Unit 3 Q.

Single Phase Half bridge: the circuit

Q. Single phase full phase bridge inverter: diagram of single-phase half bridge inverter.
the circuit diagram of full bridge inverter. There The two MOSFETs T1 and T2 are used as
are four IGBTs and four diodes. The diodes are switching devices. the waveforms of the half
required for feedback when the load is bridge inverter having resistive load.
inductive. • MOSFET T/1 conducts from 0 to T/2 Hence
Operation with Resistive Load the output voltage is positive and it is Vs/2In
• When the load is resistive, the diodes does not equivalent circuit observe that current flows
carry any current. the waveforms. The IGBTs from point A to B in the load.
T1 and T2 conduct from 0 to T/2 Equivalent • MOSFET T/2 conducts from T/2 to T and T/1
circuit-I. the current path when T/1 and T/2 is off. Equivalent circuit the situation when T2
conduct. The output voltage and current are conducts. Current flows from point B to A in the
positive. Note that the amplitude of load load. The output voltage is - Vs/2 This is the
voltage is Vs negative half cycle of output.
• At T/2 IGBTS T/1 and T/2 are turned off. • Since the load is resistive, output current
IGBTs T/3 and T/4 conduct from T. Equivalent waveform is same as voltage wave form. Fig.
circuit-II shows the current path. Note that the Q.2.2 also shows the currents through the
output. MOSFET. The output of this inverter is a square
wave. Since there are two MOSFET in the
Q. Harmonics in inverters and reduced: bridge, it is called half bridge inverter.
• A power supply should show a perfectly
sinusoidal voltage at every residential or Q. 180 mode three phase: Each switch
industrial location. But, utilities find it difficult conduct for 180° in this mode. There are six
to preserve such conditions due to various intervals. In each intervals three switches
reasons. conduct. Equivalent circuit in first internal when
• The deviation of the voltage and current T1, T6 and T5 are conducting. 'R' is connected
waveforms from sinusoidal is said to be to +Vs through T₁ and B' is connected to +Vs
harmonic distortion. A harmonic component in through T5. Similarly 'Y' is connected -Vs
a power system is defined as a sinusoidal through T6 Now the phase and line voltages can
component of a periodic waveform having a be easily evaluated i.e.,
frequency that is an integral multiple of the V RY =V s
fundamental frequency. V RN =V BN = Vs/3
The sources of harmonics in power system: V IN =- 2Vs/3
• Power electronic converters • Uninterrupted Here it is assumed that all the phases of load
Power Supplies (UPS). • Fluorescent lights have same resistance. This procedure is
(CFL). • Power transformer. • Ballast inductor. repeated for all the 6 intervals. phase voltage
• Personal computers. • Induction machines. VRN. It is six step waveform. Its values are
• Washing Electric arc furnaces. • Soldering ±2Vs/3 The phase voltage VY and VB are also
equipment. • Mercury-vapor or high-pressure similar to VR They have 120° phase shift with
Effects of harmonics respect to each other. For example VY is
i) Reduction in power factor ii) Increase in lagging by 120° with respect to VR Thus the
reactive power iii) Heating of motor load three phase AC output is generated by the
iv) Generation of electric voltage and current inverter. For resistive loads, the
spikes v) Reduction in overall efficiency of phase current will be similar to phase voltage.
converter and load. vi) Reduction in reliability current waveform for 'R' phase.
and life of power system. [V line(rms) =Vs √2/3]
Q. PWM techniques in inverter: Q. Three phase inverter 120 mode:
Principle: In 120 deg mode of conduction, the gate drives
Multiple pulses are used to reduce the harmonic are applied for 120° duration. The circuit
content. The width of all the pulses is same. diagram and method of analysis remains same
Waveforms and explanation. the waveforms of for 120 and180° mode. The waveforms are
multiple pulse width modulation. the carrier There are six intervals: I, II, III, IV, V and VI. In
signal and the reference signal. The carrier each interval two transistors conduct. In interval
signal is the triangular waveform and reference I, T1 and T6 conducts. The equivalent circuit
signal is the DC voltage. diagrams. In the above figure observe that phase
• They are compared and the pulsed waveform 'R' is connected to + Vs through T6 Similarly
of is obtained. The width of the pulse can be phase 'Y' is connected to -Vs forall s through
varied by changing the amplitude of DC T_{6} And phase B' the simplified equivalent
reference signal. two 50 Hz out of phase circuit. It neglects thedrops between the FETs.
masking square waves. The pulsed waveform Now the phase voltage and line voltages are,
of is ANDed with these masking signals to V RN = Vs/2, VYN =- Vs/2, V BN=0, V RY
obtain base drivers. the base drive of T₁ and T2. =Vs
And the base drive of T3 and T₁. Similarly the voltages are obtained in each
Mathematical analysis interval. The waveforms are In the gate drives
Let fc be the carrier frequency of triangular of observe that the successive base drives are
wave and f0 be the output frequency. Then delayed by 60°. Each BJT conducts for 120°
number of pulses per half cycle is, and remains off for 240°. There fore two
𝐹𝑐 𝑚𝑓 𝐹𝑐 devices conduct in any intervals. There are six
P= = Here 𝑚𝑓 = is called frequency
2𝑓0 2 2𝑓0
intervals in one cycle of 360°. These intervals
modulation ratio. Minimum pulse width Tere is are marked as I, II, III, IV, V and VI. the line
zero, and maximum pulse width will be π/p voltage waveform VRY. Observe that it is a six
Output rms value step waveform. It has maximum values of ±Vs.
Similarly other line voltages can be obtained
they are phase shifted by 60° with. each other.
Let the period T = 2 π. In this period there are the phase voltages. These voltages are quasi
2p pulses of equal width. Consider the first square waves. They are phase shifted by 120°
pulse, which is located at π/p Then its width is with respect to each other. the phase current
π /p - δ/2. π/p + δ/2 Let us calculate rms value through R phase. It's waveform is similar to
of first pulse and multiply by 2p to get rms phase voltage. Vph(rms) = Vs/2 √2/3
value of complete waveform,

