Module 4

Communication?
Transfer of information from one point to other (or)
Exchange of Information between two points.
Electronic Communication: Sending data or
Information using electronic devices. This allows rapid
transfer of goods, money and ideas
Need for Communication
Speedy transmission: Requires only few seconds to communicate through electronic media due
the technology available for quick transmission
Wide Coverage: The whole world has become a global village and communication around the
globe requires just a second
Low Cost: Cost of an SMS is cheaper than sending a letter by post
Exchange of feedback: Instant exchange of feedback
24/7 accessibility: Can be accessed anytime
Signal
Message signal:
The signal that consists information is called
modulating signal. The modulating signal is usually of
low-frequency signal. (20 Hz – 20 KHz)
Carrier signal:
The signal which carries the information is called
carrier signal. Carrier signal is a high frequency signal
which does not contains any information. The
purpose of this signal is just to carry the message
signal. The range is in terms of Mega Hertz.
General form of a Basic Communication System
Example:
Elements of Communication System
Information source and transducer
Transmitter
Channel or medium
Noise
Receiver
Output transducer and
final destination
A communication system transmits information from an information source (message) to a
destination.
Examples: Voice, Live scenes (video), music, written text, and e-mail.
A transducer is a device that converts a physical signal into its corresponding electrical signal
and vice versa.
Examples of input transducers:
Sound – Microphone
Picture - Camera
Text - Keyboard
Temperature/Pressure - Sensor with transducer
Information Source and Transducer
Message or information originates in the information source may be in the form of sound
(human speech), picture (image source), words (text).
However, out of these messages, only the desired message is selected and communicated.
Type of Signals
Signals are functions that carry information.
We use signals to convey information from place to place.
In electronics, signals are mainly in the form of varying voltages.
There are two types of signals.
Analog Signals, Digital Signals
 ANALOG SIGNALS DIGITAL SIGNALS
• Analog signal is continuous and time varying • Digital signal have two or more states (binary
form)
• Troubleshooting is difficult. • Troubleshooting is easy.
• Analog signals use continuous values to • Digital signals use discrete values to represent
represent the data, usually in the form of sine the data, usually in the form of square wave.
wave. •
• Accuracy may be affected by noise. • Accuracy is immune from the noise.
• Analog signals may be corrupted during data • Digital signals are not corrupted during data
transmission. transmission.
• Examples: Temperature, Pressure, Flow • Examples: Motor Start, Trip, etc.
measurements, etc.
• Components like resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, • Components like transistors, logic gates, and
Diodes are used in analog circuits. micro-controllers are used in digital circuits.
A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form. Generally, the
input transducer converts the non-electrical signal (Ex: sound signal or light signal) into an
electrical signal.
For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or massage
which is in the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.
Transmitter
The base band signal (electrical form), output from the input transducer is applied to the input
of the transmitter. The transmitter section processes the signal prior to transmission.
The nature of processing depends on the type of communication system.
There are two options for processing signals prior transmission
(i) The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher
frequency spectrum --- carrier communication system
In this process, modulation is the main function of the transmitter.
In modulation, the message signal is superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal.
As the original message signal cannot be transmitted over a longer distance because of their low
frequency and amplitude, they are superimposed with high frequency carrier signal.
Transmitter
(ii) The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum ---
baseband communication system.
If the signal is to be transmitted through the space, then the transmitter will convert the
electrical signals into radio waves.
If the signal is to be transmitted through the fiber optic cable then the transmitter will convert
the electrical signal into light or optical signal.
Transmitter
Typical Analog transmitter
Transmitter
Typical Analog transmitter
Let s(t) be the baseband signal applied to the modulated stage as shown in the fig1, to translate
(modulate) it from low to high frequency spectrum.
That means, s(t) is superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal c(t), which is generated by a
high frequency carrier oscillator.
The output of the modulated stage is called the modulated signal, and is designated as x(t).
This signal is then applied to amplifier stage.
The voltage of the modulated signal is amplified to drive the power amplifier stage.
The power amplifier that amplifies the power of the modulated signal x(t) and thus it carries enough
power to reach the receiver stage of the communication system.
Finally, the signal is passed to the transmission medium or channel.
Channel or medium
The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter
to the receiver.
The transmitted signal should have adequate power to withstand the channel noise.
The channel characteristics also impose constraints on the bandwidth.
Depending on the physical implementations, one can classify the channels in the following two
groups
a) Hardwired channels (Manmade structure)
b) Soft-wired channels (no physical link between transmitter and receiver)
Channel or medium
a) Hardwired channels (Manmade structure)
Transmission lines: It is a conductive medium consisting of two or more conductors through which
electrical signal are transmitted from transmitting point to receiver point.
Example: i) Twisted pair cables used in telephony, in which two conductors are twisted together for
the purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility.
ii) Coaxial cable used in TV transmission, to carry high-frequency electrical signals with low losses.
Waveguide: consisting of a hollow, metal tube of uniform cross-section used for transmitting electro-
magnetic waves. When signals entered the waveguides are reflected at the metallic walls and
propagate at the other end. The energy is in the form of electric field and magnetic field which are
perpendicular to each other.
Optical Fibre: consist of very thin hollow glass fibre through which signal is transmitted in the form of
light energy.
Channel or medium
b) Soft-wired channels (no physical link between transmitter and receiver)
Natural resources which can be used as the transmission medium for signals.
Example:
Air or Open space and Sea water.
The signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (EM) waves also called radio waves.
Radio waves travel through open space at a speed equal to that of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s)
Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signal which do not have any useful information.
Noise is a highly undesirable part of a communication system, and has to be minimized.
When noise is mixed with the transmitted signal, it rides over it and deteriorates its waveform.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and Noise figure (F) SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power (S) to
the noise power (N), often expressed in decibels (dB).
Noise
Noise
Receiver
The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the original message signal.
This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process known as the demodulation
or detection.
Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried out in transmitter.
The signal received by the receiver is r(t).
Due to attenuation this received signal r(t) is a weak signal.
A voltage amplifier amplifies to make strong enough for further processing.
Receiver

