Population Dynamics

Key Questions:
1. How rapidly has the world’s population increased?
2. What are the reasons for such a rapid increase in the world’s
population?
3. What are the causes of a change in population size?
4. Explain the relationship between population growth and resources?
5. What are the reasons for contrasting pattern of population growth in
different parts of the world?
6. What are the causes and consequences of over-population and under-
population?
7. How effective are population policies in achieving their objectives?
Important definitions:
1. The carrying capacity is the largest population that the resources of a
give environment can support.
2. Demographers- people who study human populations
3. Demographic Momentum means that the number of people added each
year

Human population growth:

During most of the early period in which mankind first evolved, global
population was very low, reaching perhaps some 125000 people a million
years ago. Ten thousand years ago, when people first began to domesticate
animals and cultivate crops, world population was no more than 5 million.
Known as the Neolithic Revolution, this period of economic change
significantly altered the relationship between people and their
environments. But even then the average annual growth rate was less than
0.1 per cent per year.
However, as a result of carrying capacity of the land improve and people
increased. By 3500 BCE, global population reached 30 million and by the
2000 years ago, this had risen to about 250 million.
Demographers estimate that world population reached 500 million by
about 1650, and the population grew at an increasing rate from this time.
As a result of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolution in North America
and Europe, population growth rates started to rise significantly during this
time. By 1804 global population had doubled to reach one billion, and a
century more until hit 2 billion in 1927. However, due to reductions in the
death rate in many countries during the 20 th centuries the population had
risen to 6 billion in 1999 and by 2011 the population had reached 7 billion.
It had taken only 12 years for world population to increase from 6 to 7
billion. It has been estimated that world population will reach 8 billion in
2023. The very rapid growth of the world’s population over the last 60 years
or so is the result of the largest ever difference between the number of
births and deaths in the world as a whole. The bulk of this population
increase is in the developing countries.
The world’s population has changed significantly over the last 150 years.
The highest ever global population growth was reached in the early to mid-
1960s when population growth in the less developed world peaked at 2.4
per cent a year. At this time the term Population explosion was widely used
to describe this rapid population growth as the population has grown faster
than ever before. But by the late 1990s the rate of global population growth
was down to 1.8 per cent and by 2012 it had reduced further to 1.2 per
cent. However, even though the rate of growth has been falling for three
decades, demographic momentum remains very high.
Both the total population and the rate of population growth are much
higher in the least developed countries than in the developed countries.
The rich countries had their period of high population growth in the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, while for the least developed
countries rapid population growth has occurred since about 1950.
According to the UN, the world’s population is expected to increase by 2
billion persons in the next 30 years, from 7.7 billion currently to 9.7 billion
in 2050 and could peak at nearly 11 billion around 2100.
This dramatic growth has been driven largely by increasing numbers of
people surviving to reproductive age, and has been accompanied by major
changes in fertility rates, increasing urbanization and accelerating
migration. These trends will have far-reaching implications for generations
to come. The size of the increase during the rest of the 21st Century will
depend whether the number of deaths continues to fall and whether the
number of births can be reduced in those part of the world where they still
remain much higher than the death rate.
The current demographic divide:
According to an estimation of the UN in 2019, Sixty-one per cent of the
global population lives in Asia (4.7 billion), 17 per cent in Africa (1.3 billion),
10 per cent in Europe (750 million), 8 per cent in Latin America and the
Caribbean (650 million), and the remaining 5 per cent in Northern America
(370 million) and Oceania (43 million). The world’s population continues to
increase, but growth rates vary greatly across regions. The world population
is projected to reach 8.5 billion in 2030, and to increase further to 9.7 billion
in 2050 and 11 billion by 2100.
Although average population growth has slowed globally, the range of
demographic experience has actually widened. Growth rates have remained
high in many countries while they have fallen sharply in others. The
diverging trends have created a demographic divide between countries
where population growth remains high and those with very slow-growing,
stagnant or declining populations. Four groups of countries can be
recognised in terms of projected population change to 2050:
 Less than 15 percent of the world’s population lives in such countries
that are projected to decline in population by 2050, which include
Russia, Germany, Japan, and Italy. The populations of the 40 countries
are expected to decrease between 2013 and 2100. The population of
some countries is expected to decline more than 15 per cent by 2050,
including Bulgaria, Croatia, Cuba, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania,
Russia, and Ukraine.
 In contrast, the population of the Most Economically Developed
Countries (MEDCs) is not expected to change much and most of the net
increase will be due to migration from Least Economically Developed
Countries (LEDCs) to MEDCs.
 Slow population growth counties, which will increase their populations
by 15 per cent at most by 2050. China is the most important country in
this group.
 Medium population growth countries, which include the USA,
Bangladesh, Brazil, and India. For example, the USA is projected to
increase its population by 42 per cent between 2005 and 2050.
 Growth is expected to be particular fast in the Least Developed
Countries (LDCs). Between 2013 and 2100, the populations of 35
countries, mostly in Africa could more than triple. Among them, the
populations of Burundi, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Somalia, Uganda,
Tanzania, and Zambia are projected to increase at least fivefold by 2100.
Except for a few oil exporting countries, nearly all of the high population
growth countries are in the UN’s list of Least Developed Countries
(LDCs). Many are in Africa, but the list also includes Afghanistan,
Guatemala, and Haiti.