Q. Voltage control methods of inverter

technique:
Following are the voltage control and harmonic
reduction techniques,
Thus by varying the width '8', output rms
i) Single pulse modulation
voltage can be changed. Advantages: i)
ii) Multiple pulse width modulation
Distortion factor is reduced compared to single
iii) Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
pulse modulation. ii) As value of 'p' increases
iv) Modified sinusoidal PWM
amplitudes of lower harmonics reduces.
v) Phase displacement control
Disadvantages: i) With increased number of
vi) Vector control.
pulses, switching losses are increased. ii)
Control scheme is complex.
 Unit 4 Q. Step Up Chopper:
Q. Step down chopper: the circuit diagram of the step-up chopper.
the circuit diagram of the basic stepdown waveforms of this step-up chopper. The drive of
chopper. Normally the drop in the switch is the switch is shown at the beginning. The
very small and it is neglected. the waveforms of transistor is turned on from 0 to ST. Hence
the stepdown chopper with resistive load. drive current flows through the inductance from the
of the switch. In case of power transistor, it will supply. The inductance current rises and
be a base drive. The drive is applied for the inductance stores the energy from the supply.
period 0 to 87. Hence the switch turns ON for The voltage VAB = 0 since transistor is
this period and connects supply Vs to the load. conducting. the output voltage and current
Hence vo Vs in this period. From ST to T the waveforms. Here we have assumed that the
drive of the switch is removed, hence it turns output voltage and current are continuous and
off. Hence the load voltage is zero. Since the ripple-free. The capacitor maintains the voltage
load Vo is resistive, output current will be, i =. 'V0' and supplies the current 'i' when transistor
Hence the nature of output R current is same as is 'on'. Hence the diode D₁ is reverse biased and
output voltage. it does not conduct.
i). Average output voltage: At δT transistor (switch) is turned off. Hence
The average value is given as, the inductance generates large voltage L dil/dt
to maintain the current IL in the same direction.
The diode D₁ is forward biased and it starts
conducting. Thus the outputvoltage will be
In the output voltage waveform of Fig. Q.3.2 𝑑𝑖𝑙
observe that v_{o} = V_{s} from 0 to 8T, rest V0 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
of the time v_{0} is zero. Hence above Thus the output voltage of the chopper is
equation can be written as, greater than supply voltage Vs This shows the
step-up operation. The voltage induced in the
inductance adds to the supply voltage and this
total voltage appears as output voltage. The
current through the inductance decreases
Here δ= Ton/T is called the duty cycle of the because its stored energy goes on reducing. At
chopper. The value of duty cycle lies between 0 T, the transistor is again turned on and the cycle
≤δ≤l repeats.
ii). Rms output vo:
The rms value of output is given as, Average output voltage 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣) from δT
to T and rest of the period is zero

