ELASTICITY

Hooke’s law states that the extension produced by a force applied to an elastic body is proportional to
the force provided the proportionality limit is not exceeded.

For an essentially one-dimensional (that is, the other dimensions are very small compared to the
dimension under consideration) body under deformation, we can write
¿ 180
where ¿180 is the force applied and x the extension produced by the force. ¿180 is a constant called the
stiffness constant, or force constant, or proportionality constant or elastic constant or stiffness constant.

As the last name indicates, it is a measure of the stiffness of the material. We can write
¿180
. Thus,
interpreted this way, ¿180 is the force needed to extend the material by a unit amount. The unit is N/m.
The more the value of ¿180 , the more the force needed to extend it by one unit, or the more stiff it is.
Example: The extension in a spring when 5 N was hung from it was 0.56 cm. If Hooke’s law is obeyed,
what is the extension caused by a load of 20 N? a. 1.12 cm b. 2.14 cm c. 2.52 cm d. 2.80 cm e. 2.24 cm
1 1
a t = a t
The extension is 4 times that due to 5 N, i.e., 2 X X2 2 Y Y 2 cm

The total length of a spring when a mass of 20 g is hung from its end is 14 cm while its total length is 16
cm when a mass of 30 g is hung from the same end. Calculate its unstretched length of the spring,
assuming Hooke’s law.
F F1 F2
k= =const ⇒ = ⇒ F 1 x 2 −F 1 x 0 =F2 x 1 −F 2 x 0 ⇒( F 1−F 2 )x 0 =F 1 x 2−F 2 x 1
x −x 0 x1 −x 0 x 2 −x 0
F x −F x 20×16−30×14 320−420 100
x 0= 1 2 2 1 = = = =10
F 1−F 2 20−30 20−30 10
You may memorize this formula, or could decide to offload the load 10g each at a time. Since
10g extended the spring by 2 cm, while at 14 cm and 20 g, offloading 10 g gives 12 cm.
Offloading the remaining 10 g gives 10 cm.
F1 F2 20 30
= ⇒ =
x −x
You could also just put the values 1 0 x 2− x0 12−x 0 14−x 0
stress
D
If we load an elastic material, we can draw the graph C
(Fig. 1) of the stress (force applied to the longitudinal B E
end of a bar per unit area) against the strain A
(fractional increase in its longitudinal length). This is
the stress-strain curve. Point A on the curve is the
proportionality limit, up to which the stress-strain graph
strain
is linear, hence the name proportionality limit. The slope
of this region is the force constant of the material. Fig. 1
From the origin (i.e., zero stress and zero strain) to point B, which is the elastic limit, the body returns to
the original length (strain zero) if the stressing load is removed. Notice that from the proportionality
limit to the elastic limit, the slope of is more gentle than that within the proportionality region. Thus, for
the same amount of stress, the strain is more.
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Beyond B, the body no longer returns to the original length as it has what we call a permanent set. This
is what we refer to as plastic behaviour. A material is plastic if it does not return to its original length
when the deforming load or force is removed. Beyond the elastic limit, the material will start to deform
plastically, characterized by permanent deformation or permanent set. It is marked by the breakage of
bonds. Technically, it is a stress at which first of such bond breaks. Limitations of measuring such
delicate phenomena made engineers to define another point at which permanent deformation can be
measured which is known as the Yield stress (C on the graph). This is why yield stress and elastic limit
are often taken to be the same. So, B and C are more or less the same.

Ductile materials are materials that can be plastically twisted with no crack. They have the tendency to
hold the deformation that occurs in the plastic region. A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it
breaks without significant plastic deformation.

D, the ultimate stress, or ultimate tensile stress, is the maximum stress the body can withstand before
breaking.

E is the breaking point, the point at which the material fails or breaks.

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Young’s modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of a body.
longtudinal stress F / A Fl
E= = =
longitudinal strain Δx/l AΔx
This can also be written as
longtudinal stress F / A Fl kΔ xl kl
E= = = = =
longitudinal strain Δx/l AΔx AΔx A
The Young’s modulus for some materials is given in the table below.

Material Young’s Modulus GPa

Aluminium 10
Brass 102-125
Glass 50-90
Silver 10.5
Diamond 1220
Steel 190-215

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Example: A steel bar (Young’s Modulus 1 .9×10 Pa ) of initial length 10 cm is stretched to 10.01 cm.
Calculate the force applied, given that the cross-sectional area of the bar is 0.02 cm 2.

Fl EA Δx 1 .9×1011 N /m2 ×2×10−2 (10−2 m )2×0 . 01×10−2 m

E= ⇒ F= = −2
=3 . 8×1011×10−6 ×10−4 ×10 1 N
AΔx l 10×10 m
4 −6 −4 1
= 3.8×10 ×10 ×10 ×10

−1 −1
Example: An iron bar (specific heat capacity 460 Jkg K , Young’s modulus 160 GPa) of uniform radius
2 cm is heated through a temperature difference 80 0C. Calculate the force exerted on a piece of wood
tightly holding the bar in place along its axis.

