ELEMENTARY METEOROLOGY

METEOROLOGY-DEFINITION

Meteorology is the whole science of the atmosphere. It includes not only the physics, chemistry, and
dynamics of the atmosphere, but also many of its direct effects upon the earth’s surface , the oceans, and
life in general.
The main concern of meteorology is the internal motions of the atmosphere caused by the solar radiation
i.e. thermally driven.

Weather elements:
The word weather refers to the short-period variations in the atmosphere. But just what varies? There are
certain observed properties of the atmosphere that are subject to certain change, their state at any time
determining the state of the weather. These are:
1. Temperature 2. Humidity 3. Horizontal visibility 4.clouds and state of sky 5.Kind and amount of
precipitation. 6.Atmospheric pressure 7. winds.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere- definition
The atmosphere can be considered as a huge covering of gases that surround and permeates the earth and
extends upward with continuously decreasing density. It is subdivided into several layers, characterized
by a distinctive temperature distribution. The layers have been given names with suffix ‘sphere’ and the
boundaries between the layers have been given names ending with suffix ‘pause’.

Composition of the dry atmosphere

The Atmosphere can be defined as the mass of air surrounding the earth and extends upwards with
continuously decreasing density. In the lower layers it consists of dry air (a composite of many gases ),
water vapour, and microscopic particles such as dust, smoke and various salts. The percentage
composition of dry air by volume in the region within 80 km of the earth’s surface is remarkably uniform.
The most abundant constituent is nitrogen, 78.08, oxygen, 20.95, argon (and other rare gases), 0.94,
carbon dioxide, 0.03.
At increasing heights above the region of large-scale vertical mixing i.e. above 80 km the distribution of
gases becomes a function of their individual densities, with the heavier gases being concentrated in lower
levels. In addition, molecular dissociation products begin to appear in the lowest levels of the upper
stratosphere in a layer extending approximately between 24 and 40 km. UV radiation from the sun is
absorbed by gaseous oxygen (02 ). The molecules break down into atomic oxygen (0). A portion of this
atomic oxygen recombines to form ozone (03 ), which in turn is quite unstable.

The composition of dry air in the atmosphere

Component Percentage by volume Percentage by mass

Nitrogen 78.084 75.51
Oxygen 20.946 23.15
Argon 0.934 1.28
Carbon 0.033 1.28
Dioxide

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Vertical structure of the atmosphere

The atmosphere has no real upper boundary; the concentration of its constituent particles decreases with
height until the atmosphere ’merges’ with the emptiness of outer space. We can think of the atmosphere as
becoming negligible at a height of 500-600 km above mean sea level.
Among the several systems of nomenclature for the various subdivisions in the vertical distribution of
temperature in the atmosphere, the following is widely used in the atmospheric science. Mean conditions
are implied.

The friction layer- In the lower 1.5 to 2 km of the atmosphere, frictional effects induced by surface
irregularities greatly influence the atmospheric circulation’s. Most diurnal (daily) circulation occurs in this
layer.

The Troposphere- including the friction layer and extending to a height of approximately 8 km in the
polar region and 16-19 km over the equatorial regions is the troposphere, ‘the region of change’. The
principal characteristics of this region are:

1. More or less uniform decrease in temperature with height,

2. Increasing wind speeds with height,
3. Considerable moisture in the lower levels,
4. Appreciable vertical air movement, and
5. In general, the atmospheric phenomena collectively called the weather.
The Tropopause- The term tropopause has several slightly different meanings, depending upon particular
points of view. It is a zone of change rather than a discrete boundary. It is fairly well defined in the tropics
but less so in the polar regions. The tropopause marks the general upper limit of the transfer of the
atmospheric properties by large-scale vertical turbulence and mixing.

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The Stratosphere- The stratosphere has the tropopause as its lower boundary and an upper boundary
called the stratopause. The lower stratosphere has a remarkably stable, approximately isothermal
temperature distribution. It is characterized by the persistence of its circulation patterns and high wind
speeds. When circulation changes do not occur, they take place very rapidly. Cirrus clouds occasionally
form in the lower stratosphere, but visible weather phenomena usually are absent above the tropopause.
The isothermal character of the lower stratosphere terminates at a height of approximately 20 km. It is
replaced by a very gradual temperature increase with height. This region is known as the upper
stratosphere.

The stratopause- The stratopause is a rather broad temperature maximum which begins at a height of
approximately 50 km. It marks transition zone between the stratosphere and the mesosphere.

The Mesosphere- Above the stratosphere the temperature begins to decline sharply with increasing height
to a temperature minimum at about 80 km. This region is the mesosphere.

The Mesopause- The broad, somewhat ill-defined temperature minimum at the upper limit of the
mesosphere is known as the mesopause. It is a transition zone between the mesosphere and the
thermosphere.

