Unit 1 - Amplitude modulation

Noise :
In electrical terms, noise is defined as the unwanted form of energy which tends to interface with
the proper reception and the reproduction of transmitted signals.

Classification of Noise:

There are several ways to classify Noise, but conveniently Noise is classified as
1) External Noise
2) Internal Noise

External Noise:
External noise is defined as the type of Noise which is general externally due
to communication system. External Noise are analysed qualitatively. Now, External Noise may
be classified as

a) Atmospheric Noise : Atmospheric Noise is also known as static noise which is the natural
source of disturbance caused by lightning, discharge in thunderstorm and the natural
disturbances occurring in the nature.

b) Industrial Noise : Sources of Industrial noise are auto-mobiles, aircraft, ignition of electric
motors and switching gear. The main cause of Industrial noise is High voltage wires. These
noises is generally produced by the discharge present in the operations.

c) Extraterrestrial Noise : Extraterrestrial Noise exist on the basis of their originating source.
They are subdivided into
i) Solar Noise
ii) Cosmic Noise
Internal Noise:

Internal Noise are the type of Noise which are generated internally or within the Communication
System or in the receiver. They may be treated qualitatively and can also be reduced or
minimized by the proper designing of the system. Internal Noises are classified as
1) Shot Noise : These Noise are generally arises in the active devices due to the random
behaviour of Charge particles or carries. In case of electron tube, shot Noise is produces due to
the random emission of electron form cathodes.
2) Partition Noise : When a circuit is to divide in between two or more paths then the noise
generated is known as Partition noise. The reason for the generation is random fluctuation in the
division.
3) Low- Frequency Noise : They are also known as FLICKER NOISE. These types of noise are
generally observed at a frequency range below few kHz. Power spectral density of these noise
increases with the decrease in frequency. That why the name is given Low- Frequency Noise.
4) High- Frequency Noise : These noises are also known TRANSIT- TIME Noise. They are
observed in the semi-conductor devices when the transit time of a charge carrier while crossing a
junction is compared with the time period of that signal.
5) Thermal Noise : Thermal Noise are random and often referred as White Noise or Johnson
Noise. Thermal noise are generally observed in the resistor or the sensitive resistive components
of a complex impedance due to the random and rapid movement of molecules or atoms or
electrons.

Electronic Communication System:

Fig 1: Block diagram of Electronic Communication System

The main components of any Electronic Communication System are as follows:
Message Source: Message source may be any audio, video or data. Audio and Video signals are
usually analog in nature. Data is a digital signal which originates from computer systems.
Transmission of these message signals is prime objective of any communication system.
Input Transducer: The input signals such as voice, data or video; whatever we wish to transmit
has to be in the form of an electrical signal. Only electrical signals can be transmitted over
electronic communication systems. The input transducer is an electronic/electrical device used to
convert the input signal in the form of an electrical signal such as voltage or current. For
example, a microphone is used to convert an incoming voice signal in the form of an electrical
signal.
Transmitter: Transmitter section comprises of modulating elements and amplifiers as per the
requirement of the system. The transmitter is the section that applies the main concepts and
algorithms of electronic communication to the incoming signals. The output of the transmitter is
fed to an antenna in case of a wireless communication system. It is fed to the wired channel in
case of a wired channel like optical fiber or coaxial cable.
Channel: Channel is the medium through which the signals sent by transmitter travels towards
the destination. Depending of medium channel may be wired or wireless. In wired channels
signal transmission takes place inside a bounded medium. A few examples of wired channels are
telephone lines, optical fibers, copper cables, coaxial cables etc. In the case of wireless channel
signal transmission takes place through the air. Few examples of wireless channels are
microwave links, mobile phones, satellite communication etc. Signal degradation takes place
inside the channel due to attenuation, distortion and noise. When the signal travels through long-
distance, its power level decreases due to attenuation over the channel. Spurious signals get
added in the form of noise signals. Because of these reasons signal faces distortion. We need to
have proper mechanisms at the transmitter and receiver end to mitigate the effects of this noise
and its implications otherwise it becomes very difficult to reproduce the originally transmitted
signal at the receiver end.
Receiver: The receiver block does exactly the opposite processing to that of the transmitter. The
signal received from the channel is filtered out for noise and unwanted signals. Then the
demodulation of signals takes place. The demodulated signals are in the form of an electrical
signal. These signals are fed to the output transducer.
Output Transducer: It translates the received signal into its original form i.e. from an electrical
signal to its original form as it was before transmission.
Message Destination: It is an end-user that consumes the message or information.

