/6 Calculate the force in each member of the loaded truss. E D. ‘ans. AB = 5 KN T, BC = 5yBKNC CD 15 KN C,AC = 5YBKN TAD ~ 0 BAN A 3m ; A Lm D 2m c Problem 4/3 ‘Marwan and Waseem Ab-Iraqi www gigapedia.comStructures 4/7 Determine the force in each member of the loaded sky truss. Make use of the symmetry of the truss and of Se bedne: Ans. AB = DE = 96.0 kN C AH = EF = 15kNT, BC = CD = 75kNC BH = CG = DF = 60KNT | CH = CF = 48.0kNC,GH =FG=1125kNT 30kN GON 30KN Problem 4/7 4/8 Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss, All triangles are isosceles, 4/10 Solve for the forces in members BE and BD of the truss which supports the load L. All interior angles are 60° or 120" —3m— Problem 4/8 4/9 Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss. All triangles are equilateral _ L Ans. AB = 9/3 KN C,AE = 5/3KNT BC = 8/3 KN C, BD = 3/3 KN C,BE = }/3KNC eho aie CD = BYSKN T, DE = H/3KNT 4/11 Determine the force in member AC of the loaded truss. The two quarter-circular members act as two- force members. 7 Ans. AC = ST Marwan and Waseem A-raqi www gigapedia.comArticle 4/3 Problems 175 Problem 4/11 4/12 Calculate the forees in members CG and CF for the truss shown, Problem 4/12 13 Each member of the truss is a uniform 20-R bar weighing 400 Ib. Calculate the average tension or compression in each member due to the weights of the members, Ans. AB = BC = 1000/J/3 Ib T AE = CD = 2000/3 1b C BD = BE = 800//31bT ED = 1400/3 lb C E D B Problem 4/13 ‘14 A drawbridge is being raised by a cable BJ. The four joint loadings shown result from the weight of the roadway. Determine the forces in members EF, DE, DF, CD, and FC. Marwan and Waseem A-raqi 4 Kips 2 kips Problem 4/14 4/15 The equiangular truss is loaded and supported as shown. Determine the forees in all members in terms of the horizontal load L. ‘Ans, AB = BC = LT,AF = EF = LC DE = CD = L/2T, BF = DF = BD = 0 Problem 4/15 4/16 Determine the forces in members BI, CI, and HI for the loaded truss. All angles are 90°, 60°, or 90°. D wow gigapedia.com176 Chapter Stiuctuy 4/17 A snow load transfers the forces shown to the upper Joints of a Pratt roof truss. Neglect any horizontal reactions at the supports and solve for the forces in all members ‘Ans. AB = DE = BC = CD = 3.35 kN C AH = EF = 3kN T, BH = DF = 1kNC CF = CH = 1414 KN 7, FG = GH = 2kNT Problem 4/17 ‘The loading of Prob. 4/17 is shown applied to a Howe roof truss. Neglect any horizontal reactions at the supports and solve for the forces in alll members. Compare with the results of Prob. 4/17. 1k 4/20 Determine the force in each member of the pair of trusses which support the 5000-Ib load at their com- ‘mon joint C. 5000 Ib Problem 4/20 ‘The rectangular frame is composed of four perimeter two-force members and two cables AC and BD which are incapable of supporting compression. Determine the forces in all members due to the load L. in position (@) and then in position (6). ‘Ans. (a) AB = AD = BD = 0,BC = LC oe a Lily Gp = ac= 27, ep = tke 7 @)AD = AD = BC = BD = 0 1 te Gime ac=21,e0 » tke Problem 4/18 t [38 Caleta tn roms meses, 00, and a ; the loaded truss. a a a Sma 6,00 = 4100 7,RP = 5 7 é 2 1) ? ates Marwan and Waseem AL-iraqi www.gigapedia.comje4/3_ Problems 177 4/22 Determine the forces in members AB, CG, and DE of the loaded truss, wa L b E u2 Problem 4/22 4/23 The movable gantry is used to erect and prepare a 500-Mg rocket for firing. The primary structure of the gantry is approximated by the symmetrical plane truss shown, which is statically indeterminate. As the antry is positioning a 60-Mg section of the rocket suspended from A, strain-gage measurements indi- cate a compressive force of 50 kN in member AB and a tensile foree of 120 kN in member CD due to the 60-Mg load. Caleulate the corresponding forces in members BF and EF. Ans, BF = 1884 kN C, EF = 120kN'T Problem 4/23 Marwan and Waseem A-raqi 4/24 Verify the fact that each of the trusses contains one or more elements of redundancy and propose two separate changes, either one of which would remove the redundancy and produce complete statical deter- minacy. All members can support compression as well as tension, GE Ce @ © @ Problem 4/24 4/25 Analysis of the wind acting on a small Hawaiian chureh, which withstood the 165-mi/hr winds of ‘Hurricane Iniki in 1992, showed the forces transmit- ted to each roof truss