Block diagram of analog receiver section

Destination
Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its
original form.
For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer
that converts the electrical signal to original sound signal.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a process which allows more than one signal to be transmitted through a single
channel.
TYPES OF MULTIPLEXING
In multiplexing, each baseband signals are modulated with different carrier frequencies.
At the transmitter they can be mixes and transmitted.
At the receiver end, all different transmitted signals can be easily separated by the known carrier
frequencies.
Due to multiplexing it is possible to increase the number of communication channels so that
more information can be transmitted where it makes the communication system economical.
The typical applications of multiplexing are telephone, satellite communication etc.
Types of Communication Systems
Communication Systems based on Physical
Infrastructure
Based on physical infrastructure there are two
types of communication systems:
Line communication systems: Uses power lines
to transfer data from one point to another point.
There is a physical link, called a hardwire channel
between the transmitter and the receiver inline
communication systems.
Ex: Land line telephony, Cable TV
Types of Communication Systems
Communication systems based on Signal specifications
A. Based on Nature of baseband or information signal
i) Analog communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through analog
signals. Ex: Audio, video and pictures between two points using the analog signals.
ii) Digital communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through digital
signals. Ex: Audio, HDTV
B. Based on Nature of the transmitted signal
i) Baseband communication system: Baseband signals are transmitted without translating (or
amplified) to higher frequencies. Ex: Land line, fax, etc
ii) Carrier communication system: The baseband signal (low frequency) is mixed with high
frequency carrier signal. Ex: Radio, voice messages and calls.
Types of Modulation
Modulation is the process in which any one of the parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase)
of the high frequency carrier signal is varied according to the instantaneous values of the low
frequency message signal, keeping other parameters constant.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the process in which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
according to the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the frequency and phase
are kept constant.
The first figure is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency
signal and contains no information.
Denoted as c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct)
The next one is the modulating wave, which is the message
signal; (low frequency signal) contains information.
Denoted as m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt)
The last one is the resultant amplitude modulated wave.

In AM, most of the transmitted power is wasted in carrier, but

used for longer distance communication.
Frequency Modulation
Frequency Modulation is defined as a process in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the amplitude and
phase are kept constant.