Why do populations grow at different rates? / Why has the population

growth rate changed?
The natural increase or decrease of population depends on the difference
between the birth and death rates. The birth rate is the number of babies
born each year per 1000 people, and the death rate is the number of
people who die each year per 1000 people. Population change depends on
how birth and death rates are influenced by social, economic, and political
factors. Niger has the highest birth rate in the world, and Russia has one of
the highest death rates. Niger has a positive population growth rate but
Russia’s is negative because its death rate exceeds its birth rate. Although
now there are differences between countries, until the 1960s almost every
country had an increased population. Three variables normally determine
the rate of population growth:
 Birth rate
 Death rate (including the infant mortality rate)
 International migration

Why did the population explosion happen? [Factors affecting fertilities /

birth rates]
The population explosion took place in two stages. Firstly, the development
of industry led to rapid population growth in the 18 th and 19th centuries,
especially in Europe. Secondly, improved medical facilities worldwide
leading to a greater difference between birth rate and death rate increased
the life expectancy of ordinary working people in the 20 th Century. There
were four main reasons for the population explosion:
Economic- Fertility rates tend to be highest in the world’s least developed
countries. In many of the least developed countries children have to
provide labour for the family’s farm or extra workers for boost the family
income. A child’s income can mean the difference between starvation and
survival for a family.
Political- There are many examples in the past century of governments
attempting to change the rate of population growth for economic and
strategic reasons. For example, Germany, Italy and Japan offered
inducements and concessions to those with large families during the late
1930s. However, today, most governments that try to change fertility want
to reduce population growth, although some countries such as Russia are
concerned about their population declining because birth rate has fallen
below the death rate.
Infant mortality- Population factors, particularly mortality rates influence
fertility. Where infant mortality is high, it is usual for many children to die
before reaching adults. In such societies, parents often have many children
to compensate for these expected death. This case exists in poor societies
where medical facilities are limited resulting a high infant mortality rate.
The infant mortality rate is regarded as a prime indicator of socio-economic
progress.
Life expectancy- People are now living longer because improved medical
knowledge, facilities and treatment over the past 50 years in spite of a
widening wealth gap. The average life expectancy of world’s population is
now approximately 70 years, compared with only 40 years two centuries
ago or even less.
Religious reason- some religious oppose any form of artificial contraception
and encourages families to have children. Least developed countries with
high Catholic, Hindu and Muslim populations often have particularly high
birth rates. However, this is not always the case, as natural birth control is
permitted.
Demographic reasons- countries with a high proportion of females of child-
bearing age will tend to have higher birth rates.
Cultural and social reasons- In some societies, tradition demands high rates
of reproduction.
a. In many cultures greater the number of children a man has, the greater
in his prestige and standing in his society.
b. A desire for a son to carry on the family name is important in many
cultures, and parents will keep having more children until a son is born.
In addition, a man might have children with more than one wife.
c. In many societies girls marry and start giving birth at a young age, so that
they produce many children in their lifetime, especially in some Muslim
and Roman Catholic countries-be reluctant to spend money on family
planning. This also happens where birth control facilities are limited or
people are unware of contraception.
d. Care for elderly- Older children can support the family by looking after
elderly or sick parents. Children may be the only support in countries
that don’t provide pensions or care facilities or no government support
for the sick and elderly.