We know from that V0 = Vs from 0 to δT (i.e.

when the transistor switch is on). Hence above = 𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣)(1 −δ), 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑙 + 𝑉𝐴𝐵
equation becomes,
The above equation holds for steady state
putting the values

𝑉𝑠 = 0 + 𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣)(1 −δ)

𝑉𝑠
Vo(av) =
1−δ
Q. Classification of Chopper of two Q. SMPS (Switching Mode Power Supply):
quadrant: • The de output of the rectifier or battery is not
The class C chopner operates in two quadrants. regulated. It varies according to the load
It is thecombination of class A and B choppers. variations. Switching mode regulators are used
Fig. Q.17.1 shows the quadrantsof operation of to convert unregulated dc to regulated DC
this chopper. It operates as a rectifier as well as output.
inverter.
SMPS
• In the first quadrant forward motoring takes
place and in the secondquadrant forward
regenerative braking takes place. Isolated Nonisolated
1 Buck
• the circuit diagram of class C chopper having converters converters
regulated
transistor switches. T1 and D2 conducts for the 2 Boost
operation in the first quadrant (i.e.class A). In Unidirectional Bidirectional 3 Buck
the above circuit diagram, note that whenever core excitation core 4 Cuk
T1 or D2 conduct, the output current and
1 Push-pull
voltage will be always positive. 1 Flyback converter 2Half bridge
2 Forward 3 Full
• The switching mode regulators use de
choppers. the block diagram of switching mode
regulator. The de chopper takes the input Vs
from some unregulated supply. The chopper
may use Transistor, MOSFET, IGBT, SCR or
• Whenever T₂ or D₁ conduct, the chopper GTO for switching.
operates in the second quadrant (i.e. class B). It • The comparator compares the reference
is inverting operation. voltage with output voltage. The reference
voltage is set for the particular output voltage.
The comparator generates the error signal. This
error signal acts as the control voltage
• The control block uses the control voltage ve
to generate the drives of the chopper.
• the control waveforms. The control voltage ve
is compared with the sawtooth waveform. The
that output current is negative whenever T₂ or result of comparison is the drive of the chopper
D₁ conduct. The energy is fed back to the This drive is given to the switch in the chopper.
supply when D₁ conducts. Note that vo always The sawtooth waveform is generated by an
remains positive. oscillator in the control circuit.
Advantages: i) In linear power supply the
iv) SMPS have transistors in switching mode. series pass transistor operates inactive region.
Hence their power handing capacity is more as Hence there is high power loss. But in SMPS,
compared to linear mode. all devices operate in saturation an cut-off
v) SMPS are more cost effective due to reduced regions.
size of transformer and filters. ii) Due to reduced power loss, SMPS have
vi) The transient response of SMPS is very efficiencies upto 95% but linear power supplies
slow compared to linear power supplies. have very small efficiencies, iii) SMPS operate
vii) SMPS have poor load regulation as at very high frequencies. Therefore filtering
compared to linear power supply components transformers have very small size.
 Unit 5 Q. Role of heat sink thermal:
Q. Over voltage protection power • Power is dissipated across the device due to
electronics: switching and on-state conduction. This power
1). Over voltage conditions: Over voltage can heats the device. Hence its junction temperature
arrive in power electronic circuits because of increases. The heat dissipated across the
following conditions: junction can be taken away with the help of heat
i) Incorrect selection of power devices. sinks. The heat sink provides greater area for
ii) Voltage surges or spikes load or supply side. heat conduction. The cooling of the heat sink
iii) Imbalance in the load. can take place by natural convection, forced air,
iv) Failure of one or more devices circuit. liquid or vapour phase cooling.
v) Insufficient snubber components. • The power/heat is dissipated at the junction of
vi) Insufficient cooling of power devices. the device. This heat is carried to the case
vii) Inappropriate mounting of power devices. through the encapsulation. The resistance
All the above situations lead to average or offered to the flow of heat is called thermal
