Praise for Sanskrit Non-Translatables

“This book takes the battle for Sanskrit into the territory of the
English-speaking public. It makes a convincing case that English is
deficient in its ability to express the profound meanings of the
shastras for which Sanskrit words are necessary. By following the
authors’ advice, English will become enriched with key Sanskrit
terms that are non-translatable. As English has assimilated non-
translatable terms from virtually all major world languages, and takes
pride in doing so, there is no reason why it should hesitate to do so
for Sanskrit, a Classical language very much alive today. I
congratulate the authors for their innovative thinking and bold
initiative.”

– Swami Govindadev Giri,

Trustee and Treasurer, Shri Ram Janmbhoomi Teerth Kshetra

“As an avid student of Rajiv Malhotra’s combative intellectual

journey, I was anticipating this book. In the characteristic Indian
Dharma Rakshak Parampara – defending Indian civilization over
millennia by both shastra and shaastra – in the lineage of shaastra
exegetes such as Yaska, Adi Shankara, Guru Gorakhnath,
Ramanujacarya, Hemacandracarya, Gyaneshwar, the Sikh Gurus,
Sri Aurobindo and Swami Vivekananda, Rajiv Malhotra is a one-man
army to take on Western thought. After the 19th century honeymoon
with Sanskrit-Hindu intellectual heritage, Western thought has had
the political agenda of subverting Hinduism and Hindu culture by the
Macaulayised assault on its texts and thoughts. Like a seasoned
strategist, Malhotra began from the outer circle and has moved into
the conceptual garbhagrha of the Western methodology with this
book, Sanskrit Non-Translatables. This comes after his earlier works
articulating the Hindu Civilization as the alternative ( Being Different),
exposing the adversary’s agenda of fracturing this alternative (
Breaking India), counterpoising it with Hinduism’s deep conceptual

integrity ( Indra’s Net), dispossessing the adversary of the ‘weapon’

they had tried to appropriate ( The Battle for Sanskrit) and now the
heart of the matter – the counterattack on the studied subversion of
the conceptual frame of Hindu civilizational thought by

‘Christianising’ the core categories through motivated interpretive

translations. This book takes fifty-four indisputably foundational
concepts, arranges them in a fourfold typology that moves from terra
firma to terra cognita to the cosmos, and contests the irrationality,
the untenability and the ‘design’ of their widely employed English
equivalents. The demolition of this conceptual subversion sets free
the autonomy of the Indian thought and mind. With its well-thought
out prefatory essays, this is a book that every English-educated
Indian must read to further ‘decolonise’ his mind and stand up to the
hegemony of Western thought.”

– Dr. Kapil Kapoor, Chairman,

Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla

“Rajiv Malhotra carries his battle for Sanskrit a step further in this
book. Short of having Sanskrit itself as the language of pan-Indian
intellectual discourse, we must insist that as long as English
continues to play this role, Sanskrit words should be used in English
on account of their unique semantic valence so that a whole culture
and an entire worldview is not lost in translation.”

– Prof. Arvind Sharma,

McGill University

“Sanskrit Non-Translatables by Rajiv Malhotra and Satyanarayana

Dasa Babaji is an important book that provides lucid explanations of
the central concepts of Sanatana Dharma, and brings attention to
the many errors and distortions that have been introduced by the use
of English words that do not quite do justice to the Sanskrit originals.
It makes a powerful case for what it calls the Sanskritization of the
English language by introducing key Sanskrit loanwords into English
vocabulary and keeping them untranslated. This is a bold and
innovative approach that deserves to be pursued in parallel with
teaching Sanskrit itself. It is nothing short of spreading Vedic

sanskriti into the English-speaking world by penetrating their minds

with powerful Sanskrit terms.”

– Dr. Subhash Kak,

author of Matter and Mind, The Gods Within, and other books

“This is an indispensable book addressing the difficult situation today

– that Sanskrit terms pregnant with meaning cannot be translated

into any foreign language; yet we have to make them
understandable to people of other cultures who want to learn
Sanskrit from the point of view of jigisha rather than jijnasa. The
authors have worked hard to collect relevant material from various
sources to prove that the English translations of many Sanskrit terms
are false and misleading.”

– Dr. Korada Subrahmanyam,

author of Theory of Language: Oriental & Occidental, and other

books

“This book is an eye-opener and argues a highly original and

audacious thesis to enrich the English language by adding Sanskrit
words that have no English equivalent. These unique words bring
profound meanings discovered by the ancient rishi-s. For English
language speakers, it will not only enhance their vocabulary but also
introduce them to entirely new concepts for understanding of reality.”

– Dr. Vijay Bhatkar,

Chancellor, Nalanda University

Sanskrit Non-Translatables

Sanskrit Non-Translatables

The Importance of Sanskritizing English

Rajiv Malhotra and Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji

Foreword by

Nityananda Misra

An imprint of Manjul Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

• 7/32, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002

Website: www.manjulindia.com

Registered Office:
• 10, Nishat Colony, Bhopal 462 003 – India

Copyright © Infinity Foundation, 2020

This edition first published in 2020

ISBN 978-93-90085-48-4

Rajiv Malhotra and Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji asserts the

moral right to be identified as the author of this work.

Cover design: Divya Sharma, Infinity Foundation

The content of the book is the sole expression and opinion of its
authors, and not necessarily that of the publisher. No warranties or
guarantees are expressed or implied by the publisher’s choice to
include any of the content in this volume. Neither the publisher nor
the authors shal be liable for any physical, psychological, emotional,
financial, or commercial damages, including but not limited to,
special, incidental, consequential or other damages.

Al rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced,

stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise) without the prior written permission of the
Publisher. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to
this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims
for damages.

Contents

Foreword by Nityananda Misra

Preface by Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji

Preface by Rajiv Malhotra

Introduction

Diversity of Civilizations

Threat of Western Universalism

Sanskrit and World Culture

Sanskriti, the Dharma Civilization

Sanskrit Unites the Great Tradition and Little Traditions

Sanskriti and Pan-Asian Civilization

Sanskrit, Modernity and Post-modernity

The Importance of Protecting Sanskrit

1. The Case For Sanskrit Non-Translatables

The Kurukshetra Today

Digestion and Destruction

The Problem of Sameness

Poison Pills

Regaining the Adhikara

2. The Theory of Sanskrit Non-Translatables

Rationale for Sanskrit Non-Translatables

Direct Experiences and Traditions

Unity of Sound–Meaning–Object

Mantra
Discovery of Sanskrit

Sanskrit and Pluralism

Multiple Experiences of the Same Root Sound

Synonyms Are Not Redundant

Sanskrit and Contexts

The Cognizing Self is Part of the Context

Mysticism and the Outer World

Sanskrit and Dharma

Fifty-Four Sanskrit Non-Translatables

3. Metaphysics

Saguna/Nirguna is not Qualified/Quality-less

Atma is not Soul

Maya is not Illusion

Jiva is not Soul

Kaivalya is not Salvation

Hinduism is not Monotheism/Polytheism

Om is not Amen

Summary of Metaphysics Non-Translatables

4. Cosmic Tattva-s

Shakti is not Energy

Prakriti is not Nature

Akasha is not Space

Agni is not Fire

Vayu is not Air

Shabda is not Word

Indriya is not Sense-Organ

Summary of Cosmic Tattva Non-Translatables

5. Vedic Cosmos

Loka is not Planet

Svarga is not Heaven and Naraka is not Hell

Asura is not Demon

Devata-s are not Gods or Angels

Summary of Vedic Cosmos Non-Translatables

6. Vedic Psychology

Sukshma Sharira is not Astral Body

Manas is not Mind

Buddhi is not Intelligence

Chitta is not Unconscious Mind

Ahankara is not Ego

Summary of Vedic Psychology Non-Translatables

7. Yoga

Ahimsa is not Non-violence

Prana is not Breath

Chakra is not Energy Center

Dhyana is not Meditation

Samadhi is not Trance

Summary of Yoga Non-Translatables

8. Sadhana

Sadhana is not Spiritual Practice

Puja is not Ritual

Karma-yoga is not Path of Action

Jnana-yoga is not Path of Knowledge

Bhakti-yoga is not Path of Devotion

Summary of Sadhana Non-Translatables

9. Vedic Shastra

Shastra is not Scripture

Shruti is not ‘That which is Heard’

Itihasa/Purana is not History/Myth

Tantra is not Tantric Sex

Guna is not Quality or Mode

Summary of Vedic Shastra Non-Translatables

10. Hindu Dharma

Samskara is not Ritual or Ceremony

Hanuman is not Monkey God

Sanskriti is not Culture

Agama is not Ritual Text

Naga is not Naked

Dasa is not Slave

Seva is not Service

Guru is not Teacher

Shraddha is not Faith

Summary of Hindu Dharma Non-Translatables

11. Kavya

Kavya is not Poetics

Kama is not Lust

Bhava is not Mood

Rasa is not Mellow or Taste

Prema is not Love

Leela is not Pastime

Ananda is not Bliss

Summary of Kavya Non-Translatables

Acknowledgments

Selected Bibliography

Notes

Foreword

Anuvada, which literally means ‘saying again’ or ‘restating’

( ‘anuvadanam anuvadah’), is the Sanskrit word for translation. An

anuvada can be from Sanskrit into Sanskrit, from Sanskrit into Indian
languages or from Sanskrit into other languages like English. Owing
to the highly mathematical and flexible nature of Sanskrit, it is
possible to have a perfectly equivalent anuvada from Sanskrit into
Sanskrit. The second sutra of Patanjali’s Yoga-Sutra reads, ‘yogah
chitta-vritti-nirodhah’, and the anuvada in Sanskrit could be ‘chittasya
vrittinam nirodhanam yogah’. In languages originating from (or
borrowing heavily from) Sanskrit, Sanskrit words can be used as
they occur in the original and the anuvada can still be quite effective.

For example, in Hindi, the anuvada of the above sutra could be

‘chitta ki vrittiyon ka nirodha yoga hai’. When it comes to languages

that do not share the same history and culture as Sanskrit, a great
part of the meaning is lost in translation. In English, the anuvada of
the above sutra could be: ‘Union (yoga) is the suppression of the
modifications of the unconscious mind’. To a reader who knows both
Sanskrit and English, this anuvada will be nowhere close in spirit or
meaning to the original Sanskrit sutra. A Hindi speaker reading the
above Hindi translation will understand the intent of Patanjali far
better than an English speaker reading the English translation. This
is because the words yoga, chitta, vritti, and nirodha are used in a
similar sense in Hindi as they are used in the sutra.
In this much-needed and pertinent book, Rajiv Malhotra and
Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji detail fifty-four Sanskrit words from nine
themes with their common English translations and highlight what
the English translations fail to capture. The authors make a
compelling case for using Sanskrit words as is in English
translations. Rajiv Malhotra had introduced this concept in his book
Being Different: An Indian Challenge to Western Universalism, and
has highlighted the need for Sanskritization of English for a long
time. Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji is a traditionally trained Sanskrit

scholar who has translated important texts like the Bhagavad Gita
and the Sandarbha works of Srila Jiva Goswami into English. They
offer insightful views into etymologies and ranges of meanings of
important Sanskrit words and how their common English translations
fail to capture the essence of the original words.

Consider the example of the word maya, which is commonly

translated into English as ‘illusion’. The authors point out that
besides maya being a ‘wondrous Shakti of Bhagavan’, in some
traditions, it is the cause of illusion and not illusion per se in the
Advaita Vedanta tradition. Having learned the concept of maya in my
childhood from both Hindi and Sanskrit sources, I am aware that
another meaning of maya is kripa (loosely translated as

‘compassion’), as attested by the Anekartha-sangraha of Acharya

Hemachandra (medieval Jain scholar and polymath) and as cited in
the work Bhakti-Sudha by Karapatri Swami (a guru in the Advaita
Vedanta tradition). Thus, ‘illusion’ or ‘deception’ is only one of the
many meanings of the word maya (Acharya Hemachandra lists four
meanings in the Anekartha-sangraha) and translating maya as

‘illusion’ reduces a word with many shades of meaning to a single

narrow meaning. The authors draw our attention to a plethora of
other such mistranslations. For example, advaya-jnana is more
appropriately translated as ‘non-dual consciousness’ and not
‘monistic consciousness’.

While discussing the non-translatable terms, the authors also throw

light on many significant concepts in Hinduism. The discussion on
Om clarifies several misconceptions about the word that have
recently been made popular by a prominent Hindu guru. The
discussion on the mahabhutas shows how words like ‘space’, ‘fire’,
and ‘air/wind’ fail to capture the essence and profound meanings of
the words akasha, agni, and vayu. When we say ‘space’, we do not
get an idea of shabda (loose translation, ‘sound’) but the concept of
akasha in Hindu philosophy is inextricably linked with the concept of
shabda, as the definition of akasha in the Tarkasangraha (a
seventeenth century treatise on logic and reasoning by
Annambhatta) clarifies: “shabda-gunakam akasham”.

The important differences between the Indic concept of svarga and

naraka and the Abrahamic concepts of heaven and hell are

discussed in detail by the authors. While discussing ahimsa, Rajiv

Malhotra and Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji incisively point out that
opposite meaning (or virodha) is only one of the six senses of the
prefix ‘a’ (from ‘na’). This is known to students of Sanskrit grammar
but presenting such fine nuances to laypersons is what the book
succeeds at. The chapter on Kavya is a refreshing end to the book
with discussions on words like kama, bhava, prema, and ananda. As
per the Nitivakyamrita (a work on ethics and ethical values by the
Jain scholar Somadeva Suri), kama is that which grants gratification
abounding in bodily sentiment to all indriya-s ( “abhimanika-
rasanuviddha yatah sarvendriya-pritih” ). This is a very broad
concept which can never be captured by a narrow word like ‘lust’, as
the authors convincingly prove.

Sanskrit Non-Translatables, with its lucid language, will be easy for

laypersons to comprehend. The exhibits and tables will serve as
useful mnemonics for the readers. The book will immensely benefit
the readers and writers of the third category of the anuvada
mentioned before—from Sanskrit to languages like English.