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 Δl Δl
=αΔθ=1 .1×10−5 ×80=8. 8×10−4 ⇒ F=EA =1 .6×1011×2×(10−2 )2×8. 8×10−4 =2. 816×104 N
l0 l
You can see the large amount of force associated to just 0.00088 fractional change in the length of the
bar. Without leaving the gap between the metals on railway, buckling will result, owing to the great
forces exerted by the metals one on another. The force is so large because of the large Young’s modulus,
being proportional to the stiffness constant provided length and area are kept constant (Equation …).
That is, bars of the same length and cross-sectional area made of different materials.

kl EA
E= ⇒k =
A l
1 1 EA 2
W = kx 2 = x
The work done by an elastic force over a displacement x is 2 2 l . The work done per unit
volume is then
W 1 2 1 EA 2 1 1 E 2 1 Ex x 1 F x 1
= kx = x× = 2x= × = × × = ×stress×strain
Al 2 2 l Al 2 l 2 l l 2 A l 2
Since the work done is stored as potential energy in the body, this is the energy per unit volume.

Shear Modulus Δl F
The shear modulus is the elastic modulus used
for the deformation which takes place when a l θ
force is applied parallel to one face of the object
A
while the opposite face is held fixed by another equal force.
Fig. 2
Δ l −5 −4 Δ l 1 −2 −4 4
=αΔθ1.×0 8=.×10 ⇒F=EA 1.6×0 2×(10 )×8. 10 =2.816×0N
is applied to the upper face of the box. The shear stress is defined as l0 l and he shear
Δl −5 −4 Δl 1 −2 −4 4
In Fig. 2, a force =αΔθ=1. ×10 ×80=8. ×10 ⇒F=EA =1.6×10 ×2 (10 )×8. ×10 =2.816×10 N
l0 l

Δl
strain l . The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity is symbol G or S or
Δl −5 −4 Δl 1 −2 −4 4
=αΔθ=1. ×10 ×80=8. ×10 ⇒F=EA =1.6×10 ×2 (10 )×8. ×10 =2.816×10 N
l0 l .
Shear stress F / A
G= =
Shear strain Δl /l
The bigger the shear modulus the more rigid is the material since for the same change in horizontal
distance (strain) you will need a bigger force (stress). This is why the shear modulus is sometimes called
the modulus of rigidity.
Δl
=tan φ
l . If φ is very small, then, tan φ≈φ , where φ is in radians.
Shear stress F / A
G= =
Shear strain φ

Material Shear Modulus GPa

Aluminium 24
Brass 40
Glass 26.2
Cast iron 41
concrete 21

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Shear stress is most commonly applied to solids. Shear forces acting tangentially to a surface of a solid
body cause deformation. In contrast to solids that can resist deformation, liquids lack this ability, and
flow under the action of the force.

Example: Find the force necessary to produce a shear break of a bone of shear modulus 10 GPa with 3
cm2 cross section if the break strain is 6 o = 0.10 rad. F = GφA = 10 x 10 9 N/m2 x 10-1 x 3 x 10-4 m2. F = 2 x
105 N.

Shear stress F / A
G= =
Shear strain φ
Bulk Modulus
Just as the Young’s modulus is a measure of the resistance of a bar to deformation along its length and
shear modulus the resistance of a body to shearing forces applied along one face, the bulk modulus, B ,
of a body is a measure of its resistance to compression.

Bulk modulus of a body is the change in pressure per unit fractional change in volume of the body..
Δp
B=−
ΔV /V
The negative sign is in order as an increase in pressure causes a negative change in the volume of the
body.

In line with the definition of Young’s modulus and shear modulus, we can see bulk modulus as bulk
ΔV
stress per unit bulk strain, where Δp is the bulk stress and V the bulk strain.

A larger bulk modulus is an indication of the necessity of a larger pressure in producing the same
fractional change in volume.

Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus, i.e.,

( )
−1
1 Δp ΔV
C= =− =−
B ΔV /V VΔp

1. What is the bulk modulus of a body that experienced a change of pressure of 5*104N/m2 and a
its volume goes from 4 cm3 to 3.9 cm3?.
B = ΔP /(ΔV/V)
B = (5*104 N/m2)/((4 cm3 - 3.9 cm3)/4 cm3) = 0.125 *104 N/m2
B = 1.25 *104 N/m2
2. A sphere of radius 10 mm is stretched from its original volume to a half, using a force of 100 N.
What is the bulk modulus of the system?
B = ΔP /(ΔV/V)
The volume is calculated using V = 4/3 π (r)3, where r is 10 mm, then V is
A = 4/3 π (10 mm)3 = 4/3 π (0.01 m)3 = 4.2*10(-6) m3

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 Substituting the value of volume in
ΔV = Vf - Vi = 4.2*10(-6) m3 - 1.1*10(-6) m3 = 1.1*10(-6) m3
Dividing by V, the fractional volume is,
ΔV/V = 1.1*10(-6) m3 / 4.2*10(-6) m3 = 0.26.
To find the pressure we use the formula, ΔP=F/A, where A is the area of the sphere A = 4 π r 2 = 4 π (0.01
m)2 = 1.26*10(-3) m2
Then ΔP = 100 N/1.26*10(-3) m2 = 79300 N/m2.
Finally, the bulk modulus is,
B = (79300 N/m2) / (0.26) = 305000 N/m2

Shear Modulus and the Speed of Shear Waves in Solids

Sound waves in solids are composed of compression waves (just as in gases and liquids), and a different
type of sound wave called a shear wave, which occurs only in solids. Shear waves in solids usually travel
at different speeds, as exhibited in seismology. The speed of compression waves in solids is determined
by the medium's compressibility, shear modulus and density. The speed of shear waves is determined
only by the solid material's shear modulus and density.

Bulk Modulus and Speed of Sound Waves

Sound waves are an example of longitudinal mechanical waves. A mechanical wave is a wave that
propagates as an oscillation of matter. This is why we say sound needs a material medium for its
propagation. As we said before, individual particles performing simple harmonic motion do so about
their equilibrium positions. As such, they do not travel far along the direction of propagation of energy.
As a sound wave moves from one point to another, particles of air perform simple harmonic motion, i.e.,
they vibrate back and forth in the same direction and the opposite direction of energy transport. The
vibration (back and forth) of the particles in the direction of energy transport creates regions in which
particles of the medium are pressed together and other regions where the particles are spread apart,
compression and rarefaction.

Sound waves are generated via compression and rarefaction. Consider a tube of length much greater
than the width. Assume a piston is attached to the left end. Pushing the piston in compresses the fluid
next to the piston. This fluid layer in turn passes this compression onto other fluid layers farther down
the tube. The result is a compression pulse. If we now withdraw the piston, the fluid pressure and
density in front of the piston drops, sending a rarefaction down the length of the tube. If the piston
vibrates to and fro, then a continuous train of compression and rarefaction travels down the tube.

Applying Newton’s laws to the fluid element when it is entering the compressional zone, we have
F=( p+ Δp) A− pA=Δ pA
where A is the cross-sectional area of the tube.

This is balanced by the inertial force F=ma . The mass of the fluid element is
ρ0 ( vΔt ) A
and the acceleration
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 Δv
−
Δt
Balancing these two forces,
Δv
Δ pA=−ρ 0 ( vΔt ) A
Δt
−Δp
ρ0 v=
Therefore, Δv ,
Δp
ρ0 v 2 =−
Or Δv/ v .

Let V be the volume of the fluid element before entering the compressional zone and ΔV be the
change in volume when it is in the compressional zone. Then,
ΔV Δv
=
V v
Hence, we conclude that
Δp
ρ0 v 2 =−
ΔV /V
The term on the right is the bulk modulus of elasticity, B , of the fluid. Notice that ΔV / V is itself
negative since it is a compression. Hence, B is positive. Thus, the velocity of the longitudinal pulse in
the medium is

v=
√ B
ρ0
The above analysis applies to pulses of any shape and to extended wave trains.

For a gaseous medium, we can express the Bulk modulus in terms of the undisturbed gas pressure
p0

as
B=γp0 , where γ is the ratio of specific heats (c p /c v ) for the gas.

v=
√ γp0
ρ0

For a solid thin rod, bulk modulus is replaced by the Young’s modulus
v=
√ E
ρ 0 and for an extended
solid, we have to make use of the shear modulus (a measure of elastic resistance to tangential or
shearing force) and the bulk modulus.
The velocity of sound in some media:
Mediu 0
Temperature ( C ) Speed
(m/s )
m
Air 0 330
Water 15 1450
Copper 20 3560
You would observe that the larger these moduli, the higher the speed of sound in the medium. This is
why sound travels fastest in solids as they are the most difficult to compress. Seen another way, the

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molecules are so close the sound wave is easily transmitted from one to the other. The speed of sound
in liquids is much faster than the speed of sound in gases. In air, about 340 m/s, in water, about 1,400 m
and in iron, about 5,000 m/s. In diamond (443 GPa, 3.51 g/cm 3), an extremely compact material, sound
travels at about 11,000 m/s.

Example 1:
The bulk modulus of elasticity of air is 1.41x105 N/m2 and its mass density is 1.29kg/m3. Calculate the
speed of sound waves in air.