repetitive over voltage in the circuit. resistance.
Over voltage protection circuit: Overvoltage
protection can be achieved in different ways.
the overvoltage protection circuit using SCRs.
T₁ and T₂ are antiparallel SCRs used to bypass
the voltage transients in case of overloads. R, is
used to limit the current through T, and T₂ in • In the above model, 'P' is the dissipated power
case of overvoltage zener diode D, and R₂ form at the junction. Thispower is conveyed in the
the voltage sensing circuit. These components form of heat to the ambient.
also work as a trigger circuit for the SCRs Tj is the junction temperature
along with diodes D, to D Tc is the case temperature
Ts is the sink temperature
Ta is the ambient temperature
Røjc is the junction to case thermal resistance.
Røcs theta case to sink thermal resistance.
Røsa theta the sink to ambient thermal
resistance.
Here total Rø will be,
Circuit operation: Rø= Røjc + Røcs + Røsa and ▲T=Tj-Ta
• When there is overvoltage, the values of R, is 𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇𝑎
P=
set such that zener diode Ds breaks. This 𝑅ø𝑗𝑐 + 𝑅ø𝑐𝑠 + 𝑅ø𝑠𝑎
applies gate drive to T₁ and T₂. Q. Over current protection:
• If over voltage persists cycle and applies gate i) Fuse: Fast acting fuse is used to protect
drive to T₂. Heavy current flows through T₂ and thyristor against over currents. The fuse melts at
R, and the load is protected. lower currents compared to current rating of
• As soon as the voltage returns to its safe thyristors. The fuse melts and discon the circuit.
value, the zener diode Ds doesnot break and no ii) Semiconductor fuse: In case of heavy
current flows through it. current flow, there is high current density at the
• The value of R, is selected such that enough notches of the fuse link. The high current
current is drawn through the supply or load and density are at the notch to increased
overvoltage is returned to its safe limit. temperature. This forms high voltage across the
• overvoltage protection due to supply or load. notch.
Q. SCR (Snubber circuits): Q. ZCS resonant converter:
• The transient overvoltages can switch on the Need for resonant converters
thyristor. In some cases the thyristor can be • In chopper, inverter or SMPS, the switches
damaged due to these transient voltages. operate at some voltage and current. Therefore
• These transient voltages are very common switching losses take place in the switches.
when the converter is having inductive loads. • In PWM control, the switching losses increase
•The thyristors can be protected against with the PWM frequency.
transient voltages by a RC network RC network • All switched mode converters generate
is connected in parallel across the thyristor. It is
electromagnetic interference (EMI) to
called snubber circuit. neighbouring circuits due to switching
operation.
• In resonant converters, the switch is turned-on
or turned-off when current through it or voltage
across it is zero. Because of this the switching
loss in the device is zero.
• Every thyristor has maximum permissible • Thus resonant converters provide zero
value of di be protected from excessive by switching loss.
using an inductor in series as shown dt In The
inductance opposes for rapid current variations
𝑑𝑖
Whenever there is rapid current variation, the
𝑑𝑡
inductor smooths it and protects the thyristor
from damage.
•Following equations are used to calculate the
values of snubber components.
1 0.564 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑠
𝐶= ( 𝑑𝑣 )2, 𝐿≥ 𝑑𝑖 )
2𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Q. SLR half bridge DC to DC:
• In the circuit the half bridge consisting of
T₁D₁ and T₂D₂ is used for switching the power. Concept of Zero Current Switching (ZCS)
•L, and C, forms a resonant circuit. 'i' is the Resonant Converters
current through the resonant circuit and 've' is • Principle: In ZCS topology, the switch turns
the voltage across the resonant capacitor. • Lr and Cr are the resonating components. Lo
• The switches T₁ T₂ and diodes D₁ D₂ turn-on and C are the filter component.
or turn-off when either i or ve is zero. • Before the switch 'T' is turned on at 'to'. The
Mode-I Devices conducting - T1: At the output current io = I free wheels through the
beginning i.e. at W0 t0 the switch T1 is turned diode D. The voltage across C, is ve = Vs.