Mathematically, FM wave is denoted as

Modulation index (depth of modulation) mf =

Carrier Swing = f(max) - f(min) = 2Δf
In FM, all the transmitted power is useful, but used for short
distance communication.
Phase Modulation
Phase Modulation is defined as a process in which the phase of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the amplitude and
frequency are kept constant.
Mathematical equation of PM wave will be

s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct+βcos(2πfmt))

Where, β = modulation index = Δϕ = kpAm and Δϕ is phase

deviation. Phase modulation is used in mobile communication
systems.
Pulse Modulation
In pulse modulation, the signal is transmitted in the form of pulses. In analog pulse modulation,
the continuous signals are sampled at regular intervals. Pulse modulation can be classified as
follows.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude of
the carrier pulse varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
Message signal is sampled at regular intervals using carrier
pulse train. The amplitude of each pulse is directly
proportional to the instantaneous values of amplitude of the
modulating signal at the time of pulse occurrence.
Advantages:
PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation.
Its implementation is quite easy.
Disadvantages:
The transmission bandwidth required is very large
Due to the variation in amplitude, transmission power also
varies
Less immune to noise due to amplitude variation
Applications: used in LED lighting, in the Ethernet
communication system, etc
Pulse width or Pulse duration modulation (PWM or PDM)
PWM is a modulation technique in which each pulse duration is made proportional to
instantaneous values of the modulating signal. That means, starting time and amplitude of PWM
signal is constant as carrier pulses, but the width is varied in accordance with the amplitude of
the modulating signal.
Advantages:
Noise is less, since in PWM, amplitude is held constant.
Signal and noise separation is very easy.
Disadvantage: Variable pulse width causes variation in the
transmission power.
Large bandwidth is required.
Application: used in telecommunications, brightness controlling
of light, speed control of DC motors.
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM
In PPM, the amplitude and width of the pulses are kept constant and only the position of the
pulses is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.
PPM signal is generated in reference to a PWM signal. Thus,
the trailing edge of the PWM signal acts as the beginning point
of the pulses of PPM signal.
Advantages:
Recovering a PPM signal from distorted PPM is quite easy.
Transmission power is constant.
Noise is less than PAM and PWM, since in PPM signal
amplitude and width is held constant.
Disadvantage:
Large bandwidth is required
Applications: used in an optical communication system, in radio
control and in military applications
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
PCM is a modulation technique in which analog signal gets converted into digital form in order
to have signal transmission through a digital network.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
PCM system allows the representation of the analog message
signal as a sequence of binary coded pulses (logic states 0’s
and 1’s).
The major steps involved in PCM is sampling, quantizing and
encoding. It is shown in the above fig.
Sampling: Converting an analog signal to a discrete time
signal by multiplying the analog signal with periodic impulse
train.
Quantization: ADC unit rounded off the samples to the
nearest value of a finite set of allowable values.
Encoding: The rounded off values are binary coded.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Advantages:
1. Immune to channel induced noise
2. Secured data transmission
3. Ensures uniform transmission quality
Disadvantages:
Requires large transmission bandwidth and more complex than other systems.
Sampling theorem and Nyquist Rate
Sampling theorem: A band limited analog signal can be
sampled and perfectly reconstructed from its samples if
the sampling frequency is at least twice the maximum
frequency of the base band signal.
i.e, fs ≥ 2fmax
Nyquist Rate
To discretize the analog signals, the gap between the
samples should be fixed.
That gap can be termed as a sampling period Ts.
Sampling Frequency, fs = 1/Ts (sampling rate) Where, Ts =
the sampling period The sampling rate denotes the
number of samples taken per second, or for a finite set of
values.
Aliasing
Aliasing is an effect of the sampling that causes different signals to become indistinguishable.
Due to aliasing, the signal reconstructed from samples may become different than the original
analog signal.
Aliasing occurred when fs < 2fmax.
Aliasing is avoided by:
i) The analog low pass (anti aliasing) filter processes the analog input to obtain the band-limited
signal.
ii) Sampling the signal at a higher rate than the Nyquist rate (fs ≥ 2fmax).
Radio Wave Propagation
Radio waves exhibit the properties of light with the velocity 3x108 m/s.
These are electromagnetic (EM) waves that consist of electric and magnetic field components.
It is traversed in nature.
Radio signals can travel from one end to another over vast distances.
Since these are EM waves, they exhibit properties (like light waves) such as reflection, refraction,
diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering.
Radio propagation is the way of transmitting radio signals in different ways:
Ground or surface wave
Space or tropo-spheric wave
Sky wave
i) Ground or surface wave
Ground waves can be used for radio communication.
Ground wave transmission is very reliable irrespective of the atmospheric conditions.