Reasons for high death rates

Reasons for high death rates are complex and can change rapidly. War
and natural disasters have an effect for a limited time, whereas changes
in standards of living, health, and nutrition affect death rates more
slowly and are likely to be more permanent. The cause of death vary
significantly between developed and developing countries. Apart from
the challenges of physical environment in many developing countries, a
range of social and economic factors contribute to the high rates of
infectious disease. These include:
 Poverty
 Poor access to healthcare
 Antibiotic resistance
 Changing human migration patterns
 Communicable disease, and New infectious agents
As time goes on, most countries should continue to experience falling
mortality because education, health care and medical facilities, more
food and a more varied diet supply, water supply and sanitation have
improved. However, they will also experience a rise in death rates, due
to a greater proportion of their populations living into old age.
Reasons for falling birth rates and death rates:
Falling birth rates caused by Falling death rates caused by
 Availability of contraception  Improvement in health care
facility
 Women empowerment &  Increased availability of
job opportunity medicines and doctors
 Education and ending child  availability of more and
marriage better quality food
 Reduction of infant  Improvement in water
mortality supply
 Family planning education  Improvement in sanitation
and hygiene
 Less need for children as a  Reduction in wars and
labour source conflicts

International Migration
Changes in overall world population and natural population growth in
countries have two influences- birth and death rates. But the population
growth rates of countries or areas within them, are often influenced by
another factor-migration. Migration is the movement of people from
one place to another. The source area loses the people who leave, the
emigrants, and the host area to which they move has people added to it,
the immigrants or in-migrants.
The immigration rate is the number of immigrants per thousand
population entering a receiving country in a year. The emigration rate is
the number of emigrants per thousand population leaving a country of
origin in a year. The rate of net migration is the difference between the
rate of immigration and emigration.
Problems of Rapid population growth
Generally, higher levels of population growth are happening in developing
or poorer countries, and lower levels of growth, population balance- or
even decline- are happening in developed or richer countries. There is a
strong link between population growth rate and GDP per capita. The ever-
growing population puts too much pressure on own resources and is
slowing down the development and sustainable growth. The common
problems of rapid population growth are as follows:
 Some countries face extreme poverty and
- find it difficult to feed everyone, and millions of people go
hungry;
- cannot afford to provide enough schools and teachers. The
results: millions of people don’t get the education and skills
that would help raise them out of poverty and help their
countries to develop.
- Can’t afford to provide good basic health care, with enough
doctors and hospitals. The results: millions of people suffer and
die from illnesses and diseases that could have been cured or
prevented.
Optimum Population, Over Population and Under Population [more from
Hodder]
These conditions depend on the relationship between the population of an
area and it resources and economic activities. In an ideal situation, the
entire population of a country should have a good standard of living by
using the country’s resources to build a strong economy. Both under–
population and over-population have disadvantages. It is the optimum
population, with the highest per capita output, that is the best for a country
to aim at. The concept of optimum population, under-population and over-
population comprises the modern theory of population.
Optimum population-The size of population that permits full utilization of
natural resources of an area, giving maximum per capita output and
standard of living.
Optimum population defines as “that population which produces maximum
economic welfare”. The optimum population means the best and the most
desirable size of a country’s population.
Over-Populated- If number of population living in an area is greater than
the resources and technology available to maintain an adequate standard
of living for the population, it is over-populated [ an increase in population
or decrease in natural resources or economic activities which leads to a
decrease I standards of living for the population as a whole]. A large
population (or densely-populated means many people living in an area) in a
country does not mean than it is over population. Some of the most densely
populated places on Earth are well resourced. For example, there are many
people living in Germany or Japan but it does not mean that it is over-
populated because it has enough resources to support its population.
However, some rural countries in parts of Africa may be over-populated as
there are not enough resources to support them, even though very few
people living there (they are sparsely populated).
Effect of Population growth:
- Agricultural related constraints to attaining food security/intense
competition for lands
- Sustainable development
- High living costs