The thermosphere- Extending from the mesospause and having no well defined upper limit is the
thermosphere. It is so called because of very high thermodynamical temperatures which my reach 1500 0 K

In Meteorology , the troposphere is the most important . It is in this region, and possibly also in the lowest
level of the stratosphere, that all of the phenomena we normally call the weather occur. Roughly one -
halve of the total mass of the atmosphere is found below a height of 5.6 km Over 99% is less than 30 km.
By far the greatest fraction of the water vapour distribution is in the first 16 km above the earth’s surface.
Nevertheless, the upper atmosphere may prove to exert influence on the low-level weather than we
presently believe.
Air can be practically barren of water vapour at some places and can also contain up to 4 per cent
moisture. Although the molecular weight of water is less than other gases in the air it is nevertheless
concentrate near the ground. Ninety per cent of this vapour lies in the lowest few kilometers of the
atmosphere. This is understandable when it is realized that the direct source of atmospheric water is the
World Ocean and that air temperatures aloft are too low to maintain water in its state.

ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE

Of all the many elements of the weather which affect our daily live, temperature is, probably , the
most important .
In order to understand clearly the concept of temperature it is necessary to distinguish between
the heat ‘content’ of a body system and the notion of sensible heat.

Heat is a form of energy associated with the structure of matter that is capable of being changed
to other forms, evidenced, for example, by the operation of mechanical engines using heat as the
energy source, or producing heat in the course of their operation.
Temperature is the perception, sensible, or measurable effect produced by the transfer of heat
energy.

Units of measurement of temperature

Fahrenheit(0F) : The range is from the freezing point of a saturated salt solution (00F) to the
boiling point of water at 2120; the freezing point of pure water on this scale is found to be 320F.

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The individual degree was chosen from a standard characteristic of mercury; it expands by
approximately 10-4 for each degree Fahrenheit.

Celsius or centigrade (0C): This is based upon the freezing point of distilled water ( H2O), as the
zero point, and 1000 as the boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure. By
international agreement, the name of the founder of this decimal system, Celsius, should
rightfully be used to identify the system.

To convert from 0C to 0F the following relationship is used:

F 0= 9/50C + 32

To convert to 0C the following relatonship is used:

0
C= 5/9 (0F-32)

Kelvin ( 0k, or 0A ‘absolute) is an absolute scale with the same units as the Celsius scale. This is a
convenient scale for space science and astronomy. The freezing point of water is 2730k, and the
boiling point is 3730k.

The conversion from a Celsius temperature to its absolute or Kelvin equivalent merely involves
adding 273 to the Celsius value.

HEAT TRANSFER PROCESSES

When two bodies having different temperatures are placed near each other, heat flows between
them and there is tendency for the two temperatures to become equal. This heat transfer of heat
may take place in three ways - conduction, convection and radiation.

(I) Conduction:
When two bodies are in contact, some of the kinetic energy of the molecules in the hot body is
transferred to the molecules in the cold body during collisions between them at their interface.
The rate of flow of heat increase with the temperature difference, but it also depends upon the
nature of the substance through which the heat is flowing.

(ii) Convection:
This involves a mass movement within a fluid. It may be brought about in two ways: either by
fluid moving over a rough boundary surface and so inducing irregular eddies , known as forced
convection or turbulence; or by the fluid being heated from below so that parts of it become less
dense, and therefore buoyant, and they rise as upward flowing currents replenished by adjacent
downward currents, the whole being known as free convection.

(iii) Radiation:
Heat can flow between two bodies, even when they are not in contact, in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. this method does not require the presence of an intervening material
medium but if one is present the it may alter the process.

HEATING THE ATMOSPHERE

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All there methods of heat transfer are active heating the atmosphere; Radiation from the sun
passes through the atmosphere with depletion resulting from absorption, scattering and reflecting,
the remainder being absorbed by the ground which thus becomes hotter. As soon as it becomes
hotter than air above it, heat flows by conduction and the air becomes warmer. Because of its
poor conductivity this heating of the air is confined to a very shallow layer near the ground, the
layers above being heated by mixing with the shallow warm layer as a result of convection or
turbulence.

temperature variations

Annual

Study of thermograph records disclose that July and January to be the warmest and coldest
months respectively in the northern hemisphere. Even though maximum and minimum solar
radiation input occur approximately on 21st and December 21st, respectively, in the northern
hemisphere, there is a temperature lag of 6 weeks to a month because of the heating and cooling
times required.
The annual temperature range is the difference between the average temperature of the warmest
and coldest month.

Diurnal

Daily temperature maximums are usually reached between 2 and 4 p.m., whereas the minimum
usually occurs at or just before sunrise
The time delay in reaching a maximum temperature is called the lag of the maximum and is
explained as the delay in reaching heat balance between incoming and outgoing radiation. The
maximum incoming rate occurs at noon, but takes 2-4 hours for the earth and the atmosphere to
heat up in response.

STATIC STABILITY

Static stability refers to the problem of what happens to a parcel of air after it has been given an
initial vertical displacement, either upwards or downwards. If , after an upward displacement ,
the parcel is found to be warmer (and therefore less dense) than its surroundings, its buoyancy
will make move further from its original position; it will continue to move upwards until its
temperature somehow becomes equal to that of its surroundings.
When, after an initial displacement the parcel moves father from its original level, then the
surrounding atmosphere is said to be statically unstable (or commonly ‘unstable ).
On the other hand, if after displacement the parcel is found to colder (and therefore more dense)
than its surroundings, its buoyancy will tend to return the to its original level and than the
surrounding atmosphere must in the first instance be forced, since buoyancy tends to oppose any

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vertical motion. The intermediate state where vertical motion is neither encouraged nor opposed
the atmosphere is said to be neutrally stable.