on. The current increases from zero. This • At T0 the switch 'T' is turned on at 'zero
current current'. From T0 to T₁, it is less than 1, hence
D keeps on conducting and carrying Io.
Therefore ve = Vs till T1
• At T5 ' Cr is charged to Vs i.e. vc = Vs and it
remains constant.
• Next cycle repeats when 'T' is switched 'on' at
T6' again.
Q. EMI: Following are the sources of EMI: Q. Various shielding techniques for EMI:
i) Switching of realys, static switches, The EMI can be radiated as electromagnetic
mechanical switches. ii) Sparking of motor wave or it can conduct as a current along the
brushes. iii) Mobile, pagers, television, radars cable.
and radio equipments. iv) Atmospheric noise, • The shield is a conducting material, that shunts
lightening, ignition of engines. the conducted or radiated EMI to ground. The
v) Rapid variation of current in transformers shield is placed in the path of the EMI.
reactors, motors and protection circuits. • The shield either absorbs the interfering EMI
vi) Power converters. vii) Braking of relay signal or reflects it back.
contacts, circuit breakers, welding machines. • The conducted EMI appears in the form of
viii) Stray capacitance and inductance cause common mode and differential mode voltages
oscillations at high frequencies. and currents.
Minimizing techniques of EMI: • These common mode voltages and currents
i) Shielding of EMI, ii) Suppressior filters can be minimized by suppression filters. These
iii) Using high permeability material for filters are mainly inductive and capacitive
transformers and reacters. iv) Electrostatic filters. These filters are normally placed very
shielding in transformers between primary and close to the source of EMI.
secondary. v) Using freewheeling diodes, zener
diodes to provide path for inductive currents. Q. EMI and EMC standard:
vi) Smart layout of components and design of • The FCC standards in US are listed below for
PCBs. vii) Minimizing harmonics, soft conducted EMI. It is the maximum permissible
switching of power devices. viii) Appropriate RF line voltage in microvolts.
grounding and shielding. • The FCC standard is shown below for radiated
EMI limit. It is the field strength in µV/m.
Q. State the importance of isolation Frequ range Class A Class B
(MHz)
transformer: 0.45-1.6 1000ưV/m 250ưV
Isolation transformers provide electrical 1.6-30 3000ưV/m 250ưV
isolation between the two circuits. The isolation 30-88 30ưV/m 100ưV/m
transformers have following advantages and 88-216 50ưV/m 150ưV/m
216-1000 70ưV/m 200ưV/m
importance.
i) Electrical isolation between high power • The Indian standard IS14700-4-12 (2008) is
converter circuit and low power control circuit. the EMC standard followed in India. It
ii) Transfer of electrical power from AC power mentions about test transient, its
source to some equipment or device. duration/amplitude, test generator,
iii) Reduces power surges and noise. Hence coupling/decoupling network specifications, test
electrical equipment runs more smoothly. setup, test power supply, earthling, equipment
iv) Provides separation from the power line under test, testing procedure, testing and
ground connection to eliminate ground loops. climatic conditions. Test results evaluation and
v) Protects circuits, equipment and people from reports analysis are presented in detail in this
shocks and short-circuits. standard.
vi) Blocks DC component in signals from one
circuit to, but allows AC components to pass.
vii)Triggering circuits use isolation
transformers to pass triggering signals from low
power control circuit to high power triggering
circuit.
 Unit 6 Q. Single phase DC Motor separately
Q. Single phase Full wave AC Voltage: excited:
the circuit diagram of 1 full wave controller. It Following are speed control techniques of DC
has two SCRs, T₁ and 72. In the positive half motor:
cycle of the supply Ti controls the power flow i) Armature voltage (V) control.
to the load. And in the negative half cycle of the ii) Field current control (o or 1)
supply 72 controls the power flow to the load. Single phase Full converter based DC motor
The waveforms of this circuit for resistive load. drive: the circuit diagram of 10 full converter
based seperately excited DC motor drives. The
armature is supplied by lo fully controlled
bridge. The field is supplied with uncontrolled
rectifier. Hence field flux remains constant.