- Lack of employment opportunities
- High environment impacts of economic activities
- Pressure on water resources
- Natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, droughts
- Lack of clean water and sanitation
- Population growth
- Health hazard
- Destruction of natural environment including forest for economic
activities and fuel;
Under-populated- If the number of people living in an area is less than is
needed to make full use of the resources available, then the area can be
described as under-populated [The size of population is too small to
develop its resources effectively]. For example, Canada/Australia could
support higher population and enjoy a high standard of living using its
resources which are under-used.
Consequences of over population and under-population:
Over-population Under-population
 Not enough housing  Shortage of workers
 Water and air pollution  Low level of production
 Shortage of food and water  Resources underused
 High crime rates  High taxes
 Limited health care and  Lack of government income
education
 Lack of employment  Small market for goods and
services
 Poverty and resource  Low value of exports
constraints
 Increased disease level due 
to lack of food and mal-
nutrition, sanitation, and
over-crowed
 Over-congestion in public 
transport, roads and bridges
Population policies-an evaluation of policies for reducing population
growth and size:
Population policy encompasses all of the measures taken by a government
aimed at influencing population size, growth, distribution, or composition.
Such policies may promote large families (pro-natalist policies) or
immigration to increase population size, or encourage fewer births (anti-
natalist policies) to reduce population growth [natalist means anything to
do with childbirth]. A population policy may also aim to modify the
distribution of the population over the country by encouraging migration or
by displacing populations.
Anti-natalist population policies: The governments of several countries
have imposed direct laws, or policies to control their population growth
rates. This includes Singapore, China, and many more. Key measures to
reduce fertility include: raising the minimum legal age at marriage;
providing access to reproductive health services, including low cost, safe
and effective contraception; limits number of children and restrict family
size; integrating family planning and safe motherhood programmes into
primary health care systems; and improving female education and
employment opportunities.
Pro-natalist population policies: some governments have created policies
to encourage people to have more children in order to boost their
population growth rate. Most western European countries like Germany,
France have adopted this policy. Measures to raise fertility include, among
others, baby bonuses; family allowances; maternal, paternal and parental
leave; tax incentives; and flexible work schedules.
 Migration
Migration are either internal (within the country) or international (from one
country to another). They can be further classified as voluntary (where the
individual decides to move) or involuntary (where there is little choice but
to move). Both migration within the countries and between countries are
extremely important on a global scale. Migrants who move out of a country
are called emigrants. Migrants who move in of a country are called
immigrants. In voluntary migration, many groups of people or individuals
choose to migrate to a new destination, looking and hoping for a better
quality of life and standard of living. Types of migrants are economic
migrant, asylum seeker, refugee, illegal migrant, and internal migrant.
Voluntary population movements or migrations usually take place because
of inequalities in resources and opportunities. The main factor that makes
people volunteer to move from one place to another is economic-the
promise of work for better wages. These people are called economic
migrants. This is true of internal and international migrations. The is not
true, however, of most forced migrations where people have no choice but
to move, and this may be due to human or environmental factors.
Some may enter a country unofficially without making themselves known to
the authorities –these are called illegal migrants.
An asylum seeker is a person who leaves their country of origin for fear of
persecution. They normally ask for permission to stay in another country
and are waiting for a decision on this.
People who forced to move or leaves their country of origin in fear of their
lives are called refugees. They run away often with no idea where they will
end up and with no permission to stay in another country. The United
Nations estimates that there are over 65 million refugees in the world
today. Many of these refugees are forced to live in poverty in camps with
little food, water or access to healthcare and education. Forced migration
on an international scale is much more serious and happens for a variety of
reasons:
1. when people are persecuted or threatened because of their
religious beliefs
2. as a result, if war when people are forced to leave their homes
 3. when people are forced into slavery, again often as a result of
war
4. when famine strikes a country and the people have to move to
find food
5. because of natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, floods or hurricanes
Push and pull factors
The reasons why people migrate are often described as push and pull