Frequency Translation:
It is also known by other names, like Frequency conversion, Frequency Mixing and also as
heterodyning. In communication systems we sometimes need to shift (Translate/convert) the
frequency of a modulated signal to another band of frequency before its demodulation
(Detection). So modulated signal is first shifted to a fixed frequency which is known as
Intermediate Frequency (IF Frequency). Translating the signal to this frequency makes the
processing of the signal easy. these signals processing like Amplification, Filtering and
Demodulation etc. are easily performed at that shifted frequency. The Device used for Frequency
mixing or Heterodyning is called as Frequency Mixer.

Advantages of Frequency Translation:

1.Frequency Multiplexing: The single channel may be single pair of wires or the space that
separates one radio antenna from another. If these new frequency ranges do not overlap, then the
signal may be separated at the receiving end by using band pass filters.
2. Antenna and its practicability: Antennas are responsible for radiation and reception of the
signal through the communicating channel in the free space. The antennas are effectively
operative when the dimensions of the antennas are of the order of magnitude of the wavelength
of the signal being transmitted.
3. Narrow banding: Even though the unlimited or inordinate length of the antenna were no
problem, we would face another problem. The audio range is 10 to 10 kHz. The ratio of the
highest audio frequency to the lowest is 200. The length of the antenna suitable for use at one
end of the range would be entirely too short or too long for the order end.
4.Common Processing: Sometime we have to process a number of signals similar in general
character but occupying different spectral ranges. Then it will be necessary to adjust the
frequency range of our processing apparatus to corresponding to the frequency range of the
signal to be processed.
Amplitude Modulation:
In general, Amplitude Modulation is termed as modulating a continuous transmitting wave that
has no intervals and holds the information. While as per the basic definition, it is defined as “A
carrier signal which has no information varies its amplitude in correspondence with the change in
amplitude of the modulating signal”.

Fig. 1 Basic amplitude modulated wave

The initial one is the message signal which holds certain information, while the second signal has
no information and is called the carrier signal. The modulation of these waves results in the AM
modulated wave. The dotted line in the AM modulated wave is termed as Envelope and it is in
the exact shape of the modulating signal. Through the amplitude modulation, the low-frequency
baseband wave is modulated to a high-frequency signal. So, high-frequency signals can transmit
over a long distance than that of low-frequency signals.

The modulating signal (input signal) is represented as

i(t) = Vmcos(2∏fit)

The carrier signal is represented as

c(t) = Vccos(2∏fct)

And in the expressions, Ai and Ac represent the amplitudes of two waves while fi and fc are the
frequencies of the two waves correspondingly. Solving the two expressions, the modulated wave
is represented as

M(t) = [Vc + Vm cos (2∏ (fi + fc)t )]

Amplitude Modulation Block Diagram:

Here the modulating signals might be an audio or video signal. These are also called as baseband
signals as these are modulated with the carrier signals. Carriers are extremely high-frequency
radio signals, In general, carrier signals are received from the RF oscillators. These two signals
are combined in a modulator. The modulator considers the instant amplitude of the modulating
signal and modifies it as per the amplitude of the carrier signal. So, the resultant signal amplitude
is the amplitude of the modulated signal. The modulated signal is passed through the amplifier
for the amplitude modulation and then transmitted through an antenna or a co-axial cable.

Fig.2 amplitude modulation block diagram

Modulation Index

After the process of modulation, the modulated level of the carrier is calculated, and this exertion
is termed as Modulation index. It determines the level of the modulation that a carrier wave
undergoes. Below is the modulated signal.