Definitions:
(i) A temperature lapse - a decrease of temperature with height; the lapse rate is the rate at
which temperature decreases with height, expressed in oC per kilometer oF per 1000 feet

(ii) A temperature inversion (commonly just referred to as an ‘inversion’ ) - an increase of

temperature with height; it has a negative lapse rate.

(iii) An isothermal layer- the temperature does not vary with height; it has a zero lapse rate.

Vertical temperature structure

For different layers of the atmosphere, the distribution of temperature with height take one of the
three forms below:

(i) A temperature lapse- a decrease of temperature with height; the lapse rate is the rate at which
temperature decreases with height, expressed in oC per kilometre or 0F per 1000 feet.

(ii) A temperature inversion ( commonly referred to as an ‘inversion’)- an increase of

temperature with height; it has a negative lapse rate.

(iii) An isothermal layer- the temperature does not vary with height; it has a zero lapse rate.

Development of instability and stability

The Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) of the atmosphere is not constant - it varies in both space
and time. On some occasions the atmosphere is unstable and on others it is stable.
The ELR of a layer in the atmosphere increases when either the lower part is warmed or the
upper part is cooled,or both. Conversely, the ELR of a layer decrease when either the lower part
is cooled or the upper is warmed, or both.

ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES

The change in the temperature of a gas or air, due only to the change in pressure on the air, is
called an adiabatic change. The rate at which the temperature changes as air rises or falls is

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called the adiabatic lapse rate. The rate for dry air is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate and is
constant at:

10o C per kilometre or 5.50 C per 1,000 feet

A parcel of air rising through the atmosphere expands because the pressure exerted upon it
decreases with height. This expansion is approximately adiabatic for two reasons: air is a poor
conductor of heat, and mixing of the parcel into its surrounding is slow. Adiabatic expansion
results in cooling, so the parcel cools as it ascends.

The change in the temperature of a gas or air, due to heat added or taken away from it is called
diabatic change.

Air rising adiabatically, with at the same time some of its water vapour condensing within it,
cools more slowly than dry air. The rate at which it cools, known as the saturated adiabatic lapse
rate is about:

60 C per kilometre or 3.50 C per 1,000 feet

RADIATION

The sun is the ultimate source of all the atmosphere’s energy; even so, only about one part in two
thousand million of the energy emitted by the sun is directed towards the earth; the rest is
beamed elsewhere in space.
The sun, a gaseous sphere with a surface temperature of about 60000C, transmits its energy
mainly as electro-magnetic radiation, although there is also a stream of ionized particles. The
energy travels freely through space but is converted to heat upon absorption; the absorbing body
is then warmed and re-radiates energy, although in different amounts and wavelengths. Because
of its lower temperatures, the earth emits much less energy and in longer wave-lenths than the
sun. Thus, whilst the earth’s radiation lies between 4 and 50 microns, the sun emits 99% of its
energy in wave-lengths less than 4 microns.
The amount of solar energy received per unit area and time and on a surface at right angles to the
sun’s beam at the fringes of the earth’s atmosphere is known as the solar constant It is almost
8.38 joules (2 calories) per cm2 per minute.
Only a little over half the energy from the sun impinging on the edge of the atmosphere, reaches
the earth.
Almost one fifth is absorbed by tiny particles and various gases of the atmosphere, particularly
ozone, carbon dioxide oxygen and water vapour; and about one third is scattered and reflected
from air molecules , clouds and the earth so that eventually less than half the incoming solar
energy warms the earth.

Terrestrial radiation, being much longer in wave length than solar radiation, cannot pass so easily
through the atmosphere; indeed, much is absorbed and re-radiated down again. Only a small
fraction escapes directly to space; mainly through the so called ‘window’ that is through a narrow

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wave band in which there is no absorption, In longer and shorter wavebands there is partial or
total absorption and the atmosphere thus acts like a blanket to limit the loss of radiation from the
earth.
Finally, heat is radiated from the outer parts of the atmosphere to space . Radiation received from
the sun is balanced by that lost from the earth and its atmosphere; input and output cancel each
other out. But this balance does not exist for individual parts of the system. The earth’s surface
has a surplus of energy from radiation everywhere except in polar areas where there is an
enormous reflection and loss of energy from clouds and surface ice. The atmosphere; however,
everywhere loses more radiation energy than it gains. Thus in the absence of compensating
exchanges, the earth would be constantly warm and the atmosphere cool. Energy is transferred
from earth to the air and from low to high latitudes.

THERMODYNAMIC DIAGRAMS (AEROLOGICAL CHARTS)

The primary function of a thermodynamic diagram is to provide a graphical display of the lines
representing the major kinds of processes to which air may be subject, namely isothermal, dry
adiabatic, and pseudo adiabatic processes. By plotting on such a diagram the observed state of
any set of air parcels, one may be in a position to evaluate graphically the effect of any of these
processes.