factors. Push factors are negative conditions in a region or a country which
encourage or force people to move. In contrast, pull factors are positive
conditions at the place of destination which encourage people to migrate.
The nature of push and pull factors varies from country to country and also
from person to person, and changes over time.
Push factors that can force people to leave their own country include:
1. Poor employment or unemployment
2. low income
3. economic and social upheaval
4. poverty, inequalities, and lack of better quality of life and
standard of living conditions
5. poor educational opportunities
6. poor health care facilities
7. war with another country
8. civil war and lawlessness
9. natural disasters,
10.adverse climate conditions, e.g. drought and famine
Pull factors that can attract people to a new country include:
1. job prospects
2. higher wages than at home
3. a better quality of life and high standard of living
4. conducive amenities and attractive environment
5. better housing, education, and health care facilities
6. join family members
7. lower levels of crime and safety from conflict
8. politically stable,
 9. peaceful, law-abiding and tolerant and politically stable
societies
Trend of Migrants:
In today’s increasingly interconnected world, international migration has
become a reality that touches nearly all corners of the globe. Globalization in
all its aspects has led to an increased awareness of opportunities in other
countries. Modern transportation has made it easier, cheaper and faster for
people to move in search of jobs, opportunity, education and quality of life. At
the same time conflict, poverty, inequality and a lack of sustainable livelihoods
compel people to leave their homes to seek a better future for themselves and
their families abroad. Many developing countries are looking to developed
countries to adopt a more favourable attitude to international migration,
arguing that it brings benefits to both developed and developing countries.
Recent migration data show that:
1. According to the UN report on international migration in 2017, the
number of international migrants worldwide has grown faster than the
world’s population. Due to this faster growth rate, the share of migrants
in the total population increased from 2.8 in 2000 to 3.4 per cent in
2017. The pace of growth in the migrant population varies significantly
across regions.
2. The great majority of international migrants move from developing to
developed countries. However, there are also strong migration links
between some developing countries, between low and middle income
countries. According to a UN report in 2017, high-income countries host
almost two thirds of all international migrants. As of 2017, 64 per cent of
all international migrants worldwide - equal to 165 million international
migrants - lived in high-income countries. Thirty-six per cent - or 92
million - of the world’s migrants lived in middle- or low-income
countries. Of these, 81 million resided in middle-income countries and
11 million in low-income countries.
3. Most of the world’s migrants live in a relatively small number of
countries. In 2017, more than 50 per cent of all international migrants in
the world were living in just ten countries or areas, while only twenty
countries or areas hosted 67 per cent of the global number of
international migrants. The largest number of international migrants
resided in the United States of America: 50 million, equal to 19 per cent
 of the world’s total. Saudi Arabia, Germany and the Russian Federation
hosted the second, third and fourth largest numbers of migrants
worldwide (around 12 million each), followed by the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland (nearly 9 million), and the United
Arab Emirates (8 million). Of the twenty largest countries of destination
of international migrants worldwide, nine are located in Asia, seven in
Europe, two in Northern America, and one each in Africa and Oceania.
4. The global level of forced displacement across international borders
continues to rise. By the end of 2016, the total number of refugees and
asylum seekers in the world was estimated at 25.9 million representing
10.1 per cent of all international migrants.
5. with the growth in the importance of labour-related migration and
international student mobility, migration has become increasingly
temporary and circular in nature. The international mobility of highly
skilled workers increased substantially in the 1990s.
6. The proportion of female migrants has steadily increased (now almost
50 per cent of all migrants). For example, women from Philippines, Sri
Lanka, Thailand and Indonesia now make up the majority of contract
workers.
7. Developed countries have reinforced controls, in part in response to
security issues, but also to combat illegal immigration and networks that
deal with trafficking and exploitation of human beings.
The Impacts of Migration:
Migration has played a major role in shaping the global cultural map. The
process of migration is essentially a series of exchange between places. The
overall economic gains from international migration for sending countries,
receiving countries, and the Migrants themselves are substantial. Its impact
has been economic, social, cultural, political and environmental. Some of the
possible impacts of international migration are summarised below:
a. Impacts on countries of origin