Frequency range: 30 kHz to 3 MHz Transmission distance: 100 to 1000 km

Example: AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas.
ii)Space or tropo-spheric wave
In space wave (or line of sight propagation), radio waves move in the earth’s troposphere within
about 12 KM over the surface of the earth.
Frequency range: 3MHz to 30 MHz. Example, TV Transmission.
The space wave is made up of two components:
(a) a direct or line-of- sight wave from the transmitting to the receiving antenna and
(b) an indirect or ground-reflected wave traversing form the transmitting antenna to ground and
reflected to the receiving antenna.
iii) Sky wave
Radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna after
reflection from the ionosphere (the earth’s upper atmosphere).
Sky wave is responsible for short wave transmission around the globe via successive reflections
at the ionosphere and the earth’s surface.
Ionosphere - The ionized region extending about 80 KM above the earth’s surface.
In ionosphere radiation from the sun ionizes atoms and molecules that liberate electrons and
ions from molecules.
The propagation of radio wave through the ionosphere is affected by the electrons and ions.
The effect of the electrons on the propagation is much greater than that of the ions since the
electronic mass is much less than the ionic mass.
iii) Sky wave
Sky wave
Advantages of sky wave propagation
1.It supports large distance propagation.
2.The frequency range of operation is considerably high.
3.Attenuation due to atmospheric conditions is less.
Disadvantages of sky wave propagation
1.Long-distance propagation requires large-sized antennas.
2.Due to the presence of the ionosphere near and far during night and day respectively there
exist variation in signal transmission in day and night.
Applications Sky wave propagation is widely used in mobile and satellite communications.
Digital Modulation Schemes
In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data.
When it is required to transmit digital signals, the amplitude, frequency or phase of the
sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with the incoming digital data.
Digital modulation schemes are classified as
i)Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ii)Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
iii)Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
ASK represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave.
ASK signal can generated when the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal carrier are applied a
product modulator as inputs.
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
In this technique digital signal is transmitted by switching between low frequency and high
frequency in order to represent 0’s and 1’s.
The simplest FSK is Binary FSK (BFSK). It uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s
and 1s) information.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
The simplest form of PSK is binary phase shift keying (BPSK).
In this case, the carrier phase is shifted between two different phases (typically 0° and 180°)
depending on whether 0-bit or 1-bit is being transmitted.
For example:
0-bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t)
1-bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t +180°) = − Vc cos(2πfc t)
Radio signal Transmission
From the fig. the wireless transmitter accepts four
different binary streams of bits (00, 10, 11 and 01) from
the application software.
Further, these bits encoded on to a radio wave, known
as a carrier by adjusting its amplitude or phase.
Transmitter operates in two stages.
In the first stage, quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)
modulator accepts the incoming binary bits and convert
it to symbols that represents the amplitude and the
phase.
Then, the symbols are passed over the analog
transmitter, which generates the radio wave.
QPSK modulator takes two bits at a
time and transmits them using a radio
wave. Four different binary states have
phases of 45o, 135o, 225o, and 315o as
shown in the fig..
The distance of each state from the
origin represents the amplitude of the
transmitted wave, while angle
measured anti-clockwise from x-axis
represents the phase. Each symbol is
conveniently represented by two
components: in-phase (I) and
quadrature (Q). I = a cos Φ (real part)
and Q = a sin Φ (imaginary part)
LTE Modulation scheme
LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a standard for wireless broadband communication for mobile
devices (marketed as 4G).
LTE uses four modulation schemes together as given below.
i) Binary Phase Shift Keying – BPSK
ii) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying - QPSK
iii) 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation -16 QAM
iv) 64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation – 64 QAM
LTE Modulation scheme
i) BPSK sends one bit at a time using two states (0 and 1) representing phases of 0o and 180o or
signal amplitudes of +1 and -1
LTE Modulation scheme
ii) QPSK sends two bits at a time using 4
states (00, 01, 10 and 11) to represent
amplitude and phase by 45o, 135o, 225o,
and 315o

iii) 16 - QAM sends four bits at a time using

16 states to represent amplitude and
phase.