panel to be as shown. Treat the structure as a symmetrical simple truss and neglect any horizontal component of the support reaction at A. Identify the truss member which supports the largest force, tension or compression, and calculate this force. Ans, FD = 24,500 Ib 2450 1b 4550 Ib "6000 Ib 24 Problem 4/25 ‘wow gigapedia.com178 Chapter4 Structures 4/26 ‘The 240-ft structure is used to provide various sup- port services to launch vehicles prior to liftoff. In a test, a 10-ton weight is suspended from joints F and G, with its weight equally divided between the two Joints. Determine the forces in members GJ and GI. What would be your path of joint analysis for mem- bers in the vertical tower, such as AB or KL? __ 6 sections ie at 15" 40> Problem 4/26 > 4/27 The tower for a transmission line is modeled by the truss shown. The crossed members in the center see- tions of the truss may be assumed to be capable of | f 5 panels at 3 m —— H ros pies i Problem 4/27 > 4/28 Find the forces in members EF, KL, and GL for the Fink truss shown, Ans. EF = 75.1 KN C, KL = 40 KN T. GL = 20KNT supporting tension only. For the loads of 1.8 kN ap kK eeieroe —.| plied in the vertical plane, compute the forces in ‘duced in members AB, DB, and CD. Problem 4/28 ‘Ans. AB = 3.89 KN C, DB = 0, CD = 0.932 kN C Marwan and Waseem ALraqi winw.gigapedia.comArticle 4/4 Method of Se 4 METHOD oF SECTIONS When analyzing plane trusses by the method of joints, we need only two of the three equilibrium equations because the procedures involve concurrent forces at each joint. We can take advantage of the third or moment equation of equilibrium by selecting an entire section of the truss for the free body in equilibrium under the action of a nonconcur- rent system of forces. This method of sections has the basic advantage that the force in almost any desired member may be found directly from an analysis of a section which has cut that member. Thus, it is not necessary to proceed with the calculation from joint to joint until the ‘member in question has been reached. In choosing a section of the truss, we note that, in general, not more than three members whose forces are unknown should be cut, since there are only three available independent equilibrium relations. Mlustration of the Method ‘The method of sections will now be illustrated for the truss in Fig. 4/6, which was used in the explanation of the method of joints, The truss is shown again in Fig. 4/12a for ready reference. The external reactions are first computed as with the method of joints, by considering the truss as a whole. Let us determine the force in the member BE, for example. An imag- inary seetion, indicated by the dashed line, is passed through the truss, cutting it into two parts, Fig. 4/12b, This section has cut throe members whose forces are initially unknown. In order for the portion of the truss on each side of the section to remain in equilibrium, itis necessary to apply to each cut member the force which was exerted on it by the member cut away. For simple trusses composed of two-force members, these forces, either tensile or compressive, will always be in the direc- tions of the respective members. The left-hand section is in equilibrium under the action of the applied load L, the end reaction Rj, and the three forces exerted on the cut members by the right-hand section which hhas been removed. We can usually draw the forces with their proper senses by a visual approximation of the equilibrium requirements, Thus, in balancing the moments about point B for the left-hand section, the force EF is clearly to the left, which makes it compressive, because it acts toward the cut section of member EF. The load L is greater than the reaction Ry, s0 that the force BE must be up and to the right to supply the needed ® upward component for vertical equilibrium. Force BE is therefore ten- sile, since it acts away from the cut section. awn With the approximate magnitudes of R and L in mind we see that the balance of moments about point E requires that BC be to the right. A casual glance at the truss should lead to the same conclusion when it is realized that the lower horizontal member will stretch under the tension caused by bending. The equation of moments about joint B elim- inates three forces from the relation, and EF can be determined directly. The