Positive impacts Negative impacts

 Remittance are a major source  As the most educated usually
of income for overall migrate, education, health and
economic development other services may decline
because of shortage of young
 adult workers who may have
vital skills, e.g. doctors,
engineers, teachers (the brain-
drain effect)
 Emigration can ease the level  Local production may suffer if
of unemployment and the labour force falls below a
underemployment certain level
 Reduces pressure on health  An ageing population in the
and education services and on communities with a large
housing outflow of young
 Return migrants can bring  Migrants returning on a
new skills, ideas and money temporary or permanent basis
into a community may question traditional
values, causing divisions in the
community

b. Impacts on countries of destination

Positive impacts Negative impacts

 Chance to benefit greatly from  Migrants may be perceived as
migrant labour taking jobs from people in the
long-established population
 Migrants may bring important  Increased pressure of housing
skills to their destination and on services such as health
and education. Pushing up
prices
 Increasing cultural diversity  A significant change in the
can enrich receiving ethnic balance of a country or
communities region may cause tension
 An influx of young migrants  A larger population can have a
can reduce the rate of negative impact on the
population ageing environment

c. Impacts on migrants themselves

Positive impacts Negative impacts

 Wages are higher than in the  Cost of migration can be high
country of origin
  There is a wider choice of job  Migrants can be exploited by
opportunity unscrupulous employers
 A greater opportunity to  There may be racial and
develop new skills, and learn cultural problems settling into
language new culture (assimilation).
 Support family members in  Migration means separation
the country of origin through from family and friends in the
remittances country of origin
 Opportunity to better quality  Some migrations, particularly
of life and high standard of those are illegal, can involve
living hazardous journeys.

Internal population migration

As with internal migrations, this can be either voluntary or forced migration.
Population movement within countries is at a much higher level than
movements between countries. In both developed and developing countries
significant movements of people take place from poorer regions to richer
regions as people seek employment and higher standard of living. In
developing countries much of this migration is in fact from rural to urban
areas, resulting in the very rapid growth of urban areas such as Cairo, Nairobi,
Sao Paulo, and Dhaka. The largest rural-to-urban migration in the history is
now taking place in China. In the last 30 years over 120 million people have
moved to cities-mostly Beijing and Shanghai- and another 80 million have
moved to small towns seeking work.
The process of internal migration has a considerable impact on many rural
areas where depopulation occurs because of it. Many villages close to the
cities have been taken over by construction of urban housing, motorways, or
important infrastructure.
Climate change and migration:
It is predicted that climate change will force mass migrations in the future. In
2009 the international Organization for Migration (IOM) estimated that
worsening tropical storms, desert droughts and rising sea levels will displace
200 million people by 2050.

Population structure/Population Pyramids-

Population Density and Distribution/Settlement and service
provision/Urban settlement/Urbanization

[The lack of social protection coverage, being associated with economic insecurity, poverty, high
levels of inequality and low investments in human capital, is seen as a major obstacle to
economic and social development. Social protection plays a critical role in reducing poverty and
inequality, improving the standards of living and promoting social cohesion. Due to its
fundamental role, social protection has become a key element of national strategies to promote
human development, political stability and inclusive growth.]
 The Natural Environment- Earthquakes and volcanos