iv) 64 - QAM sends six bits at a time using

64 states to represent amplitude and
phase.
Multiple Access Techniques
Multiple access is a techniques to provide communication service to multiple users over a single channel. It allows
multiple mobile users share the allotted spectrum in the most effective manner.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Available frequency band is split into smaller frequency channels, and different channels are assigned to different users.
The carriers are separated by guard bands, which avoid the interference between the users.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Various users can transmit at the same frequency band at different times.
Every user is permitted to transmit only in specific time slots using a common frequency band. GSM uses a combination
of both TDMA and FDMA techniques.LTE uses orthogonal FDMA techniques.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Mobiles receive signals on the same carrier frequency and at the same time.
But the signals are labeled by the use of codes, which allows a mobile to separate its own signal from the others.
CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built.
Multiple Access Techniques
FDD and TDD Modes
Duplexing:
Allows users to send information simultaneously to the base station, while receiving information
from the base station. The wireless telephony applies duplexing technique where talking and
listening is enabled at a time.
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)-
Base station and mobile will transmit and receive at the same time, but using different carrier
frequencies. FDD uses two separate frequency bands for every user. A sufficient guard band
needs to separate the transmitting and receiving channels, so they do not interfere with one
another. FDD is suitable for radio communication systems. It uses frequency for uplink and down
link.
FDD and TDD Modes
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)-
Base station and mobile will transmit and receive on the same carrier frequency but at different
times. Time slots could be dynamically allocated separated by a guard band. A guard period
ensures that UL and DL transmissions do not collide. TDD is more suitable for fixed wireless
systems. It uses time for uplink and down link.
Multipath and Fading
As a result of reflections and diffractions the signals
can take several different paths from the transmitter
to the receiver. This phenomenon is known as
multipath.
At the receiver end, the incoming rays can add
together in different ways, which are classified as
constructive interference and destructive
interference.
If the peaks of the incoming rays coincide, then they
reinforce each other, a situation known as
constructive interference.
If the peaks of one ray coincide with the troughs of
another, the result is destructive interference, in
which the rays cancel. Destructive interference can
make the received signal power drop to a very low
level, a situation known as fading.
constructive interference and destructive interference.
 Constructive Interference
•If the peaks of the incoming rays coincide then they reinforce each other, a
situation known as constructive interference.

Constructive Interference
 Destructive Interference
•peaks of one ray coincide with the troughs of another, the result is destructive
interference, in which the rays cancel.

•Destructive interference can make the received signal power drop to a very low
level, a situation known as fading.
Fading as a function of time and frequency
•If the mobile moves from one place to another, then the ray geometry
changes, so the interference pattern changes between constructive and
destructive. Fading is therefore a function of time, as shown in Fig.

Fading as a function of (a) time and (b) frequency

 Coherence time and Doppler Frequency
• The amplitude and phase of the received signal vary over a timescale
called the coherence time, Tc which can be estimated as follows:
1
TC=
fD

Here fD is the mobile’s Doppler frequency:

𝑣
fD = f
𝑐 c
•where fc is the carrier frequency, ʋ is the speed of the mobile and c is the
speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)
Coherence Bandwidth
•If the carrier frequency changes, then the wavelength of the radio signal changes.
This also makes the interference pattern change between constructive and
destructive
•The amplitude and phase of the received signal vary over a frequency scale
called the coherence bandwidth, Bc which can be estimated as follows:
1
Bc=
г
Here, г is the delay spread of the radio channel
Delay spread

•Delay Spread is the difference between the arrival times of the earliest and
latest rays. It can be calculated as follows:
△𝐿
г=
𝑐
where △L is the difference between the path lengths of the longest and
shortest rays.
Error Management
Noise and interference lead to errors in wireless communication.
Forward error correction –
It is technique used for controlling errors in data transmission over unreliable or noisy
communication channels.
The transmitted information is represented using a codeword that is typically two or three times
as long.
The extra bits supply additional, redundant data that allow the receiver to recover the original
information sequence.
Forward Error Correction
•For example, a transmitter might represent the information sequence 101 using
the codeword 110010111. After an error in the second bit, the receiver might
recover the codeword 100010111. If the coding scheme has been well designed,
then the receiver can conclude that this is not a valid codeword, and that the most
likely transmitted codeword was 110010111.
•The coding rate - number of information bits divided by the number of
transmitted bits (1/3 in the example above).
•forward error correction algorithms operate with a fixed coding rate. Despite this,
a wireless transmitter can still adjust the coding rate using the two- stage process
shown in the fig
Forward Error Correction

Block diagram of a transmitter and receiver using forward error correction and rate matching
Automatic Repeat Request
Automatic Repeat Request
•Automatic repeat request (ARQ) is another error management technique, which is
illustrated in Fig.