The commonly used thermodynamic diagrams are the Emmagram, Tephigram, Skew T-log p
and the Stuve diagram

The Tephigram : Designed by Sir N. Shaw (1936) plots temperature (te) and log potential
temperature i.e. entropy (phi), as coordinates. It has 5 sets of reference lines namely; Isobars,
Isotherms, Humidity mixing ratio lines, Dry adiabats and moist adiabats

Definition of some terms used in the use of the tephigram:

1. Dry adiabats - lines of constant potential temperature

2. Moist (pseudo) adiabats - lines of constant equivalent potential tempereture
3. Isobars - lines of constant pressure
4.Potential temperature - Temperature which dry air will have if brought
adiabatically to 1000mb
5. Equivalent temperature - This is the temperature (te) that would be attained onthe
assumpion of condensation at constant pressure of all
the water vapour in the sample, all latent heat released in the
condensation being used to raise the temperature of the sample.
6. Equivalent potential temperature
This is found on a thermodynamic diagram by
progressing along the dry adiabatic line from (te) to the
1000mb level

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 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Pressure (p) at any a point in the atmosphere is simply the weight of air vertically above unit
horizontal area centered on the point i.e. the downward force on unit area resulting from the
action of gravity (g) on the mass (m) of air vertically above.

In the atmosphere, pressure is measured with the barometer. An alternative form is the aneroid
barometer, based upon an aneroid capsule.

Pressure at Mean Sea Level (MSLP):

M.SL.Pressure = 106 dynes / cm2

= 105 N/m2
= 760 mm of mercury
= 1 atmosphere
= 1013.25 mb

HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM

A condition of hydrostatic (stationary fluid) equilibrium is said to exist in the atmosphere when
the pressure at any given point in it exactly balance the gravitational force at the point.

If Z1 and Z2 represent two heights or vertical distances along a vertical column of the
atmosphere, then the length of the column between these values is simply Z2 - Z1 i.e. DZ . For a
column 1cm2 in cross section, DZ is numerically equal to the volume occupied. On a slice taken
at Z2, there exists a pressure of magnitude P2. Similarly, a pressure of magnitude P1 on a slice at
Z1. We can therefore say that there exists a pressure difference P2 - P1 = DP in the interval
represented by DZ .

We can write the pressure difference DP , within a height interval DZ , in terms of average
density of the atmosphere within the interval:

DP = - ρgDZ

The adove equation is called the hydrostatic equation and it expresses the condition for
hydrostatic equilibrium in the atmosphere.

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 PRESSURE SYSTEMS

Various pressure systems can be identified on a mean sea level chart. Wind tend to blow in a
particular direction on individual pressure system. As a guide to wind direction on a particular
pressure system, Buys Ballot’s law can be applied. The law states that: If you stand with your
back to the wind, the lowest pressure lies on your left in the northern hemisphere.

The systems that can be identified are as follows:

1. Highs ( anticyclones)
2. Ridges
3. Lows (cyclone or depressions)
4. Troughs
5. Cols

1 HIGHS

a) In the centre of a high there is relatively very high pressure enclosed by two or more isobars
b) Around a high, the winds are light because the isobars are well spaced.
little or no cloud in the centre of a high. At the surface, air is diverging.
c) Air sinks or subsides in a high. In this case, the subsiding air warms up.
d) In the northern hemisphere the wind flows in the clockwise direction and vise versa in the
southern hemisphere.
e) Appreciable rain is unlikely near the centre but visibility can be poor due to presence of light
winds and stable air which retards the disposal of smoke and dust.

2 RIDGE

a) Along the axis of a ridge, pressure is always high compared to the neighbouring area
b) Ridge extends from a high and it is never V- shaped.
c) Wind blows with a component from the axis of a high.
d) Weather is the same as that found in an anticyclone.

3 LOW

a) The centre of a low has the lowest pressure observed

b) There are strong winds around a low due to tight gradients. This is so because the isobars are
close to each other.
c) Air is rising at the centre of a low. Hence, the air cools as it ascends and reaches saturation.
d) Clouds, all types of weather phenomena i.e. showers ,rain. Thunderstorms etc. Take place.
e) In the northern hemisphere, winds round a low blow in a counter clockwise direction and vise
versa in the southern hemisphere.

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4 TROUGHS

a) It is indicated by isobars extending outward from a region of low pressure.

b) Pressure is lower along the axis of the trough.
c) Isobars change abruptly in direction and incase of a front, it can be V-shaped.
d) There is component of wind towards the trough axis and hence there must be convergence
along the axis of the trough.
e) All weather found in the region is similar to that of a low.

5. COL

a) This is a region of almost level pressure and in a col there is high pressure on both sides and
low pressure on the opposite sides. Alternatively a col is a region between two ridges and two
troughs.
b) Weather in a col depends on the system playing an important role. If the lows are intense, cols
tend to acquire weather in low and vice versa if the highs are predominantly important.

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ATMOSPHERIC FORCES

Gravity
Gravity is actually the resultant of two forces, the gravitational force of the earth for any object
on or near the earth, and the centrifugal force due to the earth’s rotation. The first of these forces
is called gravitation. It is hundreds of times as strong as the centrifugal force, so that the forces of
gravity and gravitation are not very different.

Pressure-gradient force
Wherever there are pressure differences in the atmosphere, that is, variation of pressure with
distance, air will experience a pressure-gradient force which tends to drive the air from the area
of high pressure towards the area of low pressure.