We know for a fact that translations of important texts from one

language to another can never be wholly effective or completely true
and faithful to the original. To truly understand and appreciate
Shakespeare, one has to read Shakespeare in the original
Elizabethan English. With both concepts and fifty-four examples,
Sanskrit Non-Translatables: The Importance of Sanskritizing English
vividly shows how the ‘lost in translation’ effect is amplified manifold
when translating from a highly structured, refined, rich, and potent
language like Sanskrit to a language like English. Readers of the
book will realize how translations of Sanskrit texts into Hindi or other
Indian languages, which retain much of the original Sanskrit
vocabulary, are far more effective than translations into English. The
translation of the Valmiki Ramayana into English by Robert Goldman
(professor of Sanskrit at the University of California, Berkeley) is no
doubt good, but the Hindi translation published by Gita Press is
undoubtedly better. For a reader who understands Hindi, the latter
should be the first preference.

This must-read book will reach many readers across the globe.

My sincere hope is that it inspires many of them to learn Sanskrit

and read the texts of Hinduism in the original Sanskrit with Sanskrit
commentaries, the best anuvada possible.

Nityananda Misra, author of

Mahaviri: Hanuman-Chalisa Demystified and other books Mumbai,

2020

Preface

Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji

The Ancient Indian Psyche

The thinkers of ancient India, the rishi-s and muni-s, had a deep
understanding of the fact that the universe functions on some basic
principles of rhythms of the cosmos known as ritam, and to maximize
well-being, humans must exist in harmony with it. To this end, human
life was organized at two levels: individual and social. Further, at the
individual level, human life was considered in four parts:
brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha, and samnyasa. Considering
a life span of one hundred years, twenty-five years were allocated to
each stage of life. In order to be in harmony with ritam, an individual,
as well as a society, must strive for the four pursuits known as
purushartha-s: dharma, artha, kama, and moksha.

Each individual possesses unique characteristics, known as his/her

prakriti or nature. According to ideal dharmic social thought, an
individual functioned in society in line with his prakriti and was
provided with appropriate education. At the collective level, society
was organized into four broad categories called varna-s: brahmana
(teacher/educator),

kshatriya

(warrior/king/queen),

vaishya

(manager/business sector), and shudra (service sector). The varna

was not birth-based but was dependent on the individual’s acquired
prakriti. Every society, which functions as an organized unit,
comprises these four unavoidable categories for its sustenance,
propagation and prosperity. While these categories have emerged
unconsciously all over the world, ancient Indian thinkers recognized
it and provided a theory supporting the four varna-s to consciously
organize society. Indian society was based on this template and
functioned peacefully for thousands of years, scaled paramount
heights and attained much glory.
Historically, many great personalities appeared to rectify the situation
whenever balance was disturbed. Bhagavan Shri Krishna himself
proclaims that He is the propagator of the varna system ( Gita 4.13),
and He appears to restore dharma whenever it is challenged by
adharma ( Gita 4.7).

This ancient system, however, started crumbling when Indian society

was invaded by Western forces, primarily with Alexander around 324
BCE. Thereafter, it experienced a downward spiral though its
resilience was not completely eliminated. Even when India came
under foreign rule, around 1192 CE, and later, under the prolonged
rule of the Mughals, its education system was not tampered with and
the varna-s survived. The fatal blow came in 1854, when the Indian
education system was callously destroyed by the British. It was
replaced by the Western education structure to produce clerks to
help them control the vast empire. Unfortunately, Western education
has no such insight into human life, leave alone the cosmic ritam.
Tragically, even post India’s independence in 1947, no efforts were
made to reclaim the millennia-old heritage. Instead, what continues
to this day are the borrowed education system and the constitution of
the West, which are a complete mismatch for the Indian psyche.

The Modern Indian Psyche

Modern-educated Indians are a confused lot. Not only have they lost
faith in their own traditional values, they are also unable to embrace
a Western lifestyle in totality. Most educated Indians portray a
Western demeanor, yet in their private lives they practise several
beliefs that emanate from ancient tradition, especially at times of
birth, death, marriage and festivals. However, they are untrained in
their ancient beliefs because nothing in the modern education
system fosters them. They may know of and practise certain
traditions but have forgotten and surrendered the true meaning and
perform them out of a sense of ritual. The lack of sufficient
knowledge about one’s own sanskriti, and training under the
Western education system, has resulted in Indians developing an
inferiority complex with regards to their rich sanskriti and dharma.

Many derive pleasure in deriding the ancient sanskriti, revealing the

unfortunate situation and reality of the modern Indian psyche.

Furthermore, dharmic terminology has been inadequately translated

into English. Terms such as atma, moksha, dharma, and prakriti are
profound concepts in themselves; they are not mere words that can
be translated into a single English word. The terms have to be
understood and applied as they are; when translated naively into
English, the terms lose their original deeper meaning, which has
further led to devaluation of Indian sanskriti. To compound matters, a
massive effort has been made by missionaries to digest Indian
sanskriti into Christianity. The modern Indian psyche thus has to
bear a great misfortune in losing its civilizational heritage.

The Torch Bearer

Several Indians are aware that Indian sanskriti is in peril and is being
attacked by forces from within and outside. A handful of them are
highlighting and being vocal about the danger of it getting lost and
are making efforts to revive it. Rajiv Malhotra and Infinity Foundation
are leading this resistance and revival. I first heard Rajiv at a WAVES

conference in Florida in the US and was taken in by what he spoke. I

was teaching a summer course in Hinduism at Rutgers University,
and I was eager to meet Rajiv before returning to India.

When I arrived at Rajiv’s home, he was working on a manuscript.

Even before I sat down, he shot a question at me, “Do you know
anything about Jiva Gosvami?” He then casually went on to explain
how keen he was to know about achintya-bheda-abheda siddhanta
propagated by the Indian philosopher Jiva Gosvami (1513-1598). I
was instantly taken aback because studying and teaching the works
of Jiva Goswami is my domain of expertise and passion; in fact, I
founded an entire institute named after him. I had been working on a
mammoth project for over two decades of translating and
commenting on the magnum opus of Jiva Gosvami titled Shat
Sandarbha. I never imagined I would make such a deep connection
with an Indian living outside India, and one whose intense focus is
on Hinduism. Rajiv Malhotra is an Indian intellectual warrior, who is
fully absorbed in saving Indian sanskriti and fighting the breaking-

India forces. I knew for certain that it was only by the will of Shri
Krishna that we met. And although I did not know how, I understood
that Rajiv and I had an important mission in common.

I left after our first meeting, excited to share my work and to hear
Rajiv’s penetrating questions that would go on to refine my thinking
with the pinpoint accuracy that he demanded. The first document I
shared with him was a paper on achintya-bheda-abheda. He relished
the paper, adding that it would be of immense help for his book. He
invited me to help him in his work Being Different: An Indian
Challenge to Western Universalism. I gladly obliged, as I felt life
would be breathed back into Mother India. Our friendship cemented
and we would meet during my teaching assignments at Rutgers.

Over the years, we have recorded several videos on a variety of

subjects. Three years ago, the idea of recording Sanskrit non-
translatables arose. Rajiv had already introduced this concept in his
book, Being Different. He proposed that we create fifty-four episodes
on Sanskrit non-translatable words. I was very excited with the idea
and over the next two years, we made video recordings at his
residence in New Jersey, as well as at our center, Jiva Faridabad, in
India. Jessica Richmond co-ordinated our recording sessions and
organised the required material.

In the midst of the recordings, Rajiv suggested we write a book

based of the content of the videos and I immediately agreed. With
the fifty-four video episodes and this book, we are taking a big step
forward to actualizing Rajiv’s mission. Just as Western terminology
has entered the Indian psyche, Indian terminology should also enter
not only Western, but also the modern Indian’s mind. This will be a
great step towards reclaiming our sanskriti. I give my blessings that
Rajiv Malhotra’s vision be realized.

Preface

Rajiv Malhotra

Since twenty-five years, Infinity Foundation has been challenging the

prevailing narratives with groundbreaking research and provided
original perspectives on dharma and its rightful place in the world. An
important book published by the Foundation, Invading the Sacred:
An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America, in 2007, took aim at the
Freudian psychoanalytic critiques of Hinduism being propagated by
a powerful nexus in the Western academia and being spread among
Indian intellectuals. The book gave birth to, and incubated, a solid
and entrenched opposition that cannot be ignored today. It spurred
the Indian diaspora to recognize the pattern of attacks on Hindu
dharma under the garb of academia and audaciously ‘talk back’ to
the establishment of Western scholars. This ‘reversing the gaze’ on
Western intellectual elites found its way rapidly to India where it
shaped a new generation of self-confident Indians. The term

‘Hinduphobia’ was adopted by Infinity Foundation to turn the

spotlight on to a serious issue and it has now entered the everyday
lexicon of serious thinkers worldwide.

Infinity Foundation’s next pathbreaking book, Breaking India:

Western Interventions in Dravidian and Dalit Faultlines, detailed
twenty years of my research, talks, and writings on how external
forces are trying to destabilize India by deliberately undermining its
civilization. The book proved how such efforts are targeted at
obfuscating, and ultimately aborting any collective identity of the
present-day Indian, based on a positive view of his/her civilization. It
exposed the foreign nexuses and applied the term ‘sepoys’ to refer
to their Indian accomplices. The book highlighted that the project to
intellectually fragment, or ‘break’ India targets Hinduism because it is
seen as the robust foundation cementing its diversity. Several
watchdog movements have sprung into action because of the book,
Breaking India. It has triggered a domino effect with a plethora of

researchers associating themselves with this genre of scholarship to

expose more instances of the same syndrome. The theories and
vocabulary introduced in the book are now used widely.

The next authoritative work by Infinity Foundation, Being Different:

An Indian Challenge to Western Universalism addressed the central
question: who we as Indians are, and what distinguishes us from
others, especially from the West. It presents an original and coherent
view of dharma as a family of traditions and unabashedly challenges
the West’s claim of being the universal lens for studying world
cultures. Western Universalism is unfortunately still used as the
template for mapping and defining all cultures and therefore, it is vital
to be conscious of its distorted interpretations of Indian traditions.
Being Different has prompted a wide section of Indians to question
various simplistic views and interpretations of their traditions,
including some that are commonly espoused even by their own guru-
s, family and political leaders. It is a beacon for serious intellectuals
on how to ‘take back’ Vedic heritage by understanding it on its own
terms.

Indra’s Net: Defending Hinduism’s Philosophical Unity exposes the

widely held thesis in Western academia that Hinduism is a recent
invention. This fallacious and ludicrous argument was fabricated
during British rule over India in the latter part of the nineteenth
century, resulting in dangerous consequences even in post-
independent India. The central point of this thesis asserts that Swami
Vivekananda, one of the most renowned votaries of Hindu
philosophy of the nineteenth century, plagiarized Western secular
and Christian ideas and then recast them in Sanskrit terminology to
claim their Indian origin. Besides critiquing this thesis, the nexus
behind it, and defending Swami Vivekananda’s vision, the book puts
forward a vision for the future of Hinduism.

The Battle for Sanskrit: Is Sanskrit Political or Sacred, Oppressive or

Liberating, Dead or Alive? challenges Sheldon Pollock, arguably the
most influential contemporary Sanskrit scholar in Western academia.
The consistent theme underlying his entire work is to characterize
Sanskrit as the root cause of all of India’s current social problems.
This thesis attributes to Sanskrit a range of negative issues including
social disharmony and lack of innovation.

Arguments deeply damaging to the Indian civilization have been

formulated by Pollock based on questionable assumptions and
interpretations.

The Battle for Sanskrit addresses these issues head-on with a

vigorous purva paksha or argument of Pollock’s Neo-Orientalist
school of thought – an influential school that has spawned new
adherents and created a lineage of Western scholars and Indian
sepoys today. The book led to multiple conferences of Swadeshi
Indology and triggered a greater awareness of the deep and
insidious goals of Western Indology and the broader academia. The
Battle for Sanskrit was precipitated by the proposal of an Adi
Shankara Chair at Columbia University sponsored by the Sringeri
Peetham (one of the four important peetham-s established by the
philosopher Adi Shankara), whose Academic Committee was to be
headed by Sheldon Pollock. The effect of the book and the
awareness it created has discouraged sponsors from pursuing the
establishment of such a chair. After the Shankaracharya, head of
Sringeri, was personally approached and briefed on the contents of
the book, he was convinced not to proceed with the proposed Chair.

This created a huge controversy among Non-Resident Indians in the

United States who had championed this Chair as a vehicle for
popularizing themselves and advancing their own business interests.
Infinity Foundation, however, has never shied away from controversy
or risks when required for the sake of protecting the wider interest of
dharma.

Infinity Foundation has also formulated, funded and implemented

numerous major interventions which have affected the civilizational
discourse in positive and non-trivial ways. 1 The Foundation became
widely acknowledged as the leader in influencing the way scholars
are approaching their work on India’s civilization, history,
archaeology, social sciences, arts, and other fields. Besides
intellectuals, its work has deeply influenced people from various
walks of life, not just Indians and people of Indian origin, but all those
who have an all-abiding interest in these matters.

The Foundation has been producing videos on several subjects that

showcase the use and application of a dharma-based lens to study
our civilization. This has resulted in a new awakening: to

promote the use of our drishti (i.e., the ability to look through the
dharmic lens). It has adopted the term kurukshetra or battlefield, to
describe the present-day encounter of civilizations. The Foundation
has expanded beyond the mode of pure research, and engages with
the general public, providing new insights into the social and political
dynamics at work in this kurukshetra.

The Foundation’s books have a common approach: to present an

analysis of distorted theories and their effects, and to expose the
falsities and assumptions, of these theories. The target readership is
the serious intellectual in support of the Foundation’s aim to develop
Intellectual Kshatriyas. These kshatriyas are using the Foundation’s
core ideas and vocabulary to aid in the thinking, analysis, dissection,
and strategic response to the attacks on dharma, thus providing new
perspectives. Any coherent body of thought or knowledge system
assumes a powerful impact as a thought carrier and a tool of
change, in pragmatic and intellectual ways, if it is supported by its
own consistent vocabulary. The histories and progress of a
civilization can be seen as an evolution of its conceptual framework
and vocabulary in understanding itself and the world.