Single phase full wave controller

Continuous load current mode: the

waveforms for continuous armature current,
SCRS T₁ and T₂ conduct in a positive half cycle.
(See Fig Q 10.2 on next page) Since the load is
IGBT based AC voltage controller inductive, the SCRs continue to conduct till
next pair T3 T4 is triggered at π+a. Observe that
armature voltage is negative from π to π + α.
This is second quadrant operation and it takes
place due to inductive load. in armature current
depends upon motor armature inductance. This
equation the speed in terms of firing angle (α).
Comment on PF: Power factor of this drive is
low because it involves phase angle control with
inductive load.
Q. Fan regulator:
• Before giving the power supply to this simple
fan regulator circuit, the variable resistor or
potentiometer is kept in maximum resistance
position so that no triggering is applied to
The output current waveform is shown for TRIAC and hence TRIAC will be in cutoff
resistive load. It is similar to the voltage mode.
waveform. The output current and the supply
current flow in the same loop. Hence i is.
Observe that the voltage and current waveforms
are symmetric. Hence there is no de component
in vo, and is. Also, it is possible to control the
output fully from zero to maximum value. The
output is controlled in positive as well as
negative half cycles due to two SCRs.
Q. On-line UPS: The online UPS is also called Q. Off-line UPS: The offline UPS is also called
inverter preferred UPS. the block diagram of line preferred UPS. Fig. Q.17.1 shows the block
online UPS. diagram of an offline UPS. Observe that this
• When the main supply is present, the diagram appears similar to that of online UPS,
rectifier/charger provides power to an inverter but it is functionally different.
as well as battery. The battery is charged. The • When mains supply is present, then charger
inverter is on and feeds power to the load charges the battery. Inverter is off and UPS
through UPS static switch. static switch is off. The load is connected to
• The UPS static switch is always on and mains through mains static switch.
connects load to inverter output.

• When mains supply is not available, then

• The mains static switch is always off. But inverter is turned on.
when the UPS fails, then load is connected • Inverter takes power from the battery. The
directly to the mains directly through mains load is connected to inverter output through
static switch. UPS static switch.
• When the mains supply is not available, then • The mains static switch is always on and keeps
battery bank supplies power to an inverter. Thus load connected to mains. The mains static
an inverter is always on and it takes power from switch is turned off when mains is not available.
rectifier or battery. • The charger feeds power only to the battery.
• shows the power flow when mains is present Hence its power handling capacity is reduced
and mains is absent.

Specifications of offline UPS are as follows:

1) Battery float voltage
2) Battery voltage at start of discharge
Need of UPS in industries : Many operations
3) Battery voltage at end of discharge.
in industries need continuous power supply
4) Capacity derating factor
since their operation cannot be paused. For
5) Battery voltage during charging
examples chemical reactors, textile mills, heat
6) Battery charging efficiency
exchangers, lifts and hoists, medicine
7) VA rating of inverter
industries, paint workshops etc. require
8) Wattage of rectifier
uninterrupted power supply.
9) AH capacity
Specifications of on-line UPS
10) Backup time.
Capacity: 1 kVA, Technology: MOSFET-
PWM, Input: 160 V to 295 V, 40 Hz to 60 Hz.
Input-output: Single phase single phase
Applications:
Output voltage: 230 V ± 1% and 50 Hz ±
i) Computers, printers, scanners etc.
0.5%, Waveform: Pure sine wave, Efficiency:
ii) Emergency power supplies, EPABX
More than 90%, Bypass: Synchronized bypass.
Battery: 36 V, Recharge time: 8 to 10 Hours.
Q. BLDC brushless motor drive: Q. Battery charging models EVs:
the block diagram of brushless DC and AC • Inductive charging: These are Wireless
motor drives. Observe that the drive can Charging Systems (WCS). This charging can be
operate from AC or DC source. The DC source used when the car is parked or when it is in
uses 3 inverter to drive the synchronous motor. motion. Inductive charging provides reliability,
It is then called brushless DC motor drive. The durability and user friendliness. But it suffers
AC source uses cycloconverter to drive the due to limited power transfer, short range,
synchronous motor. It is then called brushless reduced efficiency cost and size.
AC motor drive.

• The three phase inverter or cycloconverter

generate an output, whose frequency is changed
in proportion to the speed, such that armature • Unidirectional or bidirectional power flow:
and rotor mmf waves revolve at the same The battery charger can allow unidirectional or
speed. This operation produces steady torque at bidirectional power flow. The bidirectional
all speeds smilar to de motor. power flow can send power from vehicle to
• The rotor position is monitored continuously. grid. In case of system failure, vehicles can
The phase reference is also taken. This supply energy to grid
information used to generate the drives of 3 • Electrochemical Li-ion battery model: It
inverter or cycloconverter. The drives are used calculates amount of battery aging and decides
to control the output frequency phase of charging current and voltage. This charging
armature. model is complex to implement.
• Since the operation is similar to de motor but Q. Battery charging modes EVs:
there is no need of commutator or brushes, it is • Constant current constant voltage (CC/CV)
called brushless DC or AC motor drive. charging: This is the most popular charging
Advantages: method used to recharge Li-ion batteries. The
1. The characteristics of de motors are obtained battery is charged initially with Constant
but there are no limitations of de motors. Current (CC) and then finally Voltage (CV).
2. These drives can operate in explosive • Full charge of the battery is reached when
environments since there are no brush or charging current reduces 3 to 5% of the rated
commutator contacts. current. Trickle charge float charge is not
3. Both AC and DC supply can be used. applied Li-ion battery. Instead, topping charge
Applications: applied battery voltage drops below set value.
1. Brushless de motors are used itt servo drives. • Five step charging method: The Constant
2. Brushless ac motors are used in high power Current (CC) charging time is divided into five
compression, blowers, fans, converters, steel steps. In each stage, the charging current is set
rolling mills, large, ship steering and cement to specific threshold value. The voltage of the
plants. battery increases in each stage is changed
3. Starting of large synchronous motors in gas battery voltage reaches pre-set voltage.
turbine and pump storage power plants
Q. State selection criteria for batteries EV: Q. LED lamp driver circuit:
Following are the selection criteria for batteries • The basic principle behind the LED driver
in electric vehicles and other power systems: circuit is transformer less power supply. The
i) Power requirement of the electric vehicle. main component is the rated AC capacitor,
ii) Charging time and charging method. which can reduce supply current to a suitable
iii) Operating environment such as temperature, amount.
depth of discharge and operating current.
iv) Characteristics of the electric vehicle.
v) Energy density (Amount of energy stored per
unit volume or weight). vi) Life, cost and
safety.
vii) Manufacturing ease and maintenance.
viii) Availability of charging stations. • The main components of this project are the
ix) Tradeoff between energy, power, cost, life rated capacitor, the zener diode and the resistor
and safety. x) Commercial availability. which limits the current in the zener diode.
• First, the rated capacitor (225J 400 V) will
Q. State various performance parameters limit the AC current from the mains supply.
batteries: This total current enters the bridge rectifier.
i) Energy measured in watt hours per kg. Now, output of the bridge rectifier is filtered
ii) Energy density in watt hours per litre. using a capacitor. It is important to select an
iii) Rate of discharge or crate, which is the appropriated voltage rating for this capacitor.
portion of battery's total charge capacity. • The rectified DC voltage is high voltage. This
iv) Specific power and power density. must be brought down to a usable range for
v) Depth of discharge and pulse duration. lighting up the LED. the zener diode is used.
vi) Cost, life, temperature and safety. • There are three important factors associated
vii) Rate of self discharge. viii) Reactivity with the zener diode that is acting as a regulator.
between electrolyte and electrode. ix) Battery This series resistor connected will limit the
operating voltage is decided by electrode current flowing through the zener diode
materials. the different types of batteries and
their voltages with respect to percentage of Q. Electronic ballast:
capacity discharge. • The mains supply is passed through EMI filter
x) Type and mode of discharge. and rectified. The dc. voltage at the output of
rectifier is filtered with capacitor filter.
• The DC voltage is then converted to ac. with
very high frequency. This frequency is 2040
kHz. This high frequency ac. voltage is given to
Advantages: the fluorescent tube.
i) Electronic ballast provides power saving upto • The fluorescent tube works efficiently at high
30%. frequency ac. voltage. The voltage is also low,
ii) Fluorescent lights can work at low supply • EMI is generated due to high frequency
voltages with electronic ballast. inverter. EMI filter is used to suppress this EMI
iii) Electronic ballast consume less power and from being injected in the main supply.
hence heating is reduced
iv) Life of fluorescent tube is increased due to
electronic ballast since noise interference from
mains supply is absent.
Parameter 180° mode 120° mode
Conduction of the device Each device conduct for 180° Each device conducts for 120
Number of conducting Three devices conduct in one Two devices conduct in one interval
devices in one interval interval
Line voltages
Quasi square wave with ±Vs Six s t ep• wavefonn with ± Vs and ±
Vs/2
Phase voltages
Six step waveforms with _ + Quasi square wave with±2𝑉𝑠
2𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 3
𝑎𝑛𝑑
3 3
Possibility of cross Cross conduction is, possible Cross. conduction is not possible
conduction