The pressure-gradient force PGF from point A to B may be given by

PGF= pB-pA
D

Where pA and pB are respectively the pressure at two points B and A located a distance D apart,
and  is the mean air density between the two points the force is always directed from higher
pressure towards lower pressure. In exact mathematical notation:
1 ¶p
PGF= - ρ ¶ x
where x is distance.

The coriolis force

Because our meteorological measurements are made on a rotating earth, the path of an object,
which a stationary observer in space sees as a straight line, will appear curved to us on the
rotating earth. If we see this path curve to the right, it appears as though a force has pulled the
object to the right. The name given to the ‘apparent’ deflecting force is the coriolis force.
At an arbitrary latitude, the horizontal plane spins about the vertical axis with rate of rotation 
sin , where  is the latitude. Thus, the general expression for coriolis force is
CF=2  V sin 

Friction

Air molecules just above the ground move with a certain wind speed. Their random motions will
exchange momentum with the ground, but, since the ground cannot move, the net effect of this
exchange of momentum is to decrease the speed of the winds. Air molecules, however, are very
inefficient in transferring momentum; infact, it can be shown that, if molecules were the sole
transferring agent, only the winds in the lowest 2m would be affected noticeably. If air is slowed
down by eddy exchange of momentum, which is usually important in about the lowest 1000m;
rather than by molecular exchange, the force which is then retarding the air motion is called
‘eddy’ friction. Frequently, just the word friction is used, when eddy friction is implied.

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Buy Ballot’s Law States that if an observer stands with his back to the wind in the Northern
Hemisphere, the lower pressure is on his left and higher pressure on his right. The reverse is true
in the southern hemisphere.

Geostrophic wind
The term ‘geostrophic’ in the atmospheric science refers to the balance between the horizontal
coriolis force and the horizontal pressure gradient force. This balance is possible when friction is
disregarded i.e. above the friction layer and acceleration is also neglected.

0= PGF+ CF

The diagram above illustrates geostrophic equilibrium by a parcel of air initially at rest. As a
parcel picks up speed across the isobars, the coriolis force will begin to act to the right of the
direction of motion (in the northern hemisphere) and will begin to turn the parcel away from
perpendicularity with the isobars. As this action goes on, the coriolis force increases, since the
speed increases, and it is expected ultimately the motion will be parallel to the isobars with the
coriolis and pressure gradient forces equal in magnitude but oppositely directed.
Because of the decreasing coriolis effect toward the equator, the observed wind in low latitudes
do not often approximate the geostrophic wind.

Thermal wind
The geostrophic wind at a given level is proportional to the pressure gradient at that level. The
wind at a higher level is proportional to the pressure gradient at that level. Therefore, the
difference between geostrophic winds at two levels is proportional to the difference is called the
‘thermal’ wind.

In the figure above, we start at sea level, with pressure slowly increasing from west to east. This
implies a geostrophic wind from the south. Now, we suppose that there is cold air in the west and
warmer air in the east. Then the pressure decreases most rapidly with height in the west,
according to the hydrostatic equation. Considering he example above, as a result of the
temperature difference, the pressure gradient at 3 km is stronger than at sea level, but in the same
direction, so that the geostrophic wind at 3km is also from the south, but much stronger than the
surface wind. The stronger the temperature contrast has produced a vertical wind shear. The
stronger the temperature gradient, the larger the wind shear; e.g. above fronts there are likely to
be especially strong winds.

Gradient wind

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Gradient wind is the wind obtained from the balance of pressure gradient force, and centrifugal
force. It flows parallel to the isobars with lower pressure on the left in the N. H. according to Buy
Ballot’s law. The balance of these forces is different for a cyclone, so that a separate
mathematical definition is required for each. For straight line flow, the centrifugal force becomes
zero. This defines the geostrophic wind, which is a special case of gradient wind.

CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

The equation of continuity states that the mass of air moving from a given space or volume must
be instantly be replaced an equal one unless a change in density has occurred. There can be no
gaps in the air. When a body of air moves, another takes its place and so on generating a chain of
instantaneous motion called a streamline. When the velocity a streamline is constant, a decrease
in air density involves the ‘thinning’ or export of mass, whilst increasing density requires its
‘piling’ or import. The ‘new’ incoming air replacing each situation requires convergence of the
streamlines to make up for that exported and their divergence to cope with imports, i.e. thinning
is countered by piling-up and vice versa.
At the ground surface the convergence of streamline is associated with cyclones and their
divergence with anticyclones.
In the figure below, notice how the standard lower and upper isobars 1000mb and 100mb are
undulating because of alternate swelling and shrinking of the troposphere. This produces
opposing horizontal pressure gradients above and below the 600mb level.

DIFFLUENCE AND CONFLUENCE

When the mass remains constant, streamlines can maintain a uniform velocity only by flowing
parallel to each other. If the lines begin to bunch together, each must speed up to avoid hold-ups.
Conversely, when they spread apart, it is possible to slow down. Streamlines which come
together are called a confluence and those which move apart give rise to diffluence.

LOCAL WINDS

Winds caused by local pressure differences, on a small scale are called LOCAL WINDS. This is
in contrast to winds which blow with certain regularity as part of world wide wind patterns,
caused by pressure differences which exist between global pressure zones.

