EET 06206 POWER

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
• Power electronics involves the conversion of electrical energy or the
switching (on or off) of an electrical power circuit, with or without
control of the electrical energy.
• Electronic power conversion may be defined as the modification of
one or more parameters of electrical energy by means of electronic
devices, without significant power losses.
• A converter is a device for power conversion, with one or more
switching components and also, if necessary, transformers, filters, and
auxiliary devices.
• A converter for power-supply purposes is often called a secondary
power source, in contrast to primary sources such as batteries, solar
cells, and ac grids.
The main forms of power conversion
1. Rectification (conversion from ac to dc).
• The corresponding converter is known as a rectifier or an ac/dc converter for
rectification. The energy source for most consumers is a single- or three-phase
general-purpose ac grid.
• At the same time, dc voltage is required for control and communications devices
and computers. It is also required for certain components of drives, electrical
equipment, and optical equipment. In autonomous systems, the ac sources are
rotary generators. Rectifiers are the most common power converters.
The main forms of power conversion……..
2. Inversion (conversion from dc to ac).
• The corresponding converter is known as an inverter or an ac/dc
converter for inversion. The dc source of an inverter may be a
battery, a solar cell, or a dc transmission line or else another
converter(e.g ac to dc converter)
The main forms of power conversion……..
3. Conversion from ac to dc and vice versa.
• The corresponding converter is known as an ac/dc converter. Such
converters are able to change the direction of the energy flux and may
operate either in the rectifier mode, when the energy is transmitted
from an ac grid to a dc circuit, or in the inverter mode, when the energy
is transmitted from a dc circuit to an ac grid
 The main forms of power conversion……..
4. Conversion from ac to ac. The corresponding converter is known as an ac
converter.
a. The ac voltage converter, with the same number of phases and the same
voltage frequency at the input and output, changes the voltage amplitude
(upward or downward)
b. The frequency converter converts a current with one frequency to a current
with another frequency. The voltage is normally the same before and after
frequency conversion. Frequency converters are normally used for speed
regulation of motors used to drive pumps and fans.
c. The phase converter transforms single-phase to three-phase voltage and vice
versa. Conversion of single-phase to three-phase voltage permits power
supply to three-phase components in the absence of a three-phase grid.
The main forms of power conversion……..
5. Conversion from dc to dc.
• The corresponding converter is known as a dc converter. Such conversion
improves the power of a dc source and matches the voltage of the source and
consumers. It is most often employed for components whose power source is a
low-voltage battery.
Rectification (conversion from ac to dc).
• In electronic power rectification, the ability of power electronic
switches to conduct unidirectional current is employed to convert
alternating current to direct current without significant energy losses
• The corresponding converter is known as a rectifier or an ac/dc
converter
• These rectifiers can be classified based on different basis as:
Classifications of Rectifiers
 DIODE (UNCONTROLLED)RECTIFIERS
• In most power electronic applications, the power input is in the form of a 50- or
60-Hz sine wave ac voltage provided by the electric utility, that is first converted
to a dc voltage.
• Rectification of ac voltages and currents is accomplished by means of diodes.

Block diagram of a rectifier.

Single-phase Diode (Uncontrolled) Rectifiers
• There are two types of single-phase diode rectifier that convert a
single-phase ac supply into a dc voltage, namely, single phase half-
wave rectifiers and single-phase full-wave rectifiers.
Single-phase Half-wave Rectifiers
• The simplest single-phase diode rectifier is the single-phase half-wave rectifier.
The circuit consists of only one diode that is usually fed with a secondary
transformer as shown. During the positive half-cycle of the transformer
secondary voltage, diode D conducts. During the negative half-cycle, diode D
stops conducting.

A single-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load

Voltage and current waveforms of the half-wave rectifier
with resistive load.
Single-phase Full-wave Rectifier
• There are two types of single-phase full-wave rectifier, namely, full-wave rectifiers
with center-tapped transformer and bridge rectifiers.

Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer. Bridge rectifier.

Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped
transformer
• A full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer consists of two diodes with
a centre tapped transformer.
• It is clear that each diode, together with the associated half of the transformer,
acts as a half-wave rectifier. The outputs of the two half-wave rectifiers are
combined to produce full-wave rectification in the load.
• By observing diode voltage waveforms VD1 and VD2 in waveform, it is clear that
the PIV(peak inverse voltage) of the diodes is equal to 2Vm during their blocking
state. Hence the VRRM (Maximum repetitive reverse voltage) rating of the diodes
must be chosen to be higher than 2Vm to avoid reverse breakdown.
• During its conducting state, each diode has a forward current which is equal to
the load current, therefore the IFRM (Repetitive Maximum Forward Current)
rating of these diodes must be chosen to be higher than the peak load current.
Voltage and current waveforms of the full-wave rectifier Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped
with center-tapped transformer. transformer.
Full-wave Bridge rectifier
• Full-wave Bridge rectifier employs four diodes instead of two as shown on the circuit that follows. During the
positive half cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, the current flows to the load through diodes D1 and
D2. During the negative half cycle, D3 and D4 conduct.

Voltage and current waveforms of the bridge rectifier. Bridge rectifier.

Performance Parameters of the Diode rectifiers
• Average Voltage
The average value of the load voltage Vdc is defined as

In the case of a half-wave rectifier

Hence, the average voltage for half wave rectifier

And in case for full wave rectifier

Hence, the average voltage for full wave rectifier

• The root-mean-square (rms) voltage
The root-mean-square (rms) value of load voltage VL, which is defined as

In the case of a half-wave rectifier, VL(t ) = 0 for the negative half-cycle, therefore
the equation can be re- written as

and hence root-mean-square (rms) for half wave rectifier is

In the case of a full-wave rectifier, VL(t ) = Vm|sinωt | for both the positive and
negative half-cycles. Hence equation can be re-written as

and hence root-mean-square (rms) for half wave rectifier is

• The average value of load current Idc for purely resistive it can be found as

• The rms value of load current IL for purely resistive it can be found as

• Form Factor
The form factor (FF) is defined as the ratio of the root-mean square value (heating component) of a voltage or
current to its average value,

• Ripple Factor
The ripple factor (RF), which is a measure of the ripple content, is defined as

where Vac is the effective (rms) value of the ac component of load voltage vL.
Single-phase Controlled Bridge Rectifier
• A fully controlled bridge rectifier, uses four thyristors to control the average load
voltage. In addition, figure below shows the half-controlled bridge rectifier which
uses two thyristors and two diodes.

Single-phase bridge rectifier: (a) fully controlled and (b) half-controlled

• The voltage and current waveforms of the fully controlled bridge rectifier for a
resistive load are illustrated in following figure. Thyristors T1 and T2 must be fired
on simultaneously during the positive half-wave of the source voltage Vs , to
allow the conduction of current. Alternatively, thyristors T3 and T4 must be fired
simultaneously during the negative half-wave of the source voltage.

Waveforms of a fully controlled bridge rectifier with resistive load.

DC to AC converters (Inverters)
• The inverter provides a.c. load voltage from a d.c. voltage source.
• The semiconductor switches such as BJTs, thyristors, MOSFETS, IGBTs
can be used in construction of these converters .
• The choice of power switch will depend on rating requirements and
ease with which the device can be turned on and off.
• Inverters can be classified as voltage source inverters (VSI) or current
source inverters (CSI)
• The input to Voltage source inverter (VSI) is assumed to be a dc
voltage source e.g., regulated power supply (rectifier), battery
• The input to the Current source inverter (CSI) is a dc current source
e.g., PV cells
• Inverters can be also classified as A single-phase inverter or three
phase inverter
• Single-phase VSI can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge topologies.
These inverters converts a dc in put into single phase ac voltage
• Three-phase VSI converts a dc in put into three phase ac voltage