Block diagram of a transmitter and receiver using automatic repeat request

Automatic Repeat Request
• Transmitter takes a block of information bits and uses them to compute some extra bits
that are known as a cyclic redundancy check (CRC).
• It appends these to the information block and then transmits the two sets of data in the
usual way.
•Receiver separates the two fields and uses the information bits to compute the expected
CRC bits.
•If the observed and the expected CRC bits are the same, then it concludes that the
information has been received correctly and sends positive acknowledge back to the
transmitter.
Automatic Repeat Request
•If CRC bits are the different, then it concludes that the error has occurred and sends
negative acknowledge back to the transmitter to request retransmission
•Positive and negative acknowledgements are often abbreviated to ACK and NACK
respectively.
•A wireless communication system often combines these two error management
techniques. Such a system corrects most of the bit errors by the use of forward error
correction and then uses automatic repeat requests to handle the remaining errors that
leak through.
Antennas
•Antenna is a device for converting electromagnetic radiation in space into
electrical currents in conductors or vice-versa, depending on whether it is being
used for receiving or for transmitting, respectively.
• Antennas transform wire propagated waves into space propagated waves
•Antennas receive electromagnetic waves and pass them onto a receiver or they
transmit electromagnetic waves which have been produced by a transmitter.
Features of an Antenna
Following are the required features of an antenna
•Strictly defined radiation pattern for most accurate network planning
•Dual polarization
•Electrical down tilting of vertical diagram
•Unobstructive design
Some Common Antennas
•Omnidirectional Antennas
•Dipole Antennas
•Collinear omni Antennas
•Directional Antennas
•Patch Antennas
•Patch Array Antennas
•Yagi Antennas
Concept of Azimuth and elevation angle
Omnidirectional Antennas
•Non directional pattern (circular pattern) in a given plane
•Radiates equal power in all directions perpendicular to the axis

Radiates energy equally in all

horizontal directions
Examples of omnidirectional Antennas – Dipole Antennas and Collinear antennas
Dipole Antennas
•Most commonly referred as half-wavelength (λ/2) dipole
•The physical antenna is constructed of conductive elements whose combined length is half of
the wavelength at its intended frequency of operation.

Diploe Antenna model

Collinear Omni Antennas
•To create an omnidirectional antenna with higher gain, multiple
omnidirectional structures are arranged in linear or vertical fashion to
retain the same omnidirectional pattern in the azimuth plane but a
more focused elevation beam which leads to higher gain.
•Also frequently referred as collinear array
•Higher gain implies same power radiated in a more focused way
Directional Antennas
•Radiates energy most effectively in one direction than the others
•They have one main lobe and several minor lobes
•Used for coverage as well as point to point links
•They can be patch, dish or horn antennas
•They accomplish the main goal- radiating their energy in a particular direction
Examples of directional Antennas

Dish Antenna Horn Antenna

Patch Antennas
•In its simplest form is a single rectangular conductive plate that is spaced above
a ground place.
•Attractive due to their ease of fabrication
Patch Array Antennas
• Arrangement of multiple patch antennas that are all driven by the same
source.
• Frequently this arrangement consists of patches arranged in orderly rows and
columns
• Reason for this arrangement is higher gain
 Yagi Antenna
• A Yagi antenna is formed by driving a simple antenna, typically a dipole or
dipole-like antenna, and shaping the beam using a well-chosen series of
elements whose length and spacing are tightly controlled.
• The Yagi shown in the figure below is built with one reflector (the bar behind
the driven antenna) and 14 directors (the bars in front of the driven antenna).
Yagi Antenna
•Yagi antenna is a directional antenna that radiates its energy out in one main
direction.
•Very often, these antennas are enclosed in a tube, with the result that the user
may not see all the antenna elements.
Question Bank
1.With relevant waveforms define and explain amplitude modulation.
2.Define the following terms a) Frequency modulation b)Phase modulation
3.Explain the following with the help of waveforms
a) PAM b)PWM c) PPM d) PCM
4.With neat diagram explain different types of radio wave propagation.
5. What are the four modulation schemes used in LTE?
6. Explain the various Multiple Access Techniques used in cellular network.
7. Discuss the transmission modes used in mobile communication system.
Question Bank
8. Define the following
i)Multipath
ii)Constructive and destructive interference
iii)Coherence time
iv)Coherence bandwidth
v)Delay spread
9. Write short notes on
vi)Forward error correction
vii)Automatic Repeat Request
10. List the important features of antennas.
11. Define Antennas and discuss the various common antennas used.