M(t) = [Vc+ Vm cos (2∏ (fi + fc)t )]

The above equation can be rearranged as

M(t) = Vc [1 + (Vm/Vc) cos (2∏ (fit)] cos (2∏ (fct)

M(t) = Vc [1 + µ cos (2∏ (fit)] cos (2∏ (fct)

So, here µ is the Modulation index factor and µ = Vm/Vc ——- (1)

So, When the amplitudes of both the carrier and modulating signal are known, the modulation
index can be known. The resultant modulated wave shows maximum amplitude in the condition
cos (2∏ (fit) is 1.

the amplitude of the carrier signal can be known, where

Vc = (Vmax + Vmin)/2

Vm = (Vmax – Vmin)/2

With the above Vm and Vc equations, the ratio of these can be calculated as

Vm/Vc = [(Vmax – Vmin)/2]/[(Vmax + Vmin)/2]

So, µ = (Vmax – Vmin)/(Vmax + Vmin) ————-(2)

Therefore, the Modulation index can be represented in the form of either equation (1) or (2).
When represented in the form of a percentage, it is called a percentage of modulation. When the
value of µ is < 1, it is called under-modulation and that wave is called an under-modulated wave.
And, when the value of µ is > 1, it is called as over-modulation and that wave is called an over-
modulated wave.

Bandwidth of Am is, BW = fUSB -fLSB = 2fm

Where fUSB = fc+ fm and fLSB = fc – fm

2
Carrier power Pc = Vc /2R , where R is impedance ( take R = 1 Ohm)

Transmitted Power Pt = Pc (1 + µ 2/2)

Types of Amplitude Modulations:

Amplitude modulation is classified as three types and they are

Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSB – FC)

In the process of Amplitude Modulation or Phase Modulation, the modulated wave consists of
the carrier wave and two sidebands. The modulated signal has the information in the whole band
except at the carrier frequency.

Sideband

A Sideband is a band of frequencies, containing power, which are the lower and higher
frequencies of the carrier frequency. Both the sidebands contain the same information. The
representation of amplitude modulated wave in the frequency domain is as shown in the
following figure.

Both the sidebands in the image contain the same information. The transmission of such a signal
which contains a carrier along with two sidebands, can be termed as Double Sideband Full
Carrier system, or simply DSB-FC. It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Two-thirds of the power is being wasted in the
carrier, which carries no information.

Mathematical Expressions:
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals as we have
considered in the earlier chapters.

i.e., Modulating signal

m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)

Carrier signal

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)
Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the product of modulating
and carrier signals.
s(t)=m(t)c(t)
⇒s(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)

Bandwidth of DSB-FC is, BW = fUSB -fLSB = 2fm

Where fUSB = fc+ fm and fLSB = fc – fm

2
Carrier power Pc = Vc /2R , where R is impedance ( take R = 1 Ohm)

Transmitted Power Pt = Pc (1 + µ 2/2)

Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB – SC):

If this carrier is suppressed and the power saved is distributed to the two sidebands, such a
process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system, or simply DSBSC. It is
plotted as shown in the following figure.

Mathematical Expressions:
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals as we have
considered in the earlier chapters.

i.e., Modulating signal

m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)

Carrier signal

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)
Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the product of modulating
and carrier signals.
s(t)=m(t)c(t)
⇒s(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)

Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave

We know the formula for bandwidth (BW) is

BW=fmax−fmin

Consider the equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

s(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)
s(t)=(AmAc/2)[ cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+ cos[2π(fc−fm)t]]
The DSBSC modulated wave has only two frequencies. So, the maximum and minimum
frequencies are fc+fm and fc−fm respectively.

i.e.,

fmax=fc+fm and fmin=fc−fm

Substitute, fmax and fmin values in the bandwidth formula.
BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)
BW=2fm

Thus, the bandwidth of DSBSC wave is same as that of AM wave and it is equal to twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of DSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

s(t)=AmAc/2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+AmAc/2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]
Power of DSBSC wave is equal to the sum of powers of upper sideband and lower sideband
frequency components.

Pt=PUSB+PLSB

We know the standard formula for power of cos signal is

First, let us find the powers of upper sideband and lower sideband one by one.

Upper sideband power

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of upper sideband power.

Now, let us add these two sideband powers in order to get the power of DSBSC wave.

Therefore, the power required for transmitting DSBSC wave is equal to the power of both the
sidebands.

Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier ( SSB-SC):

The process of suppressing one of the sidebands, along with the carrier and transmitting a single
sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system, or simply SSB-SC or SSB.
It is plotted as shown in the following figure.
This SSB-SC or SSB system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as the power
allotted for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single
Sideband (SSB).

Hence, the modulation done using this SSB technique is called as SSB Modulation.