The theory of Sanskrit Non-Translatables is one such powerful

framework and has its own vocabulary of terms. It was introduced for
the first time in the book, Being Different. The theory elucidated that
Western scholars and Westernized Indians are accustomed to
translating and mapping dharmic concepts and perspectives onto
Western frameworks, which is a form of digestion of Vedic civilization
into their civilization. Being Different argued that this practice is
highly problematic. Dharmic traditions are compromised and some
elements even atrophy once it becomes acceptable to substitute
them with Western equivalents, even though the substitutes do not
accurately represent the original Indian idea.

While this problem exists to some extent in all inter-civilizational

encounters, it is particularly acute when dharmic concepts in
Sanskrit are translated into Western languages. Not only does
Sanskrit, like all languages, encode specific and unique cultural
experiences and traits, but the very form, sound, and manifestation
of the language carries effects that cannot be separated from their
conceptual meanings. The non-translatable nature of Sanskrit and its

deep meanings are compromised by the cultural digestion of dharma

into the West through the inadequate translation of vocabulary. In the
course of this digestion, crucial distinctions and understandings are
lost, important direct experiences of the rishi-s sidelined, and the
most fertile, productive and visionary dimension of dharma
eradicated and relegated to antiquity. This loss is often carried out
under the guise of modernity.

The current book takes these ideas forward and launches a new
movement using Sanskrit Non-Translatables as a device for
protecting key ideas from getting distorted, plagiarized, or allowed to
become obsolete. The role of Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji has been
critical as the subject-matter expert to explicate the nuances of
meanings of the important Sanskrit words used to illustrate their non-
translatability.

This book is not meant for teaching Sanskrit. It undertakes to explain

the inadequate translation of many Sanskrit terms into English,
which is commonplace. It spotlights several Sanskrit terms that are
loosely and unthinkingly replaced with English translations and
shows how the deep and profound implications of these words get
lost.

Though primarily meant for the English speaker/reader, many of

these discussions are also relevant to resist the usage of these
English terms in native Indian languages.

Chapters 1 and 2 cover the rationale and need for Sanskrit Non-
Translatables and ingeminate key ideas on the subject from Being
Different. The discussion on the origins and unique nature of
Sanskrit lays the foundation. The Non-Translatables will play a
critical role in the kurukshetra as carriers of deeper ideas and
embedded cultural assets, and in the encounters between dharma
and adharma.

Chapters 3 through 11 discuss several specific non-translatable

terms that are being carelessly translated. For each term discussed,
careful and deep thought has gone into explaining why the common
translations are inadequate and how they create distortions and
confusion. The goal is to lay a strong foundation for readers to start
using these Sanskrit words when speaking or writing in English. The
aim is to instill confidence that the non-translatable words can be

used effectively in everyday engagement in English, enriching the

language with new ideas and experiences from the Indian traditions.

To ensure reader friendliness, diacritic marks for Sanskrit

pronunciation have only been used in the notes. Most Sanskrit terms
have been italicized when they first appear, and this may be
repeated in some cases. A Sanskrit term will often be accompanied
by a brief phrase in parentheses, providing its approximate and
provisional meaning in English. Many Sanskrit terms in the main text
are spelled in more than one way depending on the source – for
instance, ‘Shankara’ and ‘Sankara’. Purists in Indian scholarship
may raise issues with some of these compromises. But our battles
are selected carefully and with focus, and this means making
practical accommodations.

At certain places in this book where multiple interpretations of the

shastra exist within our traditions, the Gaudiya Vaishnava
sampradaya’s viewpoint is used as the basis for illustrating the non-
translatability. This choice is not to preclude other traditional views.

Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji belongs to that tradition, hence we use

that view. However, we invite collaborations with experts from other
dharmic traditions so that the full richness of each Sanskrit concept
can emerge from various perspectives. The focus is to explain that
various Sanskrit terms are not translatable to English words. Using a
particular dharmic tradition serves to illustrate this point.

Introduction

Diversity of Civilizations

The distinctiveness of the cultural and spiritual matrix of dharma

civilizations is under siege from something insidious: the widespread
dismantling, rearrangement, and digestion of dharmic culture into
Western frameworks, by disingenuously characterizing the latter as

‘universal’.

This process of absorption of dharmic ideas can take place with

good intentions and also with the tacit cooperation of individuals
immersed in dharma. They sometimes question: Why not
assimilate? Aren’t we all really ‘the same’? What is incorrect about a
‘universal’ point of view? Isn’t the large-scale absorption of Indian
ideas, arts, sciences, medicine, business practices and letters
something positive? Isn’t it wonderful that millions of Americans and
Europeans practice and propagate yoga and that Indian cuisine has
gone global? Besides, doesn’t the West have something to offer
India in exchange – such as scientific advances, social justice,
business and political know-how? The obvious answer to all these
questions would at first be a ‘Yes’.

Yet, much of what appears to be an explicit Indian influence on the

West is indicative of a process that threatens to deplete the very
sources of dharma on which it draws. Talk of global culture and
universalism often creates the sunny impression that the fusion of
dharmic and Western cultures is always good. This assumption
ignores the many distortions and unacknowledged appropriations on
the part of the West, as well as the highly destructive influences of
fundamentalist Christianity, Marxism, capitalist expansionism and
myopic secularism.

Global culture is bridging and blurring boundaries across races,

ethnicities, nationalities and faiths. Consumerism is redefining
lifestyles and aesthetics by blending universal components. The
increased mobility of people, goods and capital is more likely taking

us closer to a world of true meritocracy (a phenomenon that Pulitzer

Prize winner, Thomas Friedman calls the ‘flat world’2), and economic
and ecological integration is helping dismantle localized obstacles.

The youth is especially quick to embrace new kinds of global

identities, often at the expense of native traditions.

At the same time, an appreciation of the exotic, colorful and novel

aspects of Indian culture appear to be on the rise, owing to the
influence of Yoga, Indian cuisine, the film industry, traditional music
and dance, and so on. Indian spiritual capital enjoys a pride of place
in the global quest for greater well-being, as evidenced by the
popularity of Yoga, meditation and Ayurvedic medicine in various
forms and by the influence wielded by certain self-help guru-s in
popular culture. In fact, Americans invest enormous amounts of
money in alternative health and spiritual practices which are of
Indian origin, whether or not they realize, or accept, the Indian root.

This leads many to conclude that the essential differences among

civilizations no longer matter. Several prominent critics have blamed
religious, cultural, racial and national divisions for much of the
violence and fragmentation that are destabilizing the world today.

They argue that all such distinctions are obsolete and primitive.

The arguments that distinct cultures should coalesce into something

universal are expressed in theories that perceive ideal societies as
‘post-modern’, ‘post-racial’, ‘post-religious’ and ‘post-nationalistic’.
These fashionable constructs seem to announce the arrival of a flat,
secularized world that is undifferentiated by specific histories,
identities and religious points of view. The anti-modernity movement
of the twentieth century was one such construct; its lofty goal of
rejecting Western aggression led to colonialism, genocide, two World
Wars, Nazism and Communism. Anti-modernity offered little by way
of a positive affirmation of differences and little understanding of why
it might be valuable and desirable for differences to coexist
harmoniously.

What is misleading about the ‘flat world’ assumption is that while

superficial cultural elements do seem to have coalesced into a
common global culture, the deeper structures that support the power
and privilege of certain groups are stronger than ever before.

Globalization is often framed in terms and structures that emerged

under Western domination of the world over the past five hundred
years or so. These in turn, are founded on the values and beliefs that
emerged from the unique historical and religious experiences of the
peoples of European origin. When all collective identities are
discarded and all boundaries challenged – whether under the rubric
of post-modern critique or as a result of a vague sense that ‘all are
one’ and ‘we are all fundamentally the same’ – the result is not a
world free from dominance but one in which the strongest identities
along with their versions of history and values prevail.

This asymmetry of power and resources in the production and

spread of a dominant narrative leads to abrasive cultural exchanges.

It is only recently that China has begun responding to the Western

narrative on its own terms. The Islamic world too, powered by oil-
generated-wealth, is able to spread its narrative via the Western-
controlled channels of knowledge legitimization. Weak cultures and
civilizations will end up getting digested and rendered irrelevant in
the face of this hegemonic march of history.

The Indian situation in the clash of civilizations is indeed

disheartening. The Indian state was weakened to a deep state of
atrophy after close to one thousand years of colonial rule and
became further diluted after independence in 1947 by way of poor
policies and inefficient and corrupt governing structures. It is only
recently, after seventy-odd years, that the need and relevance of a
truthful civilizational narrative as the basis for nation-building is being
considered at the highest levels of governance. Steps, however
small, are being taken to build a foundation for an India based on
India’s self-narratives and its civilizational riches.

Given this reality, it is now up to the Indian peoples and those on the
journey of dharma to take control of the civilizational narrative and
regain the adhikara (authority) to interpret the world on their own
terms. The economic prosperity over the last few decades, and the
marked absence of crippling poverty has, for the most part, freed
Indians to think beyond survival and mere economic progress. The
quest for civilizational identity has created a hunger for dharma-
based ideas, which now responds to the factually misleading and
culturally corrosive narratives of the mainstream. 3
Threat of Western Universalism

A large section of Westerners and Anglicized Indians assume that

the dharmic wisdom embodied in the Sanskrit language can be
translated into other languages and imported into other religious
and/or scientific paradigms without loss of meaning. For example,
Om can be Amen, Shanti can be Peace, Ishvara can be God. We
argue to the contrary.

Ancient as it is, Sanskrit remains relevant for its profound creative

potential. The richness of the meaning of a word is often deeply
embedded within its cultural context, in the history of its evolution
over time, and also in the wider context of nuances and implied
meanings that accompany its usage. A culture comprises the
cumulative collective experience that is unique to its people and is
invariably interwoven with their geography and history.

To understand the nuances of a word in its entirety, it is essential to

understand the host culture. Language, both reflects and shapes, a
culture’s thought process owing to its deep structures and
categories. The unique experiences of different cultures are not
always interchangeable. Many cultural artifacts have no equivalent in
other cultures, and to force such artifacts into Western templates
results in distortions. This too is a kind of colonization and cultural
conquest. Therefore, certain words used to refer to those
experiences must remain intact. Over time, if linguistic terms and
categories get lost, so does the diversity of cultural experience.

Sanskrit has certain properties which reveal the inherently contextual

and unique nature of dharmic philosophy from which it arose. With
Sanskrit, there is also another deeper source of non-translatability:
Among its primary sounds, there are layers of connections and
interrelationships forged by common underlying vibrations. The
complete meaning is thus a composite of the collection, not unlike an
algebraic formula.
Therefore, great harm is done when a foreign culture, especially a
colonial one, imposes its own simplistic, and often incorrect,
translations of Sanskrit. Even greater harm is done when the natives
of a colonized culture adopt these foreign translations – a process

that is often gradual and subtle, and achieved with rewards of

upward social mobility offered by the dominant culture.

The dangers of foreign translation are only the first step in the
destruction of an entire knowledge system. The discoveries of
humanity, passed on through millennia, practiced and fine-tuned
over thousands of generations become diluted, dismantled and
destroyed within a generation or two. We are witnessing the risk of
this happening today with Yoga and Ayurveda, two of Indian
civilization’s invaluable gifts to mankind. It is not just a question of
blindly preserving tradition for its own sake. The practices and the
language that describe them are based on very deep theories built
on a Vedic understanding of reality, which even challenges the
current understandings of science and the narratives of Western
modernity and consumer-driven capitalism.

Sanskrit and World Culture

Sanskriti, the Dharma Civilization

Sanskrit is the unifying substrate of dharmic civilization and has

profoundly shaped it. Etymologically, Sanskrit means ‘elaborated’,

‘having the samskara of vyakaranam’, ‘refined’, ‘cultured’ and

‘civilized’, implying wholeness of expression. Employed by the

refined and educated as their preferred means of communication,
Sanskrit has influenced a distinct cultural system and way of
experiencing the world since several millennia. Sanskriti is the term
for such a culture and civilization ( sanatana-dharma), one that goes
well beyond the borders of modern India to encompass South Asia,
much of Southeast Asia and East Asia. Interactions among different
regions helped develop and exchange this pan-Asian sanskriti.

Albeit Sanskrit is no longer commonly spoken in Asia, it remains the

underpinning of the civilizations of South and Southeast Asia.

Thus, even those who don’t speak the language may experience its
structures and principles as sanskriti. Sanskriti is the lore and
repository of human sciences, art, architecture, popular song,
classical music, dance, theatre, sculpture, painting, literature,
pilgrimage, rituals and religious narratives, all of which embody pan-

Indian cultural traits. It also incorporates all branches of natural

science and technology, including medicine, botany, mathematics,
engineering, architecture, dietetics among others.

A stunning achievement of this repository is one of Sanskrit’s most

revered scholars Panini’s grammar, a meta-language of such clarity,
flexibility and rigor, that certain pioneers in computer science are
today turning to it for ideas.

It was the scientific and secular aspect of Sanskrit that induced even
the Arabs to welcome Indian scholars to Baghdad to engage in
scientific discourse and translate their books into Arabic.

Sanskrit Unites the Great Tradition and Little Traditions Since

time immemorial, Sanskrit has been the language of the literati and
the chosen medium for their ideas and works of art. It flourished as a
living language across many regions before being eclipsed first, by
Persian and then, by English after the military and political conquests
of India. Sanskrit thus gained strength as the spiritual, artistic,
scientific and ritual lingua franca across vast regions of Asia and as
a useful vehicle of communication among speakers of local
languages, much as English is today. Additionally, Sanskrit was
interconnected with local languages in a two-way process: the meta-
structure of Sanskrit was transmitted top-down into local languages
and, simultaneously, there was a bottom-up assimilation of local
culture and language into Sanskrit’s flexible, open architecture.

Sanskriti flourished with the exchange between these two cultural

streams, respectively known as the ‘great’ tradition and ‘little’

traditions. While the sophisticated urbane population (known as the

‘great tradition’ in anthropology) provided sanskriti with refinement

and comprehensiveness, cultural contributions from the rural masses
(the ‘little traditions’) gave it popularity, vitality and a diverse outlook.

The web of interconnectedness was woven by festivals and rituals.