There are five of these local winds namely:-

(a) Sea breeze
(b) Land breeze
(c) Katabatic winds
(d) Anabatic winds
(e) Fohn winds

a) Sea breeze

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Winds caused by local pressure differences, on a small scale are called LOCAL WINDS. This is
in contrast to winds which blow with certain regularity as part of worldwide wind patterns,
caused by pressure differences which exist between global pressure zones.

a) Sea breeze

Sea Breeze
If the sun is out, it heats up the land so that it is much warmer than the ocean. This causes the air above the land to
heat up while the air over the ocean is cooler. Hot air will rise and cool air will sink. Together, this rising and sinking
motion creates a convection cell just like in the activity. The cup of hot water represents the land heated by the sun.
The ocean is cooler than the land and is represented by the cup of ice. The water inside the pie pan represents the air
above the ocean and land. The food coloring allowed us to see the movement of the water.

Look at the diagram below:

As the warm air rises over land, it must be replaced by the cooler air over the ocean. We call this a sea breeze
because it's a breeze that comes from the sea. Meteorologists always name winds based on where they come from.
(If you were born and raised in Hawaii, then went to visit the Mainland, you would tell people that you were from
Hawaii.)

During the day, the land surface absorbs much solar radiation than a water surface. The land
surface will show considerable rise in temperature whereas the water surface hardly changes.

Air initially at rest on land surface receives heat by conduction and rises. At certain level above
ground, the mass of air increases hence density. The pressure becomes greater at that level due to
the additional weight of air above. At the same level over the water surface, the pressure still the
same as before.

Due to pressure difference at that level, air will move from land to sea aloft.

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As the mass of air at the same level over the sea increases, there will be motion downwards
towards the sea surface. The sea surface being colder than the land surface and mass of air
increasing over the sea surface, there will be created pressure difference between the sea surface
and land surface hence sea to land movement on the surface.

SEA BREEZE (DAY TIME)

The winds of this type are quite common in coastal stations reaching speeds of up to 20 knots and
penetrates as far as 80 kilometres inland. The return flow of the sea breeze is usually at levels
between 2000 feet to 3000 feet. It starts near the beach, a few hours after sunrise and progresses
inland. Attains maximum development during the early afternoon.

Normally continues until shortly after sunset, but circulation at higher levels may persist for a
few hours longer.

b) LAND BREEZE

Land Breeze

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At night time, the convection cell is reversed and we call it a land breeze because the wind near the surface now
blows from the land out to sea. This happens because the land cools down at night and will get colder than the ocean.
The air above the ocean is now warmer compared to the cooler air over the land at night. (Have you ever noticed how
the ocean feels warmer in the evening? It's not because the ocean heats up at night, it's because the air at night got
colder.) This is seen in the diagram below:

It is important to understand that the ocean's temperature doesn't change much in a given location. It's quick and
easy to heat up a cup of water...but it would take a very long time to heat up the entire ocean! When we talk about
land and sea breezes, these winds occur due to the land being colder or warmer than the ocean. That causes the air
above land to be a different temperature than the air above the ocean. Also, keep in mind that land and sea breezes
have a difficult time developing if the trade winds are blowing strong because this disrupts the convection cell.

At night there is more loss of heat by terrestrial radiation over land than over the sea surface.

Land surface cools much more rapidly than a water surface.

As the air on the land surface becomes denser than the air on the sea surface, likewise the
pressure on the land surface will be higher than that of the sea surface resulting to air motion
from land to sea on the surface.

The sea being warmer and the air being less dense on the surface than on land, it will tend to rise.

At certain level above the sea due to ascent of air from the surface, the air will become denser
resulting to a higher pressure than the pressure on the same level above land surface and this will
result into the movement from sea to land aloft.

It is weaker than the sea breeze. Its influence limited to only a thin layer of air, the layer being
strongly affected by friction.

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Hence rarely exceeds 5 knots.

It starts generally about 3 hours after sunset, then increases in strength until sunrise.

It does not reach 15 knots.

It is much lighter than the sea breeze because the temperature differences involved are normally
smaller.

LAND BREEZE (NIGHT TIME)

Relationship of sea breeze and land breeze in aviation

For siting Aerodrome, Land and sea breezes are seldom strong enough to effect the choice of site
of an aerodrome, except where high mountains rise from a narrow coastal plain.

Importance of Sea and Land breezes

1. In many tropical lowland areas they bring very welcome relief from the oppressive heat
during the hottest hours of the day.
2. Fishermen also use the breezes by moving to sea with land breeze in the early morning
and return to land with the sea breeze in the afternoon.

Four controls important for generation of Land and Sea Breeze.

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(a)The pressure gradient force resulting from the difference in temperature between land and sea
surfaces.
(b)Vertical heat exchange by turbulence
(c)The internal friction of the air motion due to turbulence
(d)The Earth’s rotation

c) katabatic wind

At night, air in contact with the side of a hill or mountain at a point A will cool quicker and to a
much greater extent than air at point B at the same level but a distance away from A in the free
atmosphere. The air at A will become denser than that at B and will tend to sink relative to B. It
slides down the hillside towards the valley bottom as Katabatic wind. This wind is quite gentle
with speeds of less than 4 knots.

The slow accumulation of cool air in valleys by Katabatic effect is usually the cause of mist or
fog which form in valleys during latter half of clear night.

d) anabatic wind

This wind blows up the sides of the hills or mountains during daytime. Short wave radiation
heats the hillside more than the air in the free atmosphere at the same level. Considering a place
C on the ground on the hillside and a place D at the same level but some distance away in the air.