Mathematical Expressions:

Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the modulating and the carrier signals as
we have considered in the earlier chapters.

i.e., Modulating signal

m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)

Carrier signal

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of SSBSC wave as

s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc+fm)t] for the upper sideband

Or

s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc−fm)t] for the lower sideband

Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its bandwidth is 2fm/2.
Since the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half of the
bandwidth of DSBSC modulated wave.
i.e., Bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave =2fm/2=fm
Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fmand it is equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal.

Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave:

Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.

s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc+fm)t] for the upper sideband

Or

s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc−fm)t] for the lower sideband

Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband frequency components.

Pt=PUSB=PLSB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

In this case, the power of the upper sideband is

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.

Therefore, the power of SSBSC wave is

Advantages:
The advantages of SSB modulation are −

 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSB signals.

 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
 Power is saved.
 High power signal can be transmitted.
 Less amount of noise is present.
 Signal fading is less likely to occur.

Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of SSB modulation are −

 The generation and detection of SSB signal is a complex process.

 Quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an
excellent frequency stability.

Applications:

The applications of SSB modulation are −

 For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.

 In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.
 In point-to-point communications.
 In radio communications.
 In television, telemetry, and radar communications.
 In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.

Vestigial Sideband:

In case of SSB modulation, when a sideband is passed through the filters, the band pass filter
may not work perfectly in practice. As a result of which, some of the information may get lost.

Hence to avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSB-
SC and SSB, called as Vestigial Sideband (VSB) technique. The word vestige which means “a
part” from which the name is derived.

Both of the sidebands are not required for the transmission, as it is a waste. But a single band if
transmitted, leads to loss of information. Hence, this technique has evolved.

Vestigial Sideband Modulation or VSB Modulation is the process where a part of the signal
called as vestige is modulated, along with one sideband. A VSB signal can be plotted as shown
in the following figure.
Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this
technique. A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the
interferences. VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

At first, both amplitude and frequency modulations are used to transmit information through the
technique of varying the carrier signal.

As per the definition, in amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the modulating signal varies as
per the carrier signal’s amplitude. The AM signals make use of lower frequencies to transmit
information to long distances. While in frequency modulation, the frequency of the modulating
signal varies as per the carrier signal’s amplitude. The bandwidth of the frequency-modulated
signals is higher than that of AM modulated signals that help to transmit better quality voice
signals.

Bandwidth BW = fm + fv

Where,

fm = Message bandwidth

fv = Width of the vestigial sideband

VSB Modulation − Advantages

Following are the advantages of VSB −

 Highly efficient.
 Reduction in bandwidth.
 Filter design is easy as high accuracy is not needed.
 The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without difficulty.
 Possesses good phase characteristics.
VSB Modulation − Disadvantages

Following are the disadvantages of VSB −

 Bandwidth when compared to SSB is greater.

 Demodulation is complex.

VSB Modulation – Application:

The most prominent and standard application of VSB is for the transmission of television
signals. Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is
considered.

Differences Between AM and FM:

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

The first modulated wave was transmitted in The first modulated wave was transmitted in
the year the 1870s the year 1930

The radio wave is defined as a carrier signal and The radio wave is defined as a carrier signal and
both phase and frequency are maintained at both phase and amplitude are maintained at
the same the same

The AM signals can be transmitted to long The FM signals can be transmitted to long
distances but have lesser sound quality distances and have good sound quality

These waves lie in the frequency range of 535 These waves lie in the frequency range of 88 to
to 1705 kHz 108 MHz

Highly suspected of noise signals Less suspected to noise signals

Applications of Amplitude Modulation

The applications are

Amplitude modulated waves are utilized in a wide variety of applications and few of those to be
described as below.

To broadcast transmissions – AM waves can be used to transmit long, short and medium
wavebands. The demodulation process is also simple, and this implies that radio receivers which
hold the capability to demodulate are manufactured simply.

AM waves are also used to transmit very high-frequency waves such as airborne applications.
These are also implemented for the ground to air radio transmissions and also two-way radio
communications.
Single sideband amplitude modulated waves are used for high-frequency radio links. Using a
minimal bandwidth and offering more effective utilization of the broadcasted power this kind of
modulation is still utilized for various point to point high-frequency links.

AM is extensively utilized for data transmission ranging from short wireless links like wireless
networks to cellular telecommunications and many others. Successfully it is developed using two
carriers which are 90° out of phase.