The structure of the Earth

When it was first formed 4600 million years ago the Earth was liquid rock
but, as it cooled down, the outer surface hardened to become a thin crust.
This brittle outermost layer varies in thickness from about 25 to 70 km
under continents, and from about 5 to 10 km under the oceans. Continental
crust is quite complex in structure and is made from many different kinds of
rocks. Continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust. Because it is more
dense the oceanic crust plunges beneath the continental one when they
come together.
Underneath the crust is the mantle (molten magma/molten rock material)
which makes up 82 per cent of the volume of the Earth and is 2900 to 3000
km thick. This layer is a liquid and flows rather like really hot jam. The
molten rock that is part of volcanic eruptions flows from the lower crust
and upper part of the mantle. It usually originates from no more than
100km (1.5%) below the Earth's surface. Material from the core never
reaches the surface. Lava is the flow of molten magma which have erupted
on to the Earth’s surface.
Underneath are the extremely hot liquid outer core and solid inner core
which, at its centre (6400 km from the Earth’s surface), is 5500 degrees
Celsius. The outer core extends from 2,900-5,150 km (approximately 2300
km thick) below the surface. The dense inner core extends from 5,150-
6,400 km (approximately 1200 km thick) below the Earth's surface. The core
is composed of iron.
Lithosphere, Rigid, rocky outer layer of the Earth, consisting of the crust
and the solid outermost layer of the upper mantle. It extends to a depth of
about 60 mi (100 km). The most well-known feature associated with Earth’s
lithosphere is tectonic activity. Tectonic activity describes the interaction of
the huge slabs of lithosphere called tectonic plates. The lithosphere is
divided into 15 major tectonic plates: the North American, Caribbean, South
American, Scotia, Antarctic, Eurasian, Arabian, African, Indian, Philippine,
Australian, Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, and Nazca.
Asthenosphere, zone of Earth’s mantle lying beneath the lithosphere and
believed to be much hotter and more fluid than the lithosphere. The
 asthenosphere extends from about 100 km (60 miles) to about 700 km (450
miles) below Earth’s surface.
Moho
The division in the lithosphere between the crust and the mantle is called
the Mohorovicic discontinuity, or simply the Moho. The Moho is found at
about 8 kilometres (5 miles) beneath the ocean and about 32 kilometres (20
miles) beneath continents.
Transition Zone
From about 410 kilometres to 660 kilometres beneath Earth’s surface, rocks
undergo radical transformations. This is the mantle’s transition zone. In the
transition zone, rocks do not melt or disintegrate. The transition zone prevents
large exchanges of material between the upper and lower mantle. Perhaps the
most important aspect of the mantle’s transition zone is its abundance of
water exists as hydroxide.
Plate tectonics
The Earth’s surface is made up of a series of sections- known as plates. These
plates are composed of the Earth’s crust and the solid outermost layer of the
upper mantle, called lithosphere. There are seven large plates (five of which
carry continents) and a number of smaller plates. These plates are constantly
on the move, rubbing against, crushing into or moving away from each other.
The edges where this happens are known as plate boundaries or margins, and
it is here that most of the world’s volcanoes and earthquakes are found. The
relative motion of the plates determines the type of
boundary/margin: convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic
activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these
plate boundaries (or faults).
Plates are made up of two types of crust. Continental crust is light but very
strong. It cannot sink and cannot be destroyed. Oceanic crust, on the other
hand, is heavier and sinks under the continental crust. It is continually being
destroyed and replaced. The plates move because they are floating on the
extremely hot mantle. The mantle is made of a liquid called magma and the
intense heat coming from the Earth’s core gives rise to convention currents.
These currents push under the plates and cause them to move them away
from, or towards, or alongside each other. These movements along plate
boundary give rise to earthquakes, volcanoes, and fold mountains. The plates
typically move at a rates of between 1 and 10 cm a year.
The study of plate movement and the effect it has on the formation of
volcanoes and earthquakes is known as plate tectonics.

Fold Mountains
Fold mountains are formed at convergent plate boundaries at the meeting
point of two tectonic plates where the powerful compression (collision) of
two tectonic plates squeezes up the horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks
so that upfolds form the ridges and the downfolds form the valleys. When
two continental crusts collide and neither can sink they are folded up into
fold mountains.
Where the rocks are folded upwards, they are called anticlines. Where the
rocks are folded downwards, they are called synclines. Severely folded and
faulted rocks are called nappes.
Fold Mountains primarily exist as mountain ranges, and the majority of the
earth’s well-known mountain ranges are examples of Fold Mountains. The
Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe, and the Andes Mountains in South
America are fold mountains. The Indian plate collided with the Eurasian
plate to form the Himalayas.
Plate boundaries/margins
Recent earthquakes and volcanoes are found on the edges of the plates
making up the Earth’s crust. These zones of activity, where plates are in
constant motion, are the plate boundaries or margins. These margins can
be classified as either constructive, destructive or conservative. A fourth
type, a collision margin, consists of two plates of continental crust moving
towards each other.
1. Constructive/divergent margins: when two plates move away from
each other a constructive margin is formed. Molten rock (magma)
rises from the mantle to fill the gap forms new oceanic crust, and also
creates mid-ocean ridges. This process also known as sea-floor
spreading because these margins are found under the sea. The mid-
Atlantic trench, for instance, is widening at a rate of around 3 cm a
year, taking Europe further away from America. Earthquakes and
volcanoes can both occur in these margins.