Utilization of devices Devices are better utilized Devices are underutilized

Output power Output power is higher because Output power is less, because of
of higher voltage levels lower voltage levels
V1 (rms) 0.7797Vs 0.6752 Vs

Step down chopper Step up chopper

Load voltage is less than supply voltage. Load voltage is higher than supply voltage.

Used for motoring operation only. Used for motoring and forward regenerative braking.

Load consumes power. Load can supply power to the sour9e.

Operates in first quadrant. Operates ·in second quadrant.

VO(av) =SVs VQ (av)=Vs/1-$

ZVS ZVC
Switches change their positions at zero current.
Switches change their positions at zero voltage.
Switch is required to handle peak current.
Switch is required to handle peak voltage.
Not preferred at high frequencies due to µitemal Preferred over ZCS at high frequencies.
capacitances.
Switch voltage is limited to DC· supply voltage, Vs. Switch current is limited to load currerit, IO
Parameter Linear regulator Switched m9de Resonant converter

Operating region of devices Active Saturation/cutoff Saturation/cutoff

Switching losses Zero (no switching) High Low
RFI/EMI Absent High· Minimum
Power handling capacity Very low High Medium-
Siz and cost High Low High
Control circuit Less complex High Highest
Efficiehcy Low High Medium

Parameter Online-UPS Offline UPS

Inverter Always on Turned on when mains fails
Rectifier cum charger Supplies power to inverter as well as Charges only battery
charges battery
Output waveform sine wave Quasi square wave
Harmonic distorti6n Low High
Efficiency Low High
Load Isolated• from supply Not isolated from supply_
Cost High Low

Parameter SMPS UPS

Operating mode Switched mode Continuous mode
Output· voltage availability May be discontinues Uninterrupted (Continuous)
Input /output- DC/DC AC and Battery/AC
Power efficiency High Low
Frequency of operation High Up to 100 MHz Low upto 100 kHz
Applications ·Supplies power to computers, Induction motor. drives, medical
Small DC Motors, DVD Players equipment, computers, printers,