force BE is calculated from the equilibrium equation for the y-direction. Finally, we determine BC by balancing moments about p @ Marwan and Waseem A-raq) www gigapedia.com180 Chapters Structures — eee Marwan and Waseem A-raqi E. In this way each of the three unknowns has been determined inde- pendently of the other two. The right-hand section of the truss, Fig. 4/126, is in equilibrium under the action of Ry and the same three forces in the cut members applied in the directions opposite to those for the left section. The proper sense for the horizontal forces can easily be seen from the balance of ‘moments about points B and E. Additional Considerations tis essential to understand that in the method of sections an entire portion of the truss is considered a single body in equilibrium. Thus, the forces in members internal to the section are not involved in the analysis of the section as a whole. To clarify the free body and the forces acting externally on it, the cutting section is preferably passed through the members and not the joints. We may use either portion of a truss for the calculations, but the one involving the smaller number of forees will usually yield the simpler solution. In some cases the methods of sections and joints can be combined for an efficient solution. For example, suppose we wish to find the force in a central member of a large truss. Furthermore, suppose that it is not possible to pass a section through this member without passing through at least four unknown members. It may be possible to deter- mine the forces in nearby members by the method of sections and then progress to the unknown member by the method of joints. Such a com- bination of the two methods may be more expedient than exclusive use of either method. ‘The moment equations are used to great advantage in the method of sections. One should choose a moment center, either on or off the section, through which as many unknown forces as possible pass. It is not always possible to assign the proper sense of an unknown force when the free-body diagram of a section is initially drawn, Once an arbitrary assignment is made, a positive answer will verify the as- sumed sense and a negative result will indicate that the force is in the sense opposite to that assumed. An alternative notation preferred by some is to assign all unknown forces arbitrarily as positive in the tension direction (away from the section) and let the algebraie sign of the answer distinguish between tension and compression. Thus, a plus sign would signify tension and a minus sign compression. On the other hand, the advantage of assigning forces in their correct sense on the free-body diagram of a section wherever possible is that doing so emphasizes the physical action of the forees more directly, and this practice is the one which is preferred here. wow gigapedia comArticle 4/4 Method of Sections 181 mp! ‘oblem 4/2 Caleulate the forces induced in members KL, CL, and CB by the 20-ton load ‘on the cantilever truss. Solution. Although the vertical components of the reactions at A and M are statically indeterminate with the two fixed supports, all members other than AM are statically determinate. We may pass a section directly through members KL, CL, and CB and analyze the portion of the truss to the left of this section as a © statically determinate rigid body. ‘The free-body diagram of the portion of the truss to the left of the section is shown. A moment sum about L quickly verifies the assignment of CB as com- pression, and a moment sum about C quickly discloses that KL is in tension. The direction of CL is not quite so obvious until we observe that KI and CB intersect at a point P to the right of G. A moment sum about P eliminates reference to KL and CB and shows that CL must be compressive to balance the moment of the 20-ton force about P. With these considerations in mind the solution becomes straightforward, as we now see how to solve for each of the three unknowns independently of the other two. @ Summing moments about L requires finding the moment arm BL = 16 + (26 = 16)/2 = 21 f. Thus, eM, = 0) 20(6)112) - CBI) = 0 CB = 571 tonsC Ans. Next we take moments about C, which requires a calculation of cos #, From the given dimensions we see @ = tan~"(5/12) so that cos @ = 12/13. Therefore, [2Mc = 01 20(4)(12) — BKLA6) = 