Further, the applications of amplitude modulation are

 Air traffic control radios

 Keyless remotes
 Broadcasting of TV signals
 Electronic communications

Advantages & Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation

Any of the technology or system has its advantages and disadvantages. So, here the advantages
and disadvantages of amplitude modulation are

Advantages

The advantages are

 Both modulation and demodulation processes are simply implemented

 Cost is also economical as fewer circuits and diodes are used
 Can transmit signals to longer distances
 The waves have lesser bandwidth
 Less complicated

Disadvantages

The disadvantages are

 Minimal efficient for power utilization as a DSB-SC modulation process consumes more
power
 Even not efficient in bandwidth utilization too.
 Less sensitivity to noise signals, so more prone to noise disturbances
 Reproduction is not greatly reliable.

Frequency Division Multiplexing:

Frequency division multiplexing definition is: a multiplexing technique that is used to combine
more than one signal over a shared medium. In this type of multiplexing, signals with different
frequencies are merged for concurrent transmission. In FDM, multiple signals are merged for
transmission over a channel or single communications line where every signal is allocated to a
different frequency in the main channel.

Frequency Division Multiplexing Block Diagram

The frequency division block diagram is shown below which includes a transmitter and a
receiver. In FDM, the different message signals like m1(t), m2(t) & m3(t) are modulated at the
different carrier frequencies like fc1, fc2 & fc3. In this manner, the different modulated signals
are separated from each other within the frequency domain. These modulated signals are merged
together to shape the composite signal which is transmitted over the channel/transmission
medium.

To avoid interference between the two message signals, a guard band is also kept in between
these two signals. A guard band is used to separate two wide ranges of frequencies. This ensures
that communication channels that are used simultaneously do not experience interference which
would affect in reduced quality of transmissions.

Frequency Division Multiplexing Block Diagram

As shown in the above figure, there are three different message signals are modulated at various
frequencies. After that, they are merged into a single composite signal. Each signal’s carrier
frequencies must be chosen so that there is no overlapping of modulated signals. Like this, each
modulated signal within the multiplexed signal is simply separated from each other within the
domain of frequency.

Working:

At the receiver end, bandpass filters are used to separate each modulated signal from the
composite signal & demultiplexed. By transmitting the demultiplexed signal through the LPF, it
is achievable to recover every message signal. This is how a typical FDM (Frequency Division
Multiplexing) method is.

In the FDM system, the transmitter end has several transmitters & the receiver end has several
receivers. In between the transmitter & receiver, the communication channel is there. In FDM, at
the transmitter end, every transmitter transmits a signal with a different frequency. For instance,
the first transmitter transmits a signal with 30 kHz frequency, the second transmitter transmits a
signal with 40 kHz frequency & third transmitter transmits a signal with 50 kHz frequency.

After that, these signals with different frequencies are combined with a device known as a
multiplexer which transmits the multiplexed signals through a communication channel. FDM is
an analog method which is a very popular multiplexing method. At the receiver end de-
multiplexer is used to separate the multiplexed signals then it transmits these separated signals to
the particular receivers.

A typical FDM has a total of n channels, where n is an integer greater than 1. Each channel
carries one bit of information and has its own carrier frequency. The output of each channel is
sent at a different frequency from all other channels. The input to each channel is delayed by an
amount dt, which may be measured in units of time or cycles per second.

Each channel consists of an array of photonic crystals that act as filters for light waves passing
through them. Each crystal can pass only certain wavelengths of light; others are blocked out
entirely by their structure or by reflection from an adjacent crystal.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

The advantages of frequency division multiplexing include the following.
 The transmitter & receiver of FDM does not need any synchronization.
 It is simpler & its demodulation is easy.
 Only one channel will get effect because of the slow narrow band.
 FDM is applicable for analog signals.
 A large number of channels can be simultaneously transmitted.
 It is not expensive.
 This multiplexing has high reliability.
 Using this multiplexing, it is possible to transmit multimedia data with low noise &
distortion and also with high efficiency.
The disadvantages of frequency division multiplexing include the following.
 FDM has a cross-talk problem.
  FDM is applicable only when a few less-speed channels are preferred
 Intermediation distortion occurs.
 FDM circuitry is complex.
 It needs more bandwidth.
 It gives fewer throughputs.
 As compared to TDM, the latency provided by FDM is more.
 This multiplexing doesn’t have dynamic coordination.
 FDM needs a large number of filters & modulators.
 The channel of this multiplexing can get affected by wideband fading
 The channel’s complete bandwidth cannot be utilized on the FDM.
 The system of FDM requires a carrier signal.
Applications:
The applications of frequency division multiplexing include the following.