2. convergent (Destructive) margins: where plates containing oceanic

crust move towards those containing continental crust, a destructive
margin is formed. They are called destructive because oceanic plate
is destroyed. The heavier oceanic crust is forced to underneath the
continental crust in an area called a subduction zone. Friction
between two plates causes the crust to melt and some of the newly
formed magma may be forced to the surface to form
stratovolcanoes. The increase in pressure as the plate is forced
downwards can also trigger severe earthquakes.
3. Conservative margins: when two plates slide past each other often at
different speeds they are being conserved and no new landscape is
 formed and, therefore, no volcanic activity. However, earthquakes
can occur at these conservative margins if the plate get stuck.

4. Convergent (collision) margins: When two continental crusts collide

and neither can sink they are folded up into fold mountains. Fold
mountains formed and earthquakes occur. As there is no subduction,
there is no volcano in the Himalayas. The Indian plate collided with
the Eurasian plate to form the Himalayas.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Earthquakes are caused by plate movements-either towards each other,
away from each other or sliding past each other. The plates don’t always
move at a constant speed; they are often stuck in one position. Stress and
pressure builds up as the plates try to move. Then there is a sudden release
of pressure when the rocks are great stress and pressure reach breaking
point. Huge amounts of energy are released and the shock waves or
vibrations travel through the Earth as an earthquake wave or seismic wave.
The point within the Earth where the earthquake originates is called Focus.
The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the
Epicentre.
A volcano is formed when a hole, crack or vent in the Earth’s crust allows
molten rock (magma), solid rocks, steam and other gases to escape onto
the Earth’s surface and into the air.
The majority of volcanoes in the world form along the boundaries of
Earth's tectonic plates—when tectonic plates collide, one often plunges
deep below the other in what's known as a subduction zone. As the
descending landmass sinks deep into the Earth, temperatures and
pressures climb, and friction between two plates causes the crust to melt
and some of the newly formed magma may be forced to the surface.
Another way volcanoes can form is what's known as hotspot volcanism. In
this situation, a zone of magmatic activity—or a hotspot—in the middle of
a tectonic plate can push up through the crust to form a volcano. Although
the hotspot itself is thought to be largely stationary, the tectonic plates
continue their slow march, building a line of volcanoes or islands on the
surface, e.g. the Hawaii volcanic chain.
 Volcanoes are formed by eruptions of lava and ash when magma rises
through cracks or weak-spots in the Earth's crust. A build-up of pressure
in the earth is released, by things such as a plate movement which
forces molten rock to exploded into the air causing a volcanic eruption.
There are three different types of volcano and each produces and releases a different type of
lava:

 Shield volcano These volcanoes have a flat dome-like appearance and release lava in a gentle
manner that is generally slow and easy for humans and animals to out run. They produce Basaltic
lava, which is the most common type found on earth. Shield volcanoes tend to erupt frequently but
are relatively gentle eruptions. Kilauea volcano in Hawaii is a shield volcano. They tend to erupt
more frequently and on a smaller scale than other volcanoes.
 Stratovolcano This type has the classic cone shape associated with volcanoes. These volcanoes
produce large violent eruptions which often lead to mud-slides and produce fast moving clouds of
hot gas and volcanic matter called pyroclastic flow. Stratovolacnoes produce andesitic magma, which
is molten rock formed at plate boundaries which typically cools and hardens before spreading too
far but can reach up to temperatures of 400C. Krakatoa, Vesuvius and Mount Agung are examples of
this type of volcano.

Caldera volcano These volcanoes have a circular basin-shaped

appearance and release a thick lava which is between 650 to 800C.
After an eruption, which is normally cause by a pressure build up, the
crust above the chamber collapses inwards. This creates a depression
in the surface and is sometimes referred to as a crater, but it is actually
a type of sink hole. Caldera Volcanoes are a common type of Super
Volcanoes, which have large eruptions of effecting at least 1,000km3,
such as Yellowstone in America. Other caldera volcanoes include Mont
Elgon in Ugnada/Kenya, Mount Fogo in Cape Verde, and Mount Meru in
Tanzania.