The air in contact with the ground at C gets heated, becomes less dense and rises up the hill or
mountain. In comparison, the air at D does not become heated so quickly and is infact almost
stationary while the air at C blows upwards as Anabatic wind. the wind is rather difficult to
detect, often being masked by convection currents.

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e)Fohn winds

Fohn wind is a warm, dry wind experienced to the leeward of high ground. Wind meeting a
mountain barrier is forced to rise and adiabatic cooling takes place. With availability of moisture,
on rising the slope, it cools adiabatically and condensation takes place.

In some cases freezing may occur particularly when the temperature is low and freezing nuclei
present.

During cloud formation, latent heat is released making the air to cool at a lower rate (S.A.L.R).

Further rising of the air, leads to precipitation in the form of rain and snow on the windward side
of the mountain. Precipitation therefore reduces the moisture content of the air which continues
to move over the mountain.

When air finally reaches over the mountain top, it descends on the leeward and warms up due to
adiabatic compression.

Some cloud droplets evaporate due to warming.

Air on arrival at the bottom on the leeward has higher temperature than before it started the
journey over the slope. It is also drier than before.

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OBSERVED WINDS NEAR THE GROUND

1. Effects of friction

In the largest kilometre or so, wind is slowed down by friction. As it slows down, the coriolis
force decreases, and the pressure -gradient force turns the wind towards low pressure. The
observed direction is backed from the geostrophic direction by an amount which is rather
variable, approximately 300 over land and 100 over the sea.

2. Funnelling effect

A valley often has light winds when the isobars lie across its length; but sometimes the winds
may be excessively strengthened.

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OBSERVED WINDS NEAR THE GROUND

1. Effects of friction

In the largest kilometre or so, wind is slowed down by friction. As it slows down, the coriolis
force decreases, and the pressure -gradient force turns the wind towards low pressure. The
observed direction is backed from the geostrophic direction by an amount which is rather
variable, approximately 300 over land and 100 over the sea.

2. Funnelling effect

A valley often has light winds when the isobars lie across its length; but sometimes the winds
may be excessively strengthened.

UPPER WINDS

A knowledge of winds at levels well above the ground is of the greatest importance to air craft
navigation , study of depressions and anticyclones and hence to weather forecasting.

Measurements

Upper winds can be measured by the following methods:

1. Pilot balloon
2. Rawind sonde ( by using wind finding radar )
3. Aircraft observations (aireps)
4. Satellite winds ( Observation of motion of a piece cloud that drifts with the wind )

The jet streams

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Narrow belts of strong winds in the upper levels are known as ‘jet streams,’ a term introduced by
Rossby in 1947.

Just underneath the tropopause, especially at places of special temperature contrast, such as
above the polar front, or at the ice edge, the westerly winds tend to set themselves in fairly
narrow bands of exceptionally high speed, the ‘jet’.

A jet steam can be defined as follows:

“ A strong narrow current concentrated along a quasi- horizontal axis in the upper troposphere or
in the stratosphere, characterized by strong vertical and lateral wind shears and featuring one or
more velocity maxima”
In addition to the above definition, the jet stream has the following characteristics. It is normally
thousands of kilometres in length, hundreds of kilometres in width and some kilometres in depth.
The vertical shear of wind is of the order of 5-10 m/sec per 100km An arbitrary lower limit of
30m/sec is assigned to the speed of the wind along the jet axis of a jet stream.

Main jet streams

The main jet streams are as following
1. Sub Tropical Jet- This jet in found near 300 latitude. It is located almost entirely within the
tropics with maximum speeds at about 200mb. It is less variable in both speed and direction.
2. Polar jet - This jet is very variable in speed, continuity , location and elevation. It is found in
the high latitudes.
3. Tropical Easterly Jet - It is an extension of the Indian Jet. It occurs in the summer hemisphere
between 9-150 latitude. The core is normally between 200 -100 mb. The average speed is about
70 knots.

4. African Easterly Jet - This is a mid troposphere feature i.e. low level jet. The core is normally
at about 650 mb. It occurs during northern summer.

5. East Africa Low Level Jet- A low level at about 850 mb. It occurs during northern summer.

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 GENERAL CIRCULATION

There is no complete theory which covers the main or general circulation of the atmosphere. The
general circulation is driven by temperature differences caused by the sun heating the surface and
overlying atmosphere of the earth unevenly. Its attempted solution is one of the great problems of
our age. What follows is but a very rough approximation of the truth.
If a stationary earth consisted of all land, or all water, the airflow would be decided by the
temperature contrast between equator and poles. At the equator the heated air would rise, at the
poles the cold air would sink. The upper airflow would be from equator towards the poles, and
the surface flow in the opposite direction. The simple circulation that is described above is
complicated by the fact that the earth rotates. Air moving polewards, from above the equator,
appears as a westerly wind. It cools and sinks, so that by the time it has reached 300 latitude, it
has returned to the ground, building up a belt of high pressure. Now this air at the surface
spreads out, some moving polewards. The former becomes an easterly wind and the latter a
westerly wind. Meanwhile, at the pole, the air at the surface, which sets off towards the equator,
becomes an east wind. In the vicinity of 600 latitude, this air meets the poleward over the colder
polar air. Both airflows now tend to move back again at high levels to their starting points.
Latitude 600 will be a belt of low pressure. The figure below shows the formation of three
different cells giving easterly surface winds from the equator to 300 latitude, westerly from 300 to
600 latitude and easterly winds again between 600 latitude to the pole. The first cell is known as
the Hadley cell and the second Ferrel. The third one as the polar. The high pressure centres in 30 0
latitude are areas of calms and variable winds. The meeting place in the low latitudes is called the
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone.