Scholars have used these tracers to understand the reciprocal

influence of Sanskrit and local languages. Sanskrit served as a
meta-language and framework of categories for the vast range of
languages across Asia.

Once information about local or regional cultural traits is recorded

and encoded in Sanskrit, it becomes shared as part of sanskriti.

Conversely, when elements of sanskriti are localized, they acquire a

distinct regional identity and color. The unity within the diversity
found in South and Southeast Asia amply reflects this pattern.

Owing to the relationship between Sanskrit and local languages, and

to sanskriti’s role as the common cultural architecture, it is not
necessary to know Sanskrit in order to absorb the embedded values
and inherent meanings. Similarly, a speaker of a local language
would have access to the ideas, values and categories within the
cultural matrix of sanskriti.

There is a rich symbiosis between the shastriya parampara (i.e., the

classical formal knowledge) and loka parampara, which is popular
and informal oral knowledge. Indeed, the latter is acknowledged
beautifully and respectfully in classical texts, such as the
Natyashastra by sage Bharata Muni and literature on Ayurveda.

All these cultures and knowledge systems comprise a continuum.

Many tribal practices and customs permeate the mainstream

customs observed in temples. For example, in the temple at Puri, in
the eastern state of Odisha, dedicated to Lord Jagannath, the main
murti-s undoubtedly express regional and popular motifs, and similar
syncretism is found in the Meenakshi temple at Madurai, in the
southern state of Tamil Nadu. Both Richard Lannoy and the
American anthropologist McKim Marriott note that the relation
between ‘Little Traditions’ and the ‘Great Tradition’ is reciprocal (i.e.,
they are mutually dependent and exist in harmony with each other).
4

According to Marriott, the reciprocal sponge-like action of give-and-

absorb generates a double movement – upward and downward. The
former nourished the Great Tradition with the emergent elements of
the village folk cultures, while the latter transmitted the universal,
generally urban culture.

The Purana-s were a vehicle for spreading sanskriti beyond the

elites and served as an ancient form of pop culture with spiritual
messages embedded in fables and tales. Prolific writer, Vijay Nath,
in his book Purana-s and Acculturation: A Historico-Anthropological
Perspective explains how the Purana-s integrated various social
strata, jati-s, dharmic sects and regions of classical India in a
manner that was both decentralized and flexible. 5 These elements
became a device for social mobility.

As a result of large migrations from the heartland to outlying regions,

new forms of cultural exchanges between the migrants and locals
transpired. The flow of influence went both ways. One of the most
visible from ‘below’ was the collective or group singing and ritual
performances, a feature still in practice in tribal communities.
The interaction between sects across a varied landscape of
communities and languages involved separate deities, rituals,
stories, local shrines and pilgrimage sites ( tirtha-s), which became
part of Puranic stories. The guardian deities of various local
professional and artisan groups were recognized in this process.

Rituals from the agama-s became more prominent, along with

specific initiations designed to formalize discipleship with a guru.

In the case of Bhagavan Shiva, his family of deities expanded to

include yaksha-s as attendants.6 The Purana-s popularized a larger
number of tirtha-s and pilgrimages to them. A tirtha in the Purana-s
was believed to offer special powers for spiritual purification.

Gradually, tirtha-s started to serve as substitutes for Vedic yajna-s.7

Such rituals were not limited to any specific varna (social class) and
became even more popular than some formal dharmic rites. The
local political chiefs and businesses benefited as a result of the
increased popularity of their particular tirtha, similar to the
contemporary impact of any tourist attraction on the local power
structure and economy. It became a matter of pride and importance
for a remote community to be visited by pilgrims. Purana-s also
facilitated temple building insofar as they were the first texts with
rules on temple architecture and planning.8 Local tribal communities
often got assigned important roles as functionaries in the temple,
and this helped bind the temple–tribe nexus in remote areas across
India.

The numerous local variations show the contextual nature of dharma

which has been enriched by the Purana-s. 9 There is a critical
difference between this process and Christian inculturation which, in
keeping with its inherent history-centrism and exclusivism, is
intended as only an interim step in the process of converting the
subject to a history-centric worldview. On the other hand, dharmic
osmosis across traditions has resulted in local variations being
sustained over long periods without pressure to convert people to
metropolitan dharmic traditions.

Both classical and popular practices share the all-inclusive epic

tradition (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata), reflecting cultural
integration between formal and folk traditions. Lannoy writes: The
motley bands of professional artists, bards, wandering minstrels, and
holy men who have been traveling the roads of India in unending
procession since antiquity may be counted as an important element
in this

‘link language’. So too are the caste and sect gurus who have
acquired their charisma through resolution of life’s contradictions, the
‘play of opposites,’ the multiplicity of cultural al egiances. In the final
analysis it is a single unifying power which the Indian culture-bearer
utilises to draw together the diversity of peoples in this consistently
oral society: the power of music. Social fusion is achieved through
the universal appeal of melody, rhythm, and cadence. (Lannoy
1971:193)

Pluralism in Hindu society, therefore, is the result of peaceful

coexistence among minority groups; it did not come about due to
violent conflict aimed at achieving social change. Unfortunately, a
certain group of Western and Indian scholars insists on emphasizing
conflict, which serves the agenda of vote-bank politics. Under
colonial rule, European colonizers imposed their canonized texts and
theories on those whom they conquered. Worse still, they completely
liquidated indigenous peoples and, with them, their rich and valuable
traditions of knowledge. They saw the natives as ‘tribals’.

Contemporary scholars have superimposed the same structural

dichotomy in the vain hope of understanding India through divisive
and conflict-ridden categories. There has been a concerted effort to
show that learned dharmic traditions are hegemonic and oppressive
to the ‘real’ natives of India. In India, however, the so-called tribals
(characterized by rural life and informal knowledge systems) have
always coexisted in harmony with formalized dharma systems.

Sanskriti and Pan-Asian Civilization

Across India, the stories of Krishna are adapted into numerous local
subcultures. The Devi has a form localized for virtually every Indian
village and often for every jati. A number of festivals and rituals are
adapted by local people in various parts of India, resulting in an

astounding diversity of regional and folk traditions becoming

anchored in the traditions of Hinduism.

In the pan-Asian context, there were exchanges, mutual influences

and transformations among independent cultural traditions. Such
exchanges occurred when these cultures encountered each other
through exploration, trade, transplantation of knowledge systems,
and so forth. These were, for the most part, free from any deliberate
or systematic agendas. Over time, there have been attempts to
reframe and actively shape the new knowledge in the local context.
This is why the Ramayana has been adapted and assimilated into
many Asian cultures and languages. For instance, there is an
Ayodhya in Thailand, and in Bali’s ‘monkey forest’, monkeys are
worshipped as a reminder of Hanuman, the deity who resembled a
monkey and worshipped and served Shri Rama.

From at least the beginning of the Common Era (CE) until about the
thirteenth century, Sanskrit was the primary linguistic and cultural
medium for the ruling and administrative circles extending from as
far as Purushapura (Peshawar) in Gandhara (Afghanistan and parts
of Pakistan) to as far east as Pandurang in Annam (South Vietnam)
and Prambanam in Central Java. It influenced much of Asia for over
one thousand years. Sanskriti was neither imposed by an imperial
power nor sustained by any centrally organized Church ecclesiology.

Thus, it has been both the result and cause of a cultural

consciousness shared by most South and Southeast Asians
regardless of religion, class or gender.

Centuries prior to the Europeanization of the globe, the entire arc

– from Central Asia through Afghanistan, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand,

Cambodia, Vietnam and all the way to Indonesia – was a crucible of
a sophisticated pan-Asian civilization. In A Cultural History of India,
A.L. Basham notes that “[by] the fifth century CE, Indianised states,
that is to say states organised along the traditional lines of Indian
political theory and following the Buddhist or Hindu religions, had
established themselves in many regions of Burma, Thailand, Indo-
China, Malaysia, and Indonesia”. 10 Years earlier, the British
historian A.J. Toynbee remarked: “India is the central link in a chain
of regional civilizations that extends from Japan in the far north-east
to Ireland in the far northwest. Between these two extremities the
chain

sags down southwards in a festoon that dips below the Equator in

Indonesia”. 11

However, unlike the violent spread of the Roman civilization which

made Latin the European language for centuries, the Sanskritization
of Asia was entirely peaceful – without conquest, domination, or
subversion of local identities. This is not to say that political disputes
and wars of conquest never occurred but, in most instances, the
motive was not the imposition of cultural or religious homogeneity.

Arun Bhattacharjee’s Greater India elaborates further on this point:

The unique feature of India’s contacts and relationship with other

countries and peoples of the world is that the cultural expansion was
never confused with colonial domination and commercial dynamism,
far less economic exploitation. That culture can advance without
political motives, that trade can proceed without imperialist designs,
settlements can take place without colonial excesses, and that
literature, religion and language can be transported without
xenophobia, jingoism and race complexes are amply evidenced from
the history of India’s contact with her neighbors …

Thus although a considerable part of central and south-eastern Asia

became flourishing centers of Indian culture, they were seldom
subject to the regime of any Indian king or conquerors and hardly
witnessed the horrors and havocs of any Indian military campaign.
They were perfectly free, political y and economical y, and their
people, representing an integration of Indian and indigenous
elements, had no links with any Indian state and looked upon India
as a holy land rather than a motherland

– a land of pilgrimage and not an area of jurisdiction. (Bhattacharjee

1981:1-3)

Asia’s brightest students went to centers of learning in India, such as

Takshasila and Nalanda. King Baladeva of Indonesia was so
supportive of the university in Nalanda that he made a generous
donation in 860 CE. That a foreign king thousands of miles away in
Southeast Asia would support a university in India underscores the
importance of pan-Asian scholarly exchange.

Early Buddhist scriptures were in Pali and other Prakrit (local

vernacular) languages, but later ones were composed in what is
known as ‘hybrid Sanskrit’. There was a trend for using elegant
Paninian Sanskrit for both verbal and written communication. The

Tibetan script and grammar were developed based on Sanskrit and

indeed are virtual mirror images of it. 12 Along with the spread of
Buddhism to Tibet came a vast complex of cultural elements:
dogmas, philosophical and metaphysical ideas, religious and
spiritual practices, forms of social organization and a rich artistic
tradition.

Sanskriti has had an obvious influence on Thailand dating from 1500

CE. Sanskrit was used for public, social, cultural and administrative
purposes in Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia. Today,
Sanskrit is highly respected as the medium for validating,
legitimating and transmitting royal succession and instituting formal
rituals. Khmer society, 800-1300 CE (in Cambodia), was highly
Indianized, and the later Thai kings embraced Indian religions and
based their principles of government on Hindu practices.

China and India had a unique and mutually respectful exchange.

Buddhist thought is the most notable and obvious import to China

from India. The T’ang Dynasty (618–907 CE) opened the doors to
sanskriti from South and Southeast Asia. Indian influence over China
reached its zenith in the seventh century when more Chinese monks
and royal embassies came to India than in any other period. Nalanda
University attracted large numbers of Buddhist monks from across
Asia. Chinese scholars at Nalanda studied not only Buddhism but
also Vedic philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and medicine.

Numerous Indian texts were translated into Chinese and became

established in Chinese thought.

Between 950 and 1033 CE, a large number of Chinese pilgrims

visited India and absorbed the sanskriti superstructure. They left
inscriptions of their visits at sacred sites and constructed stupas at
Bodh Gaya in honor of their emperor and empress.13 Indian guru-s
and pandit-s were accorded due respect on their visits to China. The
Chinese emperors appointed an official board of translators to
translate Indian texts, and Indian scholars were commonly brought to
lead these efforts.

Buddhism’s spread across Asia is well-acknowledged but beyond

mere religion, this pan-Asian civilization also became a fount of
knowledge in fields as diverse as language, linguistics, mathematics,

astronomy, medicine, botany, martial arts and philosophy. Indian

astronomers were consulted in the preparation of official
calendars.14 In the seventh century CE, three astronomical schools
known as Gautama, Kashyapa and Kumara flourished in China. It
had already adopted the Indian theory of nine planets. Key Sanskrit
astronomical, mathematical and medical texts were translated during
the T’ang period. Distinctions between Buddhism and Hinduism in
doctrines, practices and institutions were blurred and considered
relatively unimportant by the receiving cultures. In China, for
example, Buddhist missionaries were venerated as much for their
brahmanical learning as for their monastic vows. Historians generally
refer to this large-scale export of sanskriti as the export of Buddhism,
which dilutes the role of dharmic culture in general.

The arts were domains of confluence of Chinese culture and

sanskriti and gave rise to the school known as Sino-Indian art. This
school became prominent in the Northern Wei period (386–534 CE).

There are a number of rock-cut caves at Thunwang, Yun-kang and

Longmen with colossal images of Buddha sixty to seventy feet high,
as well as frescoes. The inspiration came not only from the images
and paintings that were imported from India (from Ajanta and
Sarnath, for example) but from the Indian artists who visited China.

Indian musicians also travelled to China and even Japan to spread

their talent, including some who were sponsored by Chinese
emperors. Two principal forms of music – Bodhisattva and Bhairo –

were taken from China to Japan by an Indian musician named Bodhi

during the T’ang period. Thus, sanskriti preserved the uniqueness of
each culture it influenced.

This difference between how both sanskriti and Western civilization

spread may be restated in business terms using the analogy of
‘push’ versus ‘pull’ marketing. Push marketing comprises intrusive
advertising, door-to-door sales calls, tactics of intimidation, pamphlet
campaigns, posters to invite prospects, junk mail solicitation
(including spam), telemarketing, negative political campaigns and
other manipulative strategies. In many instances, these methods are
unethical or even outright unlawful. The spread of Christianity, and
later of Islam, was achieved largely by such heavy-handed and
aggressive means. To this day, Christian organizations,

much like multinational enterprises, continue to set targets for

conversions for every district of India (among other countries) with
budgets calculated in terms of cost per conversion. ‘Soul harvesting’,
as it is officially called by the Vatican and various Protestant
evangelicals, is like any multinational drive for market share.