0 KL = 65.0 tonsT Ans. Finally, we may find CL by a moment sum about P, whose distance from C is given by PC/16 = 24/(26 — 16) or PC = 98.4 ft. We also need 8, which is given by 6 = tan-\CB/BL) = tan-\12/21) = 29.7° and cos = 0,868. We now have @ [2Mp = 0) 2048 ~ 38.4) ~ CL(0.86838.4) = CL = 5.76 tons C Ans. Marwan and Waseem A-raq) www gigapedia.com 20 tons Helpful Hints © We note that analysis by the method of joints would necessitate working wilh eight joints in order to caleulate the three forees in question, ‘Thus, the method of seetions offers a con- siderable advantage in this ease ® Weeould have sarted with moments about C or P just as well @ We could also have determined CL. by a force summation in either the x- or y-direction.182 _Chapter4 Structures Calculate the force in member D.J of the Howe roof truss illustrated. Neglect any horizontal components of force at the supports. Solution. It is not possible to pass a section through DiJ without cutting four members whose forces are unknown, Although three of these eut by seetion 2 are concurrent at J! and therefore the moment equation about «J could be used to obtain DE, the foree in D.J cannot be obtained from the remaining two equi- librium principles. It is necessary to consider first the adjacent section 1 before analyzing section 2. ‘The free-body diagram for section 1 is drawn and includes the reaction of 18.33 KN at A, which is previously calculated from the equilibrium of the truss as a whole, In assigning the proper directions for the forces acting on the three cut members, we see that « balance of moments about. eliminates the effects of CD and JK and clearly requires that CJ be up and to the left. balance of moments about C eliminates the effect of the three forces concurrent at C and indicates that JK must be to the right to supply sufficient counterclockwise mo- ment. Again it should be fairly obvious that the lower chord is under tension because ofthe bending tendeney of the truss. Although it should also be apparent that the top chord is under compression, for purposes of illustration the force in CD will be arbitrarily assigned as tension. By the analysis of section 1, CJ is obtained from (EM, = 0} 0.707012) ~ 104) ~ 10(8) = 0 CJ = 1414 NC In this equation the moment of C.J is calculated by considering its horizontal and vertical components acting at point J. Equilibrium of moments about J requires (2M, = 0) 0.894CD(6) + 18.33(12) - 10(4) ~ 10(8) = 0 CD = ~18.63 KN ‘The moment of CD about J is calculated here by considering its two components ‘as acting through D. The minus sign indicates that CD was assigned in the wrong direction. Henee, CD = 18.63 kN C From the free-body diagram of section 2, which now includes the known value of CJ, a balance of moments about G is seen to eliminate DE and JK. Thus, [Mg = 01 12DJ + 10(16) + 10(20) ~ 18.33(24) ~ 14.14(0.707)112) = 0 DJ = 16.87 kN T Ans. Again the moment of CJ is determined from its components considered to be ‘acting at J. The answer for DJ is positive, so that the assumed tensile direction, is correct. An alternative approach to the entire problem is to utilize section 1 to de- termine CD and then use the method of joints applied at D to determine DJ. Marwan and Waseem AL-raqi ‘www gigapedia.com 6 panels at 4m 10KN, cheCp Section cr 1833 kN Helpful Hints © There is no harm in assigning one or more of the forces in the wrong di- rection as long as the calculations are consistent with the assumption. A negative answer will show: the need for reversing the direction of the foree, Qf desired, the direction of CD may be changed on the free-body diagram and the algebraic sign of CD reversed in the calculations, or else the work may be left as it stands with a note stating the proper direction. 