 Earlier, FDM is used in the cellular telephone system and harmonic

telegraphy communication system.
 Frequency division multiplexing is mainly used in radio broadcasting.
 FDM is also used in TV broadcasting.
 This type of multiplexing is applicable in the telephone system to help in transmitting
several phone calls over a single link or single transmission line.
 FDM is used in a satellite communication system for transmitting various data
channels.
 It is used in FM transmission systems or stereo frequency modulation.
 It is used in AM radio transmission systems/Amplitude Modulation.
 It is used for public telephones and cable TV systems.
 It is used in broadcasting.
 It is used in AM and FM broadcasting.
 It is used in wireless networks, cellular networks, etc.
 FDM is used in broadband connection systems and also in DSL (Digital Subscriber
Line) modems.
 FDM system is mainly used for multimedia data like audio, video & image
transmission.

Frequency Division Multiplexing Vs Time Division Multiplexing

The difference between frequency division multiplexing and time division
multiplexing is discussed below.

Frequency Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing

The term FDM stands for “frequency The term TDM stands for “time division
division multiplexing. multiplexing.
This multiplexing simply works with only This multiplexing simply works with
 analog signals. both analog & digital signals.
This multiplexing has high conflict. This multiplexing has low conflict.
FDM chip/Wiring is complex. TDM chip/Wiring is not complex.
This multiplexing is not efficient. This multiplexing is very efficient.
In FDM, frequency is shared. In TDM, time is shared.
The synchronization pulse in TDM is
The guard band is compulsory in FDM.
compulsory.
In FDM, all the signals with different In TDM, all the signals with equal
frequencies operate simultaneously. frequency operate at different times.
The FDM has a very high range of The TDM has a negligible or very low
interference. range of interference.
The circuitry of FDM is complex. The circuitry of TDM is simple.

Radio Transmitter and Receiver:

Radio Transmitters :
 Transmitter must generate a signal with the right type of modulation, with sufficient
power, at the right carrier frequency, and with reasonable efficiency.
 Earlier, we have studied the basic concepts of amplitude modulation. There are two
basic topologies to generate and transmit amplitude modulated waves.
 In low level modulation, the generation of AM wave takes place in the initial stage of
amplification, i.e at a low power level. The generated AM signal then amplified using
number of amplifier stages.
 In high level modulation, modulation takes place in the final stage of amplification and
therefore modulation circuitry has to handle high power.
 It can be seen that stable RF source, buffer amplifier and subsequent RF power amplifiers
are common for both low level modulation transmitter and high level modulation
transmitter.
 The stable RF source is provided by crystal oscillator with a carrier frequency or
submultiple of it.
 The buffer amplifiers are usually class-A amplifier where as power amplifiers are class-
C amplifiers in both, audio and power audio frequency (AF) amplifiers are present.
 In fact, the only differnce is the point at which the modulation takes place. In case of low
level modulation, modulation takes place at low power level, i.e before the final output
amplifier.
Radio Receivers :

• AM radio receiver is a device which receives the desired AM signal, amplifies it followed by
demodulation to get back the original modulating signal.
• Radio receivers are broadly of TWO types 1. Depending on the application: AM, FM, COMM.,TV,
RADAR 2. Depending on the fundamental aspect/ principle
• Based on principle of operation, the TWO popular radio receivers are there, they are i. Tuned
Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver ii. Superheterodyne Receiver.
• The TRF receiver is a simple “logical” receiver.
• Two or three RF amplifiers, all tuning together, were employed to select and amplify the
incoming frequency and simultaneously to reject all others.
• After the signal was amplified to a suitable level, it was demodulated (detected) and fed to the
loud speaker after being passed through the appropriate audio amplifying stages.
• These are simple to design, align at broadcast frequencies, but they presented difficulties at
higher frequencies.
Additional questions:

1. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/
analog_communication_am_modulators.htm
2. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/
analog_communication_am_demodulators.htm