In pull marketing, the product demand drives the transfer without

pressure or intimidation from the supplier. The consumer takes the
initiative to find and approach the supplier. Common modern
examples include searching for a defined need, such as the use of
Google, eBay and other sources sought out by the buyer. 15 In the
case of sanskriti, the receiving cultures found assimilation to be
highly advantageous and sought out Hindu–Buddhist itihasa,
Purana-s, symbols, rituals, doctrines, ideas of governance and
aesthetics from the Indian mainland. The best evidence of this is that
for more than one thousand years the rulers of China, Tibet,
Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and other
nations sent their brightest students to the vihara-s (educational
institutions) of India. 16

Sanskrit, Modernity and Post-modernity

Ever since the time of William Jones (1746-1794), renowned for his
knowledge on ancient India, Sanskrit scholars have contributed to
the creation of linguistics in Western academia. Colonial Indologists
considered the European study of Panini’s grammar a major
breakthrough. Sanskrit scholars in Europe were the initial developers
of modern linguistics as an academic discipline.

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), the West’s ‘father of

structuralism’, spent his academic career in Paris studying and
teaching the Sanskrit grammar of Panini. Saussure’s PhD was on
conjugate verbs in Sanskrit and he, in turn, influenced Claude Lévi-
Strauss (1908–2009), the eminent anthropologist. Lévi-Strauss was
one of many Western thinkers influenced by Saussure’s work. After
Saussure’s death, his students published his class notes
posthumously but removed all traces and references to Sanskrit,
Panini and Indian texts, replacing them with generic and universal
principles that could be applied to modern European languages. The
philosophical principles contained therein became known as

structuralism, revolutionizing European art, sociology, history,

philosophy and psychology. Structuralism was the precursor of post-

structuralism, the philosophical core of post-modern thought.17

Well into the twentieth century, courses in Sanskrit were a

requirement for doctoral candidates in linguistics in most major
universities in the West. Only after a period of intensely studying
Sanskrit in the academy (and two centuries after its discovery by the
West) was the science of linguistics sufficiently Europeanized to
become independent of Sanskrit.

The Nobel prize winning American born British poet T.S. Eliot (1888–
1965) was one of the few Westerners to understand both the
potency of Sanskrit and its relationship to dharma. He studied the
language at Harvard, where it was an integral part of the
philosophical curriculum. Ultimately, he refrained from embracing
either Hinduism or Buddhism as a result of his own cultural
upbringing and conditioning. In her book, T.S. Eliot and Indic
Traditions: A Study in Poetry and Belief, Cleo McNelly Kearns
explains that it was the poet’s study of the Upanishads and Vedic
texts that showed him that breath, sound and silence were at the
heart of language. Eliot understood that a mantra’s efficacy depends
not on its meaning, per se, but on the effect that its correct utterance
and accompanying breathing techniques have. While he did not use
the term, he could have been speaking of mantra-Shakti when he
wrote that language works through:

… syl able and rhythm, penetrating far below the conscious level of
thought and feeling, invigorating every word; sinking to the most
primitive and forgotten, returning to the origin and bringing
something back, seeking the beginning and the end. It works through
meanings, certainly, or not without meanings in the ordinary
sense….18

The Importance of Protecting Sanskrit

Despite the stark contrast between the predatory nature of the West
and the slow cultural spread of Sanskrit-based dharma cultures, they
are competing in modern times for global mindshare. The rapacious
methods of Western modernity notwithstanding, the impact of Yoga,
Ayurveda, meditation and Indian nature-based wellness on global

mindshare is enormous. Yet, there has been mindless distortion,

billions of dollars spent in creating false narratives and fake
movements, and global scale efforts to de-Indianize and de-
Sanskritize this knowledge. Despite efforts to de-legitimize the
Sanskrit tradition by dogged scholars and their Indian sepoys, the
Church and other umbrella organizations antithetic to the Bharatiya
traditions, the internet and online channels especially in recent times,
have helped counter the narrative in popular consciousness. It is
through these informal channels that much of the revival and re-
legitimization can happen. Most formal channels such as academia,
journals and other top-down structures that legitimize knowledge, are
presently too entrenched and prefer maintaining the current status
quo on the narratives of Western supremacy and Western
worldviews. Much of the riches of the Sanskrit knowledge systems
await rediscovery.

The numbers of known and catalogued manuscripts in the Indian

knowledge traditions are in the millions and their wealth remains
untapped. These legitimate riches derive from the Sanskrit traditions
and are part of a global heritage. This is recognized globally by
saner elements of modern society, however begrudgingly. This
cannot be denied.

The concept of kalpavriksha/kalpataru has a special significance in

the sanatana tradition. The kalpataru of Sanskrit is in danger of
being destroyed. The destruction of Sanskrit learning centers by
Islamic invaders, discovery of Sanskrit by the West, the colonial
effects on Sanskrit learning in India, state-sponsored denudation of
Sanskrit post-Independence and the distorted digestion of its
knowledge systems, has caused severe weakening of the dharma
ecosystem in various ways. We can easily record more than one
thousand years of attack on Sanskrit. Sanskrit, sanskriti and the
associated knowledge systems need nurture and protection. The
book, The Battle for Sanskrit, was a recent and grave reminder of
the continuing subterfuge and a response to the global anti-Sanskrit
forces that are part of the kurukshetra.

This book’s focus on a Sanskrit non-translatables initiative is a step

toward raising awareness and making the case for a change in
behavior, and in vocabulary, leading to gradual and deep change in

thinking. The practice of Yoga and meditation in their various forms

and the use of the methods of Ayurveda – its theories, diagnostic
methods and pharmacologies have already impacted human
awareness and raised global consciousness in significant, and as yet
unfathomable ways. The collective global human mind is slowly
getting tuned to appreciate, and possibly embrace, the way of
dharma. Sanskrit Non-Translatables is the obvious next step in this
journey.

The Case For Sanskrit Non-

Translatables
The Kurukshetra Today

The global kurukshetra today poses a clear and present danger of

Vedic civilizations being taken apart, some elements of it destroyed,
and others digested into Western Universalism. The term

‘cultural genocide’ is appropriate for this condition. Unlike a physical

genocide where an entire community is annihilated, in this case
culture is obliterated even though the individuals physically survive
and live within the predator culture. The Sanskrit Non-Translatables
initiative is a strategic reaction to the dangers of a cultural genocide.

The term ‘genocide’ was invented by Raphael Lemkin (1900-1959),

a Polish Jewish jurist, who also actively lobbied to make it an
international crime, not limited to the physical destruction of a people
and include cultural genocide. His draft for the United Nations law
regarding genocides proposed that “… disintegration of the political
and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion

…” of a people be included in the final law.19 This clause was

vociferously opposed by certain countries because of the fear they
would be accused of such genocide. It was removed in the final
version of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide. In December 1948, the UN General Assembly
passed Resolution 260 adopting the law on genocides, but cultural
genocide was not included as a crime. 20

Though we are primarily explaining the mechanics of the Judeo-

Christian and Western secular forces of universalism, Islam too
poses critical problems, though of a different kind. Muslims in India
comprise close to a quarter of the population. The Hindu origins of
the Muslims of the subcontinent are expressly denied. Sanskrit terms
were replaced with Persian to develop Urdu. Gradually, Hindi has
become increasingly Urdu from the influence of the indigenous film
industry where so-called Hindi movies are actually more Urdu than
Hindi. Though the thesis of Sanskrit non-translatables is being
argued using Western Universalism as the threat, a parallel
argument exists for Sanskrit becoming digested into Islamic
ideologies.

Figure 1: The Kurukshetra

Digestion and Destruction

The appropriation and assimilation of alien cultures is deeply
embedded in the Judeo-Christian history of the West. The
proselytizing and predatory requirement in the West’s cultural psyche
is robust and driven by assertions of supremacy based on religious,
racial and economic factors. The reasons for this obsession with
dominance have to do with the nature of the Judeo-Christian faiths
and its anxiety over difference with others. There are four main ways
in which this anxiety expresses itself:

1. Destruction of others through outright violence or forced

conversions.

2. Isolation of others from the mainstream so that they no longer

pose a threat.

3. Inculturation, a form of infiltration of other faiths in order to dilute

their difference and eventually digest them.

4. Digestion, the process of chopping up a prey into tiny parts,

assimilating the useful portions into the host’s body, and rejecting
what is not considered useful – such that the entity which got
digested ceases to exist as its own self.

Though blatant destruction is not widespread today, the other

expressions are commonly prevalent.

Isolation occurs when the dominant West appears to tolerate the

difference of the other side but ignores it and tries not to engage with
it as an equal. In this way, whole cultures and peoples – alive and
with much to offer to global culture – can be dismissed as old-
fashioned, quaint or banal, or as offering little more than an
opportunity for a museum exhibit. Refusal to engage is the exclusive
privilege of the dominant partner in such an encounter. No such
luxury is afforded to those who are forced to accept claims of
Western Universalism; they must either engage by accepting the
terms of the debate established by the West or else continue to be
excluded.
An even more insidious way of dealing with the sense of difference is
for the dominant side to pretend to adopt the ways and styles of the
other – but only in order to disarm and bend it to its will.

This strategy, known as ‘inculturation’, has been rampantly practised

in Christian history for conquest and conversion. For centuries,

Church theologians and officials have debated and adjudicated
hundreds of specific cases of inculturation experiments by
enterprising missionaries in Africa, Latin America and Asia. They
determined what to allow and what to ban. These rulings have
official authority and are important in understanding how Christians
expand market share through constant adaptation and self-
correction.

The inculturation process works in stages. At first, the native tradition

is honored by the missionaries. Some of the natives’

practices and symbols are superficially adopted to instill a feeling of

pride that their heritage is being appreciated. The short-term
intention is to make Christianity seem less alien and hence attractive
to the natives. In the long term, however, the indigenous peoples are
weaned away from the core of their religious identities and their
traditional identities eventually become an innocuous husk; their very
meaning transformed into a pale reflection of Christianity. Once the
new member is firmly placed in this ambiguous or hybrid religion,
has burnt bridges with native traditions, and become dependent on
the Church, the proverbial knife is twisted. In the case of Hinduism,
Hindu aspects are downplayed, and Christian aspects emphasized.

This is done carefully after ensuring that the link with Hinduism is
sufficiently softened and the person’s dependency on the
missionaries is strong. Hinduism is not yet denigrated openly but
caste, dowry, female ‘abuses’ and other examples of ‘backwardness’

are emphasized as the defining qualities. In the final stage of

Hinduphobia, Hinduism is openly attacked, and the person is turned
into an aggressive Christian. It is only after analyzing the long-term
implications of this transformation that the treachery becomes
apparent.

The concept of digestion shares many aspects of the strategies

discussed previously and is in part, a consequence of them. The
digestion of one culture by another is carried out under the guise of a
desire to assimilate, reduce differences, and gradually dilute and
sideline the less dominant culture. At the level of popular culture,
India and the West may meet as equals but at deeper levels, where
the core assumptions of a civilization reside, the playing field is tilted.

Cultural appropriation gives a false impression of equalization. The

less powerful culture is assimilated into the dominant one in such a
way that:

1. The dominant civilization dismembers the weaker one into parts

from which it picks and chooses which pieces it wants to appropriate.

2. These appropriated elements get mapped onto the language and

social structures of the dominant civilization’s own history and
paradigms, leaving little, if any, trace of the links to the source
tradition.

3. The civilization that was thus digested gets depleted of its cultural
and social capital because the appropriated elements are modified to
fit the host’s own history, and these elements are shown to be
disconnected from, and even in conflict with, the source civilization.

4. The depleted civilization enters the proverbial museum as yet

another dead culture, ceasing to pose a threat to the dominant one.

After being digested, what is left of a civilization is waste to be

excreted and destroyed. The erasure of differences is what makes a
culture vulnerable to becoming digested and recast in the image of
the host’s frameworks and structures. The dominant side
superimposes its concepts, aesthetics, language, paradigms,
historical template and philosophy, positioning them as the universal
worldview. Concurrently, the images, symbols, histories and
languages of the weaker culture get absorbed, with inevitable
distortion, into the dominant one.

A counterargument to this claim states that the host civilization itself

(the West, in this case) undergoes mutation as a result of digesting
another civilization. Also, the enhancement of the predator
civilization and corresponding depletion of the civilization being
preyed upon are interpreted by many historians as the desirable
march of world civilization – with the West positioned as the axis and
as the engine driving humanity forward. Non-Western civilizations
are considered relevant only as sources of Western civilization (as in

‘our past’), as theatres in which the West operates (‘our civilizing

mission’) or as threats to Western interest (‘our frontiers’). The
interests and identities of the cultures that get digested are of little
consequence.

Besides the obvious racism inherent in such arguments, there is the

collective loss of human diversity and shared accomplishments.

In harvesting the fruits of other civilizations, the West has also

destroyed their roots, thereby completely eliminating their ability to
produce more bountiful harvests. The elements appropriated are
terminal, because the residual skeletons of the digested civilizations
are incapable of further creative evolution and contributions. Just as
the non-West bequeathed gifts that have enriched the world (even
though in most cases these have been reclassified as Western
history and progress), there is undeniably much more that would
have been produced from those sources had they not been digested.

We have seen how a common means by which a dominant party

resolves its difference anxiety is through digestion – much as a
predator consumes another as food. The following figure illustrates
the various processes at work. The digestion is analogous to the
food consumed by a host in that what is useful gets assimilated into
the host, while that which does not fit the host’s structure gets
eliminated as waste. Resultantly, the source tradition, similar to the
food, ceases to exist, and the host (i.e., the West) gets strengthened.

The overall diversity of cultures suffers, because there is greater

homogeneity as a result of the loss of the source tradition.

Figure 2: Phenomenon of Digestion

The Problem of Sameness

Our cultural leaders, global guru-s and so-called dharmic institutions

have provided little in terms of an opposing dialectic. A large
populace of Indians has been programmed to fear that difference

causes violence and therefore, experience guilt about the difference

of their Indian-ness from the West. They hope to end religious
violence by gravitating towards ‘sameness’ and diluting their own
identities. The Indian elite especially feel comfortable with the ‘clean’

Westernized version of Hinduism which sameness presents – devoid

of rituals, agama-s, deities and other aspects that the West is unable
to digest.

There are a number of philosophical and spiritual stances in the

dharma traditions which ostensibly agree with this doctrine of
sameness. For example, the basic Vedantic proposition that there is
only One reality has caused considerable confusion among many.