10kN Section 2 18.33 kN © Observe that a section through mem- bers CD, DJ, and DE could be taken ‘hich would eut only three unknown members. However, since the forces in these three membors ate all con- current at D, & moment equation about D would yield no information about them, The remaining two force equations would not be sufiient to solve forthe three unknowns.Article 4/4 Problems 183 PROBLEMS Introductory Problems 4/29 Determine the force in member CG. ‘Ans. OG = 14.14 kips T Skips Bkips 5 kips Problem 4/29 Determine the forces in members BC, CF, and EF of the loaded truss. Problem 4/30 4/31 Determine the forces in members GH and CG for the truss loaded and supported as shown. Does the statical indeterminacy of the supports affect your caleulation? Ans. CG = 10.7 KN T, GH = 100 KN 7, No Marwan and Waseem A-raqi Problem 4/31 4/32 Determine the force in member DG of the loaded truss Problem 4/32 4/35 Determine the forces in members BC, BE, and BF. ‘The triangles are equilateral Problem 4/33 ‘wow gigapedia. comStructures Representative Problems 4/34 Determine the forces in members DE and DL. Problem 4/34 ‘35 Calculate the forces in members BC, BE, and EF. Solve for each force from an equilibrium equation ‘which contains that force as the only unknown, ‘Ans. BC = 21 kN T, BE = 841 kN T 295 KN C 14kN Problem 4/35 4/36 Determine the forces in members BC and FG of the loaded symmetrical truss. Show that this calculation ‘can be accomplished by using one section and two ‘equations, each of which contains only one of the two unknowns. Are the results affected by the statical in- determinacy of the supports at the base? Marwan and Waseem A-raqi Problem 4/36 4/31 The truss is composed of equilateral triangles of side @ and is supported and loaded as shown. Detert the forces in members BC and CG. ‘Ans. BC = CG = L/3T Problem 4/37 4/38 ‘The truss shown is composed of 45° right triangles. ‘The crossed members in the center two panels are slender tie rods incapable of supporting compression. Retain the two rods which are under tension and compute the magnitudes of their tensions, Also find the force in member MN. JH wow gigapedia com185 4/39 Determine the force in member BF. ‘Ans, BF = 2.66 kips C Problem 4/39 4/40 The members CJ and CF of the loaded truss cross but are not connected to members BI and DG. Com- pute the forces in members BC, CJ, CI, and HI. kN 4kN 10KN BEN Problem 4/40 4/41 The truss supports a ramp (shown with a dashed line) which extends from a fixed approach level near joint F to a fixed exit level near J. The loads shown represent the weight of the ramp. Determine the forces in members BH and CD. ‘Ans, BH = 0.683L T, CD = 1.932 Marwan and Waseem A-raqi Problem 4/41 4/42 Determine the forces in members CD, CJ, and Di. 6 panels at 3 Problem 4/42 4/43 Compute the force in member GM of the loaded truss Ans. GM = 0 8 panels at 3m Problem 4/43 ‘wow gigapedia.com186 Chapter Structu 4/44 Compute the force in member HN of the loaded | 4/47 Determine the forces in members DE, EI, FI, and HI truss. Compare your answer with the stated result of | fof the arched roof truss. Prob, 4/43 ‘Ans. DE FL 297 KN C, EI = 26.4 kN T 205 KN T, HI = 75.9 kN 8 panels at 3 m Problem 4/44 Dimensions in meters 4/45 Determine the forces in members DJ and E:J of the loaded truss. Problem 4/47 Ans. DJ = O45 T, EJ = 0.3601 T 4/48 Find the force in member JG for the Baltimore truss where all angles are 30°, 60°, 90°, or 120° ( | 6 panels at 8m “| | Problem 4/45 100 kN 100 kN 4/46 Determine the force in member HP of the loaded truss. Members FP and GQ cross without touching. Problem 4/48 and are incapable of supporting compression, Determine the force in member DK of the loaded crerhied. eve, Fruss Ans. DK = 1 kip T k— 6 panels at 8 — — 9 panels at 20° — “ 2kips 4 kips Problem 4/46 Problem 4/49 Marwan and Waseem A-raqi www gigapedia.com> 4/50 In the traveling bridge crane shown all crossed mem- bers are slender tie rods incapable of supporting com- pression. Determine the forces in members DF and EF and find the horizontal reaction on the truss at A. Show that if CF = 0, DE = 0 also. ‘Ans. DF = 768 kN C, EF = 364 kN C Ay = 101.1 kN 12m panels at 8 m 4 Problem 4/50 > 4/51 Determine the force in member DG of the compound truss. The joints all lie on radial lines subtending an- les of 15° as indicated, and the curved members act as two-force members. Distance OC = OA = OB = R. Ans. DG = 0.5691 C Problem 4/51 Marwan and Waseem A-raqi www gigapedia com Article 4/4 Problems 187 > 4/52.A design model for a transmission-line tower is shown in the figure. Members GH, FG, OP, and NO are insulated cables; all other members are steel bars. For the loading shown, compute the forees in mem- bers FI, Fi, EJ, EK, and ER. Use a combination of methods if desired. Ans. FI = ER = 0, FJ = 781kNT EJ = 3.61 KN C, EK = 22.4 kN C mj 4m 4m 4m 4m 4m 4 pimtmtnam am an bam’ Problem 4/52