An east-west circulation

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There is another vertical circulation, this time east-west, in the tropical atmosphere. In this
Walker circulation, air rises over warm seas in the Indonesian region, aided by the associated
heavy rainfall. On reaching the tropopause, it flows eastwards before sinking over the cooler
waters in the eastern tropical Pacific.
The strength of this circulation varies from year to year. When one side has higher-than-normal
pressure (which usually accompanies lower-than-normal sea surface temperatures and rainfall),
the other side usually has lower lower-than- normal pressure, warmer seas and higher rainfall.
This ‘see-saw’ in atmospheric pressure is called southern oscillation. This slow moving, large-
scale oscillation of air pressure affects the weather in many parts of the world. The southern
oscolation may cause droughts in India and parts of Africa at the same time as floods in central
Pacific.

EL NINO

El Nino- Spanish for ‘the boy child’- because around christmas time each year the waters off the
peruvian coast warm slightly. When ,every three to six years, the waters become unususally
warm,El Nino heralds two problems to the local people; it pours with rain causing widespread
flooding in what is usually a simi-desert area, and the local anchary fishing industry fails when
the catch declines.
‘El Nino; is now used more widely to refer to this abnormal warming of the ocean and the
resulting effects on weather. ‘El Nino’ is often coupled with ‘southern Oscillation’ as the
acronym ENSO.

The Walker circulation is greatly changed during extreme phases of the southern oscilation. It is
strenghtened when the sea surface temperature in the eastern Pacific is abnormally low-La Nina.
It is weakened when that water becomes abnormally warm, making the cross- Pacific air
pressures more equal; the trade winds are weaken and may even reverse becoming westerly-El
Nino

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 ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS

The state of the atmosphere is well specified when the distribution of seven characteristics (or
variables) is known throughout: pressure, temperature, air density, amount of water vapour, wind
speed, wind direction and vertical wind. The behaviour of the seven variables is governed by
seven equations, four from the field of hydrodynamics and three from thermodynamics.

The thermodynamic equations include:

i) the gas law,
ii) heat equation and
iii) equation expressing conservation of moisture.

i) The equation of state

The equation of state for dry air ( that is , air containing no water substance) is

= p/RT

Here, R is a constant,  the density, T the temperature and p the pressure. Qualitatively,
increasing the temperature expands the air density; increasing the pressure compresses the air and
increases the the density. This relationship is normally used to eliminate density.

ii) Heat equation ( the first law of thermodynamics )

The first law of thermodynamics states that

Heat added = increase of internal energy + work done against outside pressure.

Energy can be added from the outside by processes such as radiation. The increase of internal
energy is usually the increase in the kinetic energy and the outside work in normally by
expansion.

iii) Moisture equation

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This equation simply states that moisture cannot be gained or lost, but may change phase.

Properties of water vapour

Even though water vapour never amounts to more than 4 per cent of the air- and is usually very
much less- it is of great importance for two reasons:

1. A little vapour can absorb or emit a great of radiation in the infra-red wave lengths.
2.Water vapour can change to liquid or ice, and the amount of heat energy involved in these
phase changes is substantial, even if the amounts of vapour involved are small.
In order to be more precise about the properties of water vapour, the quantity vapour pressure e
has to be introduced. It is merely that portion of the total air pressure which is due to water
vapour, and is usually measured in millibars.

The three states of water

The various materials which comprise the earth occur in three different-solid,liquid and gas. The
three states of water are as follows:

Solid-ice
Liquid state-water
Gaseous state-water vapour

Water may change from one phase to another either directly or indirectly. The processes by
which water changes from one state to another are as follows:

Initial state Final state Process

Ice Water Melting
Ice Water vapour Sublimation
Water Water vapour Evaporation
Water vapour Water Condensation
Water vapour Ice Deposition
Water Ice Freezing

Considering a water surface, there is, at all times, an exchange of water molecules between the
water and the air above it. If the vapour pressure is small more water molecules will evaporate
and if it is large there will be more condensation that evaporation. A state of equilibrium can be
reached when the number of evaporation equals condensation. The vapour pressure is then
known as the equilibrium vapour pressure or saturated vapour pressure(es ).

Relative humidity and dew point

The quantity 100e/es ( in per cent) is known as the relative humidity. It describes how close the air
is to saturation. There are basically two ways in which the air can be brought to saturation: by
adding more vapour to the air, which increases e, or cooling the air, which decreases es.
A measure of moisture closely connected to e and the relative humidity (r.h.) is the dew point T d.
The dew point is defined as the temperature at which water vapour in the air will reach saturation
if air is cooled without a change of pressure, provided that no vapour is removed from or added
to the air.

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