‘Oneness’ is sometimes cited as if it meant the denial of all

difference, but Vedanta asserts that there are both the ‘One’ and the

‘many forms of the One’. The multiplicity of forms comprises our

cosmos in its infinite diversity.

The ultimate or absolute reality is indeed One, but with an internal

structure that is a relative reality. While this relative reality does not
exist separately by itself and is contingent on the absolute One, it
cannot be dismissed as non-existent. It is in this relative realm that
not only karma (the consequences of past actions) but also dharma
(the pursuit of a true path) are manifested and carried out. This
relative reality is not illusion. Both levels of reality are important, and
the relative point of view makes ethical, and even political demands
on the practitioner.
It is a misinterpretation of Vedanta to state that since the existence of
our world is only relative and not absolute, no worldly outcomes
should matter. In truth, no school of dharma calls for the
abandonment of the relative world, and every school of dharma
encourages responsible action without attachments to the rewards.

This is the central theme of the Bhagavad Gita in which Krishna

educates Arjuna not to escape responsibility in this relative world.

If differences did not exist in the relative reality, there would be no

ethics, because dharma and adharma would be viewed as the same.

The idea that everything is the same cannot be used to guide our
actions in this relative world. Thus, the naive principle of sameness
violates dharma teachings which clearly differentiate between sat
(truth) and asat (falsity), daivika and asurika. 21

Such misunderstanding of dharma is a common safe haven for those

Hindus who suffer from ignorance of dharma, fear of being
associated with ‘the Hindu Right’, or merely the pressure to be
politically correct. Such Hindus approach difference as unreal and
the problem itself as illusory, hence as something to ignore. In
practice, this passive posture leads to the dilution, distortion and
eventual digestion of their dharma.

Indians who misunderstand the teachings of Vedanta are inclined to

interpret the Christian mission, especially in the form of inculturation
or tolerance, as a form of respect for Hinduism and acceptance of its
truth. When a Christian adopts the guise of a Hindu and approaches
a Hindu community, Hindus tend to see this as an honest
acknowledgment of sameness. They respond openly, dropping their
guard despite the centuries of duplicity under which they have
suffered. Herein lies the real danger – in fooling Hindus into believing
there is a level playing field, or that there is no competitive motive at
all.
Simply because the Christian evangelist approaches, seeming like a
Hindu and using Sanskrit terms, Hindu symbolism and gestures, the
Hindu erroneously concludes that he also accepts Krishna, Shiva
and Devi as manifestations of the Supreme Being.

The Hindu naively assumes that the Christian considers puja to be a

valid prayer on par with Biblical prayer, that the Christian respects
the murti-s as sacred, and that he regards the guru-s as enlightened
and not just ‘wise teachers’.

The hard reality, however, is that most Christian denominations

forbid their followers to validate even Judaism or Islam, much less
Hinduism or Buddhism. The assertion of some vaguely Hindu

‘sameness’ of all religions is a one-way street which perniciously

pushes the dharmic traditions towards dilution and assimilation;
indeed, this process may lead to their eventual digestion into the
belly of expansive institutionalized religions. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra-s,
the seminal ancient text of the profound philosophy and psychology
on which Yoga is based, is in some quarters, being reduced to a
simple form of Western cognitive science.

When Western seekers enter the Indian spiritual arena, they tend to
slip into the common misperceptions about Vedanta noted

previously and over-prize what are the ‘same’ in the various

religions, conveniently overlooking the very real (and valuable)
differences. Also, the Western seeker does not approach this task
with a clean slate; there has been past conditioning as a result of his
or her collective identity as Jewish, Christian, or secular. This cannot
be emphasized enough: The Westerner’s mental framework is
already wired for certain values, attitudes and categories. Therefore,
what is termed ‘universal’ is in effect largely Western in disguise. We
shall see how this leads to contradictions and tensions across
various cultures.
Post-modernism, a philosophical trend in Western academics to
which both secular Indian intellectuals and spiritually inclined Indians
are drawn, has made it fashionable to deconstruct what its adherents
call the ‘grand narratives’ of history, seeing these as little more than
the stories of the triumph of Western progress, largely achieved by
suppressing or violently overthrowing other groups. More
problematically, post-modernists advocate that all identities be
dismantled or blurred and view all positively distinctive cultures as
being oppressive to weaker, or less assertive ones. Several popular
writers have adopted the post-modern stance and assumed that
today’s America exemplifies a society in which hybrid cultures are
blurring identities and making all boundaries obsolete. America,
according to this view, is on its way to becoming a society free from
difference anxiety, because American society is getting freed of its
chauvinistic grand narratives.

The ground reality, however, is different. Beneath the veneer of

popular culture, the foundation of the West, especially with respect to
its Judeo-Christian roots, remains largely intact. Post-modern
scholars would do well to go beyond the analysis of pop culture and
abstract patterns and attempt to deconstruct the oppressive Western
institutions of government, business and Christianity, where the
power structure really resides. American socio-political unity has
been achieved and maintained from the beginning through a frontier
mentality which has always needed an outsider to annex, and then
effectively eliminate.

Post-modern deconstruction facilitates the digestion of dharma into

the West by disassembling it into a library of random, unrelated

components similar to the way clip art is copy-pasted as useful

additions to proprietary frameworks. Some scholars take these
components apart so as to de-contextualize them from the rest of the
dharma tradition, thereby enabling them to be digested or destroyed
selectively. The digestion of Indian civilization by the West is
encouraged by arguments that there is no such thing as an Indian
civilization, the claim being that Hinduism is an artificial construct
developed under British influence.

As discussed previously, dharmic sameness arguments and post-

modernism induced escapism are not solutions in the face of cultural
genocide. An effective response to complex, multi-phase
phenomena like digestion requires considerable strategic maturity.

Poison Pills

A strategic way of dealing with the universalist march of digestion is

to introduce elements called ‘poison pills’ into the dharma narrative
that cannot be separated from the Vedic context. Poison pills are
those non-negotiable elements or tenets that cannot be digested into
the DNA of a predator, because consuming them would lead to the
destruction of the predator’s constitution. If a predator absorbs such
an element, it will mutate so profoundly that it will not survive. The
predator, as such, will be dead, even though some new identity may
have emerged in its place. These poison pills are intended to be
dangerous for consumption by predators. This will safeguard dharma
and also provoke the Abrahamic religions to undergo a dramatic
change from some of their current defining doctrines and dogmas.

The presence of poison pills in Hinduism will create a conflict within

the predatory culture: on the one hand, members of that culture want
to appropriate Hindu ideas and practices such as Yoga, meditation,
Advaita (non-dual philosophies), and so forth. On the other hand, as
these contain poison pills (such as karma-reincarnation), they
undermine some of the predator’s core tenets.

This use of poison pills for our defense will work only if we can
prevent the subdivision of Hinduism into parts, because once it gets
divided and compartmentalized, the predator can pick what he wants
and ignore the poison pills. Therefore, the poison pills must remain

non-negotiable and integral parts of Hindu dharma. The principle of

Integral Unity introduced in the book Being Different (detailed in the
next section) is vital to its survival. 22 The skillful deployment of this
device can equip Hindus for encounters with others, even those who
do not see themselves as predators but whose approaches are,
perhaps unintentionally, predatory.

Some have raised concerns that the term ‘poison pill’ has a negative
connotation and should be replaced by something that sounds
positive. But poison pills need to be understood with the same
positivity as Shiva’s trishul (trident), used for piercing the veil of
falsehood, and thereby liberating mankind from the bondage of
ignorance. The poisoning is similar to killing the ego, except now it is
the collective ego of the West (the predator).

Sanskrit non-translatables must be understood in the context of

poison pills. The Sanskrit non-translatables strategy is a means to
regain adhikara, the right of dharmic peoples to control the
interpretation of knowledge in their own framework. This is a
fundamental first step required to prevent digestion into a Western
Universalism and in the long run, prevent a complete cultural
genocide.

Regaining the Adhikara

The metabolism of digestion and the processes enabling cultural

genocide have to be understood so that there is hope to counter
them. Digestion works in a series of steps and only by understanding
the entire process can one understand its ultimate consequences.

First, the ‘desirable’ elements (such as a subset of Yoga) are

separated from the rest of the source tradition, thereby rupturing its
integral unity. These separated elements then get ‘scrubbed’ to wash
away or cleanse the dharmic contexts in which they are naturally
found so as to ‘secularize’ them. Finally, they get re-contextualized
either as Judeo-Christian or as Western science while the dharmic
sources get erased or else, denigrated as inferior. As a result, the
predator culture boosts its power at the expense of the source that is
digested. The adopted practices thus get distorted so as to make
them ‘digestible’. To illustrate, Swami Vivekananda triggered an

avalanche of Hindu influences in the West, but over time, these

became digested into various trendy ‘Western thought’

movements. 23 There are also cognate enterprises such as

‘Christian Yoga’, ‘Non-Dual/Integral Christianity’ and ‘Integral
Judaism’, all of which borrow heavily from Hinduism and related
healing modalities, usually without attribution.

In an effort to boost their own status, scholars who serve as

facilitators of digestion typically map Hindu contributions onto
Western frameworks. While many such digestions do enhance
humanity’s collective knowledge, several others cause serious
distortions. In any case, the lack of formal acknowledgement
contributes to a tendency to treat the Hindu sources as redundant
and irrelevant. This limits the potential for Hinduism to continue to
play its part in human consciousness evolution and reduces it to an
archaism which is left behind because it is supposedly superseded
by ‘new’ paradigms.

There are those who question why it is bad for Hinduism to get
digested in this way. After all, the prey is absorbed into the life of the
predator and can actually extend that life and contribute to its

‘evolution’. To address this issue, it is useful to contrast Western

appropriations from Greece with Western appropriations from India.

The modern conception of the West includes Greece as a subset,

making it unnecessary to replace Hellenistic sources with other
Western substitutes. Therefore, Hellenistic sources have retained
their identity and distinctiveness as part of what is seen as ‘our
Western past’. When such classical thinkers as Plato and Aristotle
are used as source material by modern Western scholars, they
invariably receive proper attribution. It must be noted, however, that
Hellenistic sources have been incorporated only selectively and their
religious elements, which are ‘pagan’ in nature, have been
mummified.

In contrast, for many Western scholars, India remains the alien

‘other’. India is too different, too far away and too vast and varied to
be included intact as a subset within the West in the way Greece has
been. The inclusion of a unified India in the Western self-conception
would threaten the very sense of what it means to be ‘Western’.

Therefore, what India offers must be taken apart so that it can be

separately consumed and digested without attribution or

preservation of the names of the sources. For this to become
possible, the coherence and unity of India must be undermined, so
that it is made to appear fragmented and incoherent.

This intellectual breakup of India is akin to a predator tearing apart

its prey into morsels that lend themselves to digestion. It would not
be feasible for a predator to swallow a large prey whole. Instead, it
must be cut into parts, and as each part passes through the
predator’s digestive system, it must be further broken down
systematically, until every last protein and nucleic acid molecule has
been processed by enzymes to yield raw material as nutrients for the
predator’s growth. Ultimately, no trace remains of the prey’s own
DNA; the raw-material nutrients produced by digestion are
reassembled into the predator’s cells, under the control of the
predator’s DNA.

The appropriation and absorption of non-Western sources into the

West proceeds in a similar digestive process, so that the West may
retain its sense of selfhood while capturing those aspects of India it
seeks to own. This is why mainstream Western academics do not
teach Bharata, Kapila, Panini, Patanjali, Bhartrahi, Shankara,
Kautilya, Kalidasa, Nagarjuna, Aryabhatta and Ramanuja, and other
Indian greats on par with Greek thinkers such as Aristotle and Plato.
We believe that the classical thinkers of all civilizations ought to be
incorporated into curricula based solely on their merit and current
relevance.

Just as the individual ego is at the center of one’s narrative about

oneself, so also is a people’s collective ego at the center of its
shared narrative. The West’s expansive collective self ascribes a
teleological role to its own coherence. Since it finds itself coherent
and views the other as incoherent, it seeks to digest the source of
that perceived incoherence by fragmenting it and selectively
mapping some of those fragments onto its own framework. Whatever
it discards ends up being ejected as the waste product of the
digestion process. This is why the act of bolstering one’s own
coherence, while aggressively undermining the coherence of others,
is undeniably central to the fight for world dominance.

It is unfortunate that Hindu and Buddhist ideas are routinely

attributed to Western sources – be they Hellenistic, early Christian or
modern. This methodical re-mapping allows contemporary Western
thinkers to co-opt the mantle of India’s wisdom for their own. To
protect, what is called ‘Western heritage’ from the exposure of its
vast indebtedness to Indian civilization, each successive generation
promotes the further dilution and erasure of India’s pivotal influence.

Worse yet, it has become trendy among Western thinkers to reject

Indian thought while simultaneously espousing similar ideas clothed
in Western vocabulary.

The openness of both Hinduism and Buddhism has helped these

traditions spread and flourish across Asia for several centuries. But
the export markets in Asia in those centuries were different from the
present-day Western ones: Asian recipients welcomed and
integrated Hinduism and Buddhism into their own belief systems
without feeling threatened. There was no need to distort them in
order to make them fit or hide their Indian origin. But today, Hinduism
and Buddhism face a fresh challenge when they encounter the
Abrahamic religions whose claims depend on an exclusivist history
of prophets. To bypass this challenge, Indian guru-s and/or their
Western collaborators compromise the dharma to make it digestible
for the Western consumer. Many Indian guru-s who have been
hoisted as prominent ‘global’ personalities owe their popularity to the
compromises they have made.

The practical impact of this process of digestion is that, if left

unchecked, those who are attracted to Yoga (for instance) will find it
more easily available as part of Christianity or other Western
movements which are savvier at marketing and have a positive

‘brand’ value. They will miss out on the authentic Hindu teachings.

Hinduism will become obsolete and perhaps even extinct. A loss of

adhikara leads slowly to digestion, the process of metabolism finally
leads to a total cultural genocide.

Following the understanding of the forces at play in this kurukshetra,

the processes of digestion and its metabolism leading to an eventual
ethnocide, it is important to acknowledge the problem.