Single-phase full-bridge VSI. Three-phase VSI topology

Single-phase Voltage Source Inverters
• Single-phase VSI can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge
topologies. Although, the power range they cover is the low one, they
are widely used in power supplies, single-phase UPSs
Half-bridge VSI
• Figure a that follow shows the power topology of a half-bridge VSI,
where two large capacitors are required to provide a neutral point N,
such that each capacitor maintains a constant voltage vi /2
• It is clear that both switches S+ and S− cannot be on simultaneously
because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi would be
produced.
• In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined
ac output-voltage condition, the modulating technique should always
ensure that at any instant either the top or the bottom switch of the
inverter leg is on.
• Figure b shows the shape of the output voltage wave form across the
load resistive load
Figure a: Single-phase half- Figure b: The half-bridge VSI. Ideal waveforms for
bridge VSI resistive load
Full-bridge VSI
• Figure a below shows the power topology of a full-bridge VSI. This inverter
is similar to the half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the
neutral point to the load. As expected, both switches S1+ and S1− (or S2+
and S2−) cannot be on simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc
link voltage source vi would be produced. There are four defined (states 1,
2, 3, and 4) and one undefined (state 5) switch state
• The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of
defining the ac output voltage always. In order to avoid the short circuit
across the dc bus and the undefined ac output voltage condition, the
modulating technique should ensure that either the top or the bottom
switch of each leg is on at any instant. It can be observed that the ac
output voltage can take values up to the dc link value vi , which is twice
that obtained with half-bridge VSI topologies.
• Several modulating techniques have been developed that are applicable to
full-bridge VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar)
techniques.
Single-phase full-bridge VSI Switch states for a full-bridge single-phase VSI
Example
• A half-bridge inverter, as shown in Fig. below, has Vb1 = Vb2 = 20V. The
load is resistive with R1 = 10Ω). Inverter frequency is 100Hz. Sketch
and scale the load current waveform
Solution
• Assume ideal switches.
• Maximum current = Vb1/R = 20/10 = 2A
• Periodic time = 1/f= 1/100 = 10ms
• The load current waveform is therefore as shown in Fig. below
DC–DC Converters (DC choppers)
The functions of dc–dc converters are:
• to convert a dc input voltage into a dc output voltage;
• to regulate the dc output voltage against load and line variations;
• to reduce the ac voltage ripple on the dc output voltage below the
required level;
• to provide isolation between the input source and the load (isolation is
not always required);
• to protect the supplied system and the input source from
electromagnetic interference (EMI);
• to satisfy various international and national safety standards
Basic Topologies of DC–DC Converters (DC
choppers)
There are four basic topologies of dc–dc converter:
• Buck dc–dc converter
• Boost dc–dc converter
• buck–boost dc–dc converter, and
• C`uk converters dc–dc converter
Buck dc-dc converter (step-down dc chopper)
• A step-down dc chopper with a resistive load is shown in Fig. a. It is a series
connection of a dc input voltage source VS, controllable switch S, and load resistance
R.
• Power electronic switches are usually implemented with power MOSFETs, IGBTs,
MCTs, power BJTs, or GTOs.
• Figure b depicts waveforms in a step-down chopper. The switch is being operated
with a duty ratio D defined as a ratio of the switch on time to the sum of the on the
off times. For a constant frequency operation,

• where T=1/f is the period of the switching frequency f. The average value of the
output voltage is
DC chopper with resistive load: (a) circuit diagram and (b) output voltage waveform.
• The output voltage and current can be regulated by adjusting duty
ratio D. The average output voltage is always smaller than the input
voltage, hence, the name of the converter.
• The dc step-down choppers are commonly used in dc drives. In such a
case, the load is presented as a series combination of inductance L,
resistance R, and back emf E as shown below in Fig a below.
• To provide a path for a continuous inductor current flow when the
switch is in the off state, an antiparallel diode D must be connected
across the load
• The load voltage and current are graphed in Fig. b under assumptions
that the load current never reaches zero and the load time constant
τ = L/R is much greater than the period T.
DC chopper with RLE load: (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.
Operational circuit of
Buck dc-dc converter
The basic operational circuit with
resistive load of the step-down
dc–dc converter, commonly
known as a buck converter, is
shown in Fig. a. It consists of dc
input voltage source VS,
controlled switch S, diode D, filter
inductor L, filter capacitor C, and
load resistance R
Boost dc-dc converter (step-up dc chopper
• The dc choppers can also provide peak output voltages higher than
the input voltage. Such a step-up configuration is presented in Fig. a
• It consists of dc input source VS, inductor L connected in series with
the source, switch S connecting the inductor to ground, and a series
combination of diode D and load.
• If the switch operates with a duty ratio D, the output voltage is a
series of pulses of dura on (1−D)T and amplitude VS/(1 − D).
• Neglecting losses, the average value of the output voltage is VS. To
obtain an average value of the output voltage greater than VS, a
capacitor must be connected in parallel with the load. This results in a
topology of a boost dc–dc converter
The dc step-up chopper.
Operational circuit of
Boost dc-dc converter
• Figure a depicts a step-up or a
PWM boost converter. It is
comprised of dc input voltage
source VS , boost inductor L,
controlled switch S, diode D, filter
capacitor C, and load resistance R.
The converter waveforms in the
CCM are presented in Fig. b.
• When the switch S is in the on
state, the current in the boost
inductor increases linearly. The
diode D is off at the time. When
the switch S is turned off, the
energy stored in the inductor is
released through the diode to the Boost converter: (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms
input RC circuit.