Solution: Using the formula v = (B / ρ )0.5, we get: v = [1.41x105 / 1.29] m/s = 331 m/s. (Speed of
sound in air at STP)

Example 2:
The bulk modulus of elasticity of water is 2.1x109 N/m2 and its mass density is 1000 kg/m3. Calculate the
speed of sound waves in water.

Solution: Using the formula v = (B / ρ )0.5, we get: v = [2.1x109 / 1000]0.5 m/s = 1400 m/s.

Additional Problems
1. A string has a diameter of 1 cm and the original length of 2 m. The string is pulled by a force of
200 N. Determine the change in length of the string! Young’s modulus of the string = 5 x
109 N/m2
2. A string 4 mm in diameter has original length 2 m. The string is pulled by a force of 200 N. If the
final length of the spring is 2.02 m, determine : (a) stress (b) strain (c) Young’s modulus
3. A concrete has a height of 5 meters and has unit area of 3 m 3 supports a mass of 30,000 kg.
Determine (a) The stress (b) The strain (c) The change in height! Acceleration due to gravity (g) =
10 m/s2. Young’s modulus of concrete = 20 x 109N/m2

1. A nylon string has a diameter of 2 mm, pulled by a force of 100 N. Determine the stress!
Force (F) = 100 N, Diameter (d) = 2 mm = 0.002 m, Radius (r) = 1 mm = 0.001 m, A = π r2
A = (3.14)(0.001 m)2 = 0.00000314 m2, A = 3.14 x 10-6 m2
F 100
Stress= = =31. 5×10 6 Nm−2
A 3 . 14×10−6

2. A cord has original length of 100 cm is pulled by a force. The change in length of the cord is 2
mm. Determine the strain!

Original length (l0) = 100 cm = 1 m, change in length (Δl) = 2 mm = 0.002 m

Δl 0 . 002
Strain= = =0 .002
l 1

3. A string 4 mm in diameter has original length 2 m. The string is pulled by a force of 200 N. If the
final length of the spring is 2.02 m, determine : (a) stress (b) strain (c) Young’s modulus

Diameter (d) = 4 mm = 0.004 m, Radius (r) = 2 mm = 0.002 m, Area (A) = π r2 = (3.14)(0.002 m)2
Area (A) = 0.00001256 m2 = 12.56 x 10-6 m2, Force (F) = 200 N, Original length of spring (l0) = 2 m
The change in length (Δl) = 2.02 – 2 = 0.02 m

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Solution:
F 200
Stress= = =15 . 92×106 Nm−2
(a) A 12. 56×10−6

Δl 0 . 02
Strain= = =0 .01
(b) l 21
Δl 0 . 002
Strain= = =0 . 002
(c) l 1

4. A string has a diameter of 1 cm and the original length of 2 m. The string is pulled by a force of
200 N. Determine the change in length of the string! Young’s modulus of the string = 5 x
109 N/m2

Young’s modulus (E) = 5 x 109 N/m2

Original length (l) = 2 m
Force (F) = 200 N
Diameter (d) = 1 cm = 0.01 m
Radius (r) = 0.5 cm = 0.005 m = 5 x 10-3 m
Area (A) = π r2 = (3.14)(5 x 10-3 m)2 = (3.14)(25 x 10-6 m2)
Area (A) = 78.5 x 10-6 m2 = 7.85 x 10-5 m2
Wanted: The change in length (Δl)

Solution:
Young’s modulus formula :
Fl Fl 200×2
E= ⇒ Δl= = =0 . 001 m
AΔl EA 5×109 ×7 . 85×10−5

5. A concrete has a height of 5 meters and has unit area of 3 m3 supports a mass of 30,000 kg.
Determine (a) The stress (b) The strain (c) The change in height! Acceleration due to gravity (g) =
10 m/s2. Young’s modulus of concrete = 20 x 109N/m2

Young’s modulus of concrete = 20 x 109 N/m2

Initial height (l) = 5 meters
Unit area (A) = 3 m2
Weight (w) = m g = (30,000)(10) = 300,000 N

Solution:
Δl 0 . 002 Δl 0 . 002
Strain= = =0 .002 Strain= = =0 .002
(a) l 1 , (b) l 1
−6 −5
(c) Δl=l×strain=5×10 ×5=2 .5×10

Find the mass of the picture hanging from a steel nail as shown in the
diagram below, given that the nail bends only 1.8 m. Calculate the
−6 −5
weight of the nail. The shear modulus of the nail is Δl=l×strain=5×10 ×5=2.5×10 .
Take g = 9.8 m/s2.

Fl 8 GA Δl 8 . 01×1012×(π ×[ 0 .75×10−3 ]2 )1 .8×10−6

G= ⇒ F=W = =
AΔl l 5×10−3
W 51
¿ 51 N ⇒ m= = =5 . 2 kg
g 9.8
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