The forces at play are dangerous and well-funded with a long history
of successful operation. Most importantly, they have clear and

decisive goals. The regaining of adhikara is the first step toward

protecting the fundamentals. The focus needs to be on the following:
1. Identifying and preventing the reframing of ideas.

2. Preserving the context of the evolution of the ideas.

3. Preventing the re-contextualization and re-packaging by those

without adhikara.

4. Protecting the experiential basis of Indian knowledge.

5. Preventing the mangling of texts, practices, symbols, artifacts.

Bharatiya sanskriti is the only living civilizational lifestyle which has,
as its basis, the Integral Unity of the Cosmos ( jagat). The sound
signified by Om is nothing but an acknowledgement of this reality.

This deep realization is the source for every dharma-driven practice,

tenet, sampradaya, darshana; one could extend this to every single
artifact of dharma. Sanskrit is the only complete carrier of this
lifestyle.

The vocabulary of Sanskrit has evolved alongside the understanding

of the cosmos and has latent in it the potential for infinite discovery.
The protection of Sanskrit and its vocabulary, the focus of this book,
will lead to a deeper exploration of the riches it carries. As seen in
the historical past dating to the age of the rishi-s, a deeper
awareness of the workings of the cosmos, enabled by Sanskrit will
lead to the re-flowering of dharma in a contemporary context. The
protection of sanskriti and the commitment to the Integral Unity of the
Cosmos will lead to dharma-driven harmony and

universalism.24

The Theory of Sanskrit Non-

Translatables

Rationale for Sanskrit Non-Translatables The previous chapter

discussed the basis for the idea and conception of the Sanskrit non-
translatables. Along with the discussions on the necessity for this
project from the perspective of inter-civilizational discourse, what
needs to be understood is why the English language by itself is
unable to represent meanings of terms from Sanskrit knowledge
systems. A higher dimensional signal, when accessed in a lower
dimensional medium will lead to loss of clarity. For example, a video
made with the best technology today, when viewed on a 1970s
monochrome television with mono audio, cannot hope to do justice
to the original content.

What follows are some of the major aspects that underpin Sanskrit
words and their meanings compared with the equivalent basis in
English. The very foundations between the two are vastly different.
The sources of knowledge in the dharmic system include the Veda-s,
the four Upaveda-s, Purana-s and other schools of thought that
comprise the ashtadasha vidyasthana-s, while the English meanings
have their basis in Judeo-Christian and Hellenistic thought. The
resultant knowledge systems carry this difference, amplified with
further metaphysical developments. Mapping words from such vastly
different systems results in gross violence to the digested civilization,
in this case, the dharmic one.

PROBLEMS WITH TRANSLATIONS

• Constriction of Context

• Distortion of Meaning

• Loss of Authenticity

DHARMIC

WESTERN

FRAMEWORK

FRAMEWORK

18 Primary Knowledge Sources

Materialistic Science

(Ashtadashavidya)

• 4 Veda-s: Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva

• 6 Vedanga-s: Shiksha, Vyakarana,

Chandas, Nirukta, Jyotisha, Kalpa

• 4 Upaveda-s: Ayurveda,

Dhanurveda, Arthashastra,

Gandharvaveda

• Mimamsa, Nyaya, Purana-s,

Dharmashastra-s

Planes of Meaning: Adhibhautika,

Empirical Plane Only

Adhidaivika, Adhyatmika

Context:

Arbitrary Relationship

• Vyutpatti nimittah (etymological),

of Words and

• Pravritti nimittah (intent)

Meanings

Darshana-s: Yoga, Sankhya, Nyaya,

Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa,

Hellenistic Thought

Vedanta
Sampradaya, Mata, Marga

Institutions and Sects

64 Kala-s: Geeta, Vadya, Nritya,

Disconnected

Natya, Alekhya, etc.

Disciplines

Karma, Punarjanma, Varnashrama,

No Karma or Rebirth

Purushartha

Multi-valued Logics

Law of Excluded

Middle

Space-Time are Tertiary Evolutes

Space-Time Primary

Interconnected Epistemologies and

Judeo-Christian

Ontologies

Epistemology

Complex Causation

Simple Causation
Figure 3: Rationale for Sanskrit Non-Translatables

In order to understand why Sanskrit is unique, why it has a

significant number of non-translatables, and why the civilizations
rooted in it differ from others, one must delve deeply into the
understanding of sound and language in the Veda-s. Throughout the
ages, Indian rishi-s and grammarians have believed that primordial
vibrations comprise all reality and that vibrations are at the heart of
the cosmos. The reverberations from this cosmic ‘pulsing’, as
discovered, constitute the alphabet of Sanskrit, and does not
associate meanings with sounds arbitrarily. Human language and the
concepts and objects they represent are the tangible outer
manifestation of these vibrations at varying levels of concreteness.

This deep reality from which sound and form emerge was not
discovered through individuals akin to Abrahamic prophets (who
merely communicate God’s messages) or intellectual inquiry, but by
direct experience in deep meditation.

A rishi is one who ‘sees’ and ‘hears’ the eternal truth. Their
extraordinary faculties enable them to directly experience the
vibrations of the infinite and the concrete objects to which they
correspond. The rishi does not compose vibrations but hears or
tunes into them. These vibrations are known as mantra-s.

Sanskrit texts can be understood intellectually, but some of them are

sequences of vibrations with experiential ‘meanings’ and can only be
known through Yogic practice. Their very nature as sound makes
them non-translatable. For example, no ordinary word can fully
communicate or elucidate the experience of the heat and pain that
fire causes upon being burnt. The word ‘burn’ offers only a
conceptual association for fire, not an experiential one.

Besides a Sanskrit sound being correlated with its deep meaning,

such a sound can also produce an effect. The purpose of a Sanskrit
mantra lies in the effect it creates.
Sanskrit reflects the dharmic belief in the integral unity of the cosmos
and it contributes to the attainment of that unity. The

uniqueness of Sanskrit and, in particular, how sound manifests the

latent vibrations of all reality, is explored next. The primordial
vibrations bring about myriad physical phenomena, including our
conceptions of them and their names. The one reality becomes
manifested as all the diversity we experience, comprising an integral
unity. Consequently, certain important Sanskrit words are non-
translatable into other languages.

Direct Experiences and Traditions

Many Indian traditions are based on Sanskrit’s primordial quality.

Some rishi-s have described their experiences in terms of Shakti,

with its pranic manifestations. Others have explained the cosmos in
terms of Shabda-Brahman, the vibratory supreme reality. According
to the sphota theory, dhvani (sound) and artha (meaning) are, in fact,
a hyphenated reality – two sides of the same coin – and
undifferentiated in their un-manifest essence. As sound manifests,
this pairing of sound-meaning remains, but the distinction appears
more prominent until the ordinary (untrained) mind believes that
sound and its meaning are independent. This means the apparent
independence of sound and meaning are at a lesser quality of
consciousness.

The Veda-s personify this primordial vibration as Vak, the Goddess

who brings forth the root sounds that create all ideas, rhythmic
vibrations and concrete objects. She is the generator of worlds and
the material out of which worlds are made. According to dharmic
philosophy, there are four levels of Vak: un-manifest, subtle potential,
mental image and outer expression.

According to the Shiva-Sutra-s, ordinary knowledge comes from

phenomenal associations, and this knowledge relates to the outer
world. The associations, however, themselves need something to
bind them, and the energy that does so is matrika. Matrika strings
together words and symbols, turning them into language that we can

understand.25

In Tantra traditions, every object has a phonetic sound, a built-in

name. An object can sometimes have more than ten different
names, but the central or bija-mantra (‘seed’ vibration), which is the

nucleus, focus and spirit of the object, remains unchanged.

Therefore, if one is attuned to, and unified with, an object’s seed

vibration, one achieves a complete understanding. Shabda-Brahman
is the primordial sonic consciousness of the cosmos. The Srimad
Bhagavatam explains the un-manifest Om and how its manifestation
brings about the Veda-s and all of creation.

Vedic rishi-s see themselves as microcosmic organisms, an exact

counterpart of the macrocosm (cosmos). They obtain knowledge of
the latter directly by immediate sensory awareness which has been
refined through Yoga. Patanjali’s Yoga-Sutra-s describe this as
‘ritambharaprajna’ (vision, insight). 26

Indian logic, similar to the Indian approach to nature, advances not

only by conceptual assumptions but by adopting multiple modes of
perception. Thus, says Lannoy, “Hindus discovered, through direct
cognition, the mantra system of musical incantation uniting the laws
of phonetics and the physiology of sound waves.” (Lannoy 1971:273-
74) He regards the marriage of words to music as one of the great

philosophical occupations of ancient India.27

The West’s narrow specializations are based on synthetic unity of

the cosmos and are unable to access such rich insights. The closest
Western analogy would be the scientist’s description of ecological
relationships wherein the environment and the organism living in it
are viewed as a single unified entity.
Unity of Sound–Meaning–Object

As explained earlier, Sanskrit stems from the discovery of the

ultimate essence of each object through an insight mastered by rishi-
s. Their intuitive understanding of this integral unity enhanced their
taxonomic knowledge of animal and plant life. It also cultivated
empathy and innate reverence for such life – in contrast to the
adherence to environmental regulations in modern society which are
often the result of political or pragmatic mandates.
Figure 4: Unity of Sound-Meaning-Object

Figure 4 illustrates how every object starts as a vibration that

includes both the object in potential form and the corresponding
sound. These vibrations gradually manifest and are experienced as
separate sounds. The sound manifests further and becomes the
meaning-sound pair. Thus, every object contains a built-in name.

Indian grammarians are also cosmologists who see the patterns of

the cosmos (ritam) as homologous with the rules of language. The
term vyakaranam includes Grammar and analyses speech vikhary,
with the undifferentiated Madhyama ( Sphota) in the background.
The various stages in the evolution of cosmic vibrations from the
primordial, unified state to subtle and finally concrete manifestations,
correspond to the development of the inner self. Thus, Indian
linguistics, psychology and cosmology explain the same reality via
their respective disciplines.

Lannoy explains the priority given to this scientific method of

discovery over several generations: “The Brahmans impressed upon
the minds of every subsequent generation a need to study the
influence of sound phenomena on human consciousness by
orientating the perceptual centers toward the inner acoustic space of
the unseen. These ‘ancient physiologists’ ascribed an ethical
significance to physiological sensitivity”. (Lannoy 1971:275) The
Vedic comprehension of yoga is predicated on the words that unite
mind and matter.

Mantra

A mantra originates in the subtlest levels of existence – where there

is silence. Upon discovering that vibrations manifest as concrete
sounds and objects, the rishi-s explored ways to return to the source.

Numerous meditation systems utilizing mantras were developed,

tested and propagated to take the practitioner to the original state of
unity consciousness. Sanskrit, then, is a vehicle for achieving self-
realization.

It is important to note that mantras are discovered, much in the same

way that Einstein discovered E=mc2. The reality existed prior to its
discovery. The same goes for mantra-s, which are apaurusheya
(impersonal/authorless).

Each mantra is associated with the actual rishi or sage who

discovered, tested and verified it. The earliest oral records clearly
designate specific rishi-s as the ‘seers’ of mantra-s. Sri Aurobindo
explains the process of discovery:

To arrive at the Mantra he [the rishi] may start from the colour of a
rose, or the power or beauty of a character, or the splendour of an
action, or go away from al these into his own secret soul and its most
hidden movements. The one thing needful is that he should be able
to go beyond the word or image he uses or the form of the thing he
sees, not be limited by them, but get into the light of that which they
have the power to reveal and flood them with it until they overflow
with its suggestions or seem even to lose themselves and disappear
into the revelation. At the highest, he himself disappears into sight;
the personality of the seer is lost in the eternity of the vision, and the
Spirit of al seems alone to be there speaking out sovereignty its own
secrets. (Sri Aurobindo 1997:38) Sanskrit thus provides an
experiential path that leads back to the source. It can be used as a
device to reverse the trajectory of manifestation, starting with human
sounds and going back to the source of creation. For instance, we
could discover that from a primordial vibration, which we may refer to
as A, there came a root sound, B, which led to a subtle sound, C,
which became audible as D. We could reverse the path: start with D
(audible sound) to take our consciousness back via C (the subtle
sound) and B (the root sound) to reach A (the primordial sound).
This is the principle of many systems of Yoga, Tantra and various
other sadhana-s.

Transcendental Meditation, as taught by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi

(1918-2008), uses a sound called bija-mantra, which is at first
chanted silently, and slowly replaces all other thoughts. Only the
mantra remains. Gradually, the mantra gets softer and dimmer,
becoming a faint whisper within. Then that disappears, leaving
behind a subtle hint of its presence. The deep silence that remains is
hyper-alert

self-awareness,

and

amazing

experiences

of

transcendence occur in this state. Starting with a silent repetition,

one has thus retraced a sound to the primordial source. Scientific
research seems to support the claim that reading Vedic Sanskrit
texts – even without knowledge of their meaning – produces a

distinct physiological state.28

Hence, mantras are not arbitrary verses, nor are they to be

understood only in conceptual terms. Their deepest truth is vibratory
in nature, and these vibrations can take us to levels of
consciousness that transcend language. One reason Sanskrit and
mantras are taught in early childhood by rote (i.e., even before a

child understands their meaning) is because once installed in one’s

deep levels of consciousness, their full effect and benefits will
manifest as experience over the course of time. The mantra is sown
in the person and produces effects much like a seed that evolves
into a tree. When repeated over and over, it vibrates in every part of
the practitioner’s being and recreates within him the original reality
from whence it came.

Sri Aurobindo explains:

….Mantra is the word that carries the godhead in it or the power of
the godhead, can bring it into the consciousness and fix it there and
its workings, awaken there the thril of the infinite, the force of
something absolute, perpetuate the miracle of the Supreme
utterance. (Sri Aurobindo 1997:313)29

Reading and writing poetry impart aesthetic pleasure – a brief

soaring of the imagination. A similar yet deeper experience is
possible by chanting, which makes the ear a channel of cosmic
reality. Mantra-s may thus be considered as energy-thought sounds.

Uttering a sound-word produces an actual physical vibration, and

discovery of the effect of that vibration leads to the meaning
associated with it. In addition, the speaker’s intention, when coupled
with the physical vibration, influences the end result. The sound is
the carrier, and the intention gives it additional power to produce an
effect. 30

Mantra-s are used to evoke a spiritual frequency and bring about a

particular state of consciousness. They are sound frequencies that
are precisely sequenced so as to evoke the inherent Shakti of
vibration. Over time, the practice of chanting the mantra begins to
override lesser vibrations, which become absorbed by it. After a
period (which varies with each individual), the chanter reaches a
level where all other vibrations are stilled so that, ultimately, he is
completely in tune with the energy and spiritual quality contained in
the mantra. He who is reciting the mantra becomes transformed in
subtle ways. Also, the beneficial effects of a mantra accrue not only
to the chanter but to all humanity and the cosmos at large.

Mantra energizes prana. Some healers transfer prana to patients.

Self-healing can be accomplished by concentrating prana on certain

organs, which can have the effect of clearing away an illness. Mantra
can be a part of this process. If one repeats a mantra while
visualizing an ailing internal organ bathed in light, the power of the
mantra can become concentrated there with beneficial effect. This is
why a child is often carefully given an appropriate name so that it will
internalize its name as vibration, and over time the effect of
repeating the name will bring inner transformation in subtle ways.

Discovery of Sanskrit

Yogic experiences are difficult to represent accurately in any

language other than Sanskrit for, as Sri Aurobindo has noted, it is
only in Sanskrit that they have been systematized.31 Sanskrit, thus,
is the ‘language of Yoga’. Sanskrit philosophy states that
monosyllabic sounds comprising the Sanskrit alphabet are at the
origin of creation. In fact, the Sanskrit phonemes themselves reveal
the nature of reality. The root sound of the phoneme references its
corresponding manifestation.

Among other languages, Hebrew has similar claims and the

language itself is recognized as a sacred script. There are several
mystical traditions associated with the shape and sound of its letters,
including a strong sense that the letters of the name of God,
rendered popularly as Jehovah or Yahweh, are so sacred and so
charged with spiritual energy that they should not be spoken or
written in a secular context. In the Jewish tradition, however, the
source of sounds is interpreted differently, and more attention is paid
to the shape and form of the written language, whereas the written
form of Sanskrit came much later, making Sanskrit explicitly an oral
tradition. Also, it is chiefly within Kabbalah – the mystical (and non-
mainstream) practice of Judaism – that the subtleties of language
and sound are understood and known.

Islam, too, speaks of the special vibrations created by the Arabic of

the Qur’an, which is one reason its memorization and recitation are
considered spiritual practices in and of themselves.

Both in Jewish and Islamic traditions, Hebrew and Arabic,

respectively, are usually seen as created by an external God,
whereas in Sanskrit these vibrations are the Ultimate Reality itself,
called Nada Brahman, from which ‘creation’ emanates.

It is important to distinguish the primordial sound/bija-

mantra/phoneme that is being discussed from what, in other
languages, is called a ‘word’. Shabda is commonly mistranslated as

‘word’ but it refers to phoneme, morpheme, word, sentence, sub-

sentence, discourse (Mahavakyam), para, pasyanti, madhyama
(sphota), vaikhary, sabdapramnam and dhvani among many
meanings. Many such phonemes combine into a sequence to create
a word. Sanskrit has a dictionary of meanings of individual letters or
phonemes, called ekaksharakosha.

A word is a composite of many alphabetic sounds. In the case of

English, the dictionary offers meanings for words, yet there are no
meanings for primary phonemes or the letters of the alphabet. They
have evolved from human convention. In Sanskrit, however, each
phoneme has rich meanings as a root sound, as well as specific
effects on the consciousness. Thus, the potency of Shabda is
liberating, for it is a way to gain insight into the nature of the Absolute
Consciousness.

The Biblical expression ‘In the beginning was the Word’ would not be
an accurate description of creation according to Sanskrit-based
philosophies. What is more accurate is: In the beginning was the
primordial sound that differentiates into multiple root sounds, which
manifest further before compounding sound sequences are made
possible as words. This is to say that much has happened in the
creation process before words appear, and this mechanism of
vibrations prior to the appearance of words allows the person
meditating/chanting to go back to the source.

Only in Sanskrit does one find that each and every word can be
parsed into its root sounds that contain its origin and meaning and
from which it is derived. Of Sanskrit, Sri Aurobindo writes: Every one
of its vowels and consonants has a particular inalienable force which
exists by the nature of things and not by development or human
choice; these are the fundamental sounds which lie at the base of
the Tantric bija-mantras and constitute the efficacy of the mantra
itself. Every vowel and every consonant in the original language had
certain primary

meanings which arose out of [some] essential Shakti or force, and

[these]

were the basis of other derivative meanings. (Sri Aurobindo

1996:449) Sanskrit and Pluralism

Since every root sound has a distinct meaning, its signature is found
in all the words that are derived from it. It is theoretically possible to
explain the meaning of the words according to the algebraic
combination of letters, syllables and roots. This transparency of root
sounds and semantics follows a natural process and gives Sanskrit
the ability to discover its own history. Consequently, Sanskrit is an
ever-creative language in which each word is the parent and source
of ideas. A letter is called akshara, which means ‘imperishable’.

Akshara is the eternal sound, and it does not perish but reveals the
entire secret of speech. Another term for letter is varna (hue or
color). Thus, every letter is heard as a sound with a corresponding
visual hue as it manifests. Rishi-s are said to have seen, and not just
heard, the Veda-s. The term for alphabet, varnamala, means

‘garland of colors’ or qualities or hues which an artist uses to paint

reality.

Multiple Experiences of the Same Root Sound

The root sounds, depending on how they are strung and combined
with others, can give rise to several words, each of which may have
distinct connotations, shades of meaning, and special nuances.
Since each word is discovered as the outcome of a yogic
experience, a root sound or word often has multiple meanings,
including even opposite meanings. 32

Let us illustrate this with an example.33 The root sound dih means
‘to gather’, ‘collect’, ‘pile up’. This can be referred to as meaning #1.
The experience of gathering or compiling leads to the experience of
growth, increase, prosperity, and so forth. Thus, the root dih also
means ‘to increase’, ‘grow or prosper’ (meaning #2).

When things grow, they often cover something else, so, ‘to cover’ is
another important meaning of dih (meaning #3). Going further, this

covering may be interpreted as hiding, concealing, plastering or

smearing (meaning #4). Furthermore, we can get a variety of
meanings by applying prefixes and suffixes to the root word. For
example, the body is called deha in Sanskrit and is derived from the
root dih. This is because it is a cover that conceals the self within
(meaning #5). We can further add the prefix sam to deha. Sam
refers to the experience of completeness, totality and perfection,
which is cognate with the English word ‘sum’. Thus, the word
sandeha (sam + deha) means ‘perfect concealment’ or ‘doubt’

(meaning #6). In a state of doubt, the consciousness is perfectly

clouded, reality is covered, truth is hidden, there is no clarity of
vision, and one is confused and groping in darkness. All of these are
meanings of the root dih.

Figure 5 demonstrates the following: (i) a root sound has multiple

levels of meanings which correspond to different but related
experiences. When we analyze this closely, we find that all these
meanings are interdependent and not disconnected. They form an
integrated whole of many levels of experiences, all in a single root
sound; (ii) These multiple meanings can each be used to derive
words by adding other syllables using the rules of grammar.

Figure 5: Multiple Experiences of the Same Root Sound While all

languages are able to create new words by combining pre-existing
prefixes and suffixes, this is taken to greater heights in Sanskrit, in
which the process is based on rules that are systematic, predictable
and creative. When a root sound is used to create a word, the sound
undergoes transformation according to established principles. By
concentrating on a new word created by an expert, the listener can
parse its intended meaning. This means that Sanskrit’s large
vocabulary is open-ended and infinitely expandable. One may think
of Sanskrit as ‘open architecture’. When an idea needs to be
expressed, new words are created by using the root words and
applying the rules of word formation.

In other languages, the initial posited association between the sound

and the object it represents is more often than not, arbitrary.

In Sanskrit, however, words evolve according to complex processes

of association with other meanings and sounds. Unique to Sanskrit is
the claim of the initial, primordial phoneme-morpheme association,
also called nama-rupa (name-form), which stems from dharmic
metaphysics of the Ultimate Reality as vibration manifesting at
successive levels of concreteness. The critical implication here is
that just as all primordial sounds are connected to the source in an
integral unity, so are all meanings connected and interdependent;
hence all objects in the universe are inseparably unified in their
ultimate sense. Everything is intertwined, and nothing is isolated.

Synonyms Are Not Redundant

Owing to the prolific outpourings by Sanskrit composers, many

words have a large number of synonyms, sometimes as many as
twenty or more. A given synonym cannot be randomly replaced by
another – not only because of the typical shift in nuance within
synonyms, but also because of the distinct root-word-sound
conflation in Sanskrit. From the many possible synonyms, those
which best convey the exact property being described should be
chosen. A deeper analysis of each word from the provided
synonyms reveals that different synonyms refer to different ways of
experiencing the same object, so each synonym has a specific and
definite connotation. Figure 6 and the example that follows illustrate
this idea.

Figure 6: Synonyms Are Not Redundant

For example, thirty-four words for ‘fire’ are listed in the Amarakosha,
a Sanskrit thesaurus. And yet none of them are redundant, because
each captures a unique attribute. A competent writer/speaker must
decide which of the provided synonyms for ‘fire’ is the most
appropriate in a given context.

Proper nouns in Sanskrit are often definite descriptions. The one

thousand names of Vishnu ( sahasra-nama) capture all the various
events relating to him mentioned in the Purana-s. There is a
composition on Rama, sung at the Ramakrishna Mission centers,
originally collected in the city of Varanasi, wherein the sequential
definite descriptions delineate the history of His life. Thus, we find
that every syllable – and every word built of a sequence of syllables

– is pregnant with meanings and acts as a node in a contextual

network.

Sanskrit and Contexts

Sanskrit texts, by their very nature, require interpretation in a given

context. Content cannot be separated from context or given an
absolute meaning. Scholar and poet, A.K. Ramanujan (1929-1993)
explains:

No Indian text comes without a context, a frame, til the 19th century.

Works are framed by phalasruti verses which tel the reader, reciter
or listener al the good that wil result from his act of reading, reciting
or listening. They relate the text, of whatever antiquity, to the present
reader

– that is, they contextualize it. The Ramayana and Mahabharata

open with episodes that tel you why and under what circumstances
they were composed. Every such story is encased in a meta-story.
And within the text, one tale is the context for another within it; not
only does the outer frame story motivate the inner sub-story; the
inner story il uminates the outer as wel . It often acts as a
microcosmic replica for the whole text.
(Ramanujan 1990:48)

The correct intonation of words too, plays an important role in their

meaning, and these were given utmost importance in traditional oral

transmissions.34 An entire meaning could be altered by a change in

accent or emphasis. 35 Accent/intonation ( svara) has endowed
Sanskrit with a rich musical quality, which is why practitioners of the
oral tradition in ancient India took great care in preserving texts to

the level not only of syllable but also of accentuation and intonation.

This made it possible to preserve all the Veda-s, Upanishads and

other shastra-s in all their original meaning and intent.

Context is also supplied by the situation, person, higher experience

and intention of the speaker/writer. The same verse may have
several meanings, and stories are nestled within one another.

The framing story differs from one iteration to another depending on

the audience, and thus different contexts are provided. For example,
a couple of Jain poems describe in verse the lives of seven different
monks. A literal translation of these verses into a language that is not
Sanskrit-based would sound nonsensical and incoherent. When a
word with a contextually determined meaning is reduced to only one
of its many meanings, it is akin to assigning a specific constant value
to an algebraic variable, thereby eliminating its usefulness as a
variable.

Every word embodies a spectrum rather than a single value. For

example, the word lingam is often misunderstood because it is
collapsed into only one value/meaning that is taken to be its
essence. Incorrectly translated as ‘phallus’, this has become
lingam’s normative usage in Western discourse. 36 However, the
word lingam’s range of meanings includes sign, mark, spot, token,
badge, emblem and even gender. In the proposition, ‘there is fire
because there is smoke’, smoke is the linga. Broadly, it indicates a
sign or meaning referring to something other than itself. The
American flag, the Statue of Liberty and national anthem are all linga
for America, yet they are not redundant because they represent
different aspects of America. The logo of a company is its lingam,
and there may be several linga for the same entity.

Meanings change over time. Hence, insisting on fixed, constant, and

isolated values is reductionist and distorting. Sanskrit grammar
avoids both extremes: a fixed set of absolutes on one hand, and
randomness and arbitrariness on the other, much like a computer
programming language which gives rise to an infinite variety of
programs while using a precise set of rules and grammar.

As a result, there is no compulsion to reconcile all the accounts of a

narrative into one ‘official’ version (which an expansionist tradition
must do in order to spread the tradition uniformly). For

example, one finds numerous versions and adaptations of the

Ramayana. There is no felt need for the lineages of various guru-s,
or accounts of various avatara-s and other past events, to be
organized into a linear chronology which everyone is mandated to
accept. The author and collector ( vyasa) of Sanskrit works re-
contextualizes and edits the Vedic corpus anew for each yuga. 37

The Indian word for a text is grantha, referring to the knot that holds
the palm leaves together into a book. What this indicates is that the
physical unity of the parts of the text does not necessarily imply that
the text is a critical edition; the context of the reader’s environment is
the basis for interpretation. This clearly differs from the Western
tradition of constructing the canonical version of every text because
that is considered its ‘pure’ form. There are context-sensitive designs
in the Indian texts, and this manner of constructing the texts is in
accord with other designs in the culture. In visual representations,
there is no uniquely ‘true’ image of a given deity.
Ramanujan writes: “Not unity (in the Aristotelian sense) but
coherence seems to be the end”. (Ramanujan 1990:50)

The Cognizing Self is Part of the Context

The context is not separable from the person experiencing it. 38 This
intertwining of subject-object is pervasive. Indian poetry is
contextualized by a taxonomy of landscapes, flora and fauna, and
also of subjective emotions, which Ramanujan refers to as “an
ecosystem of which a man’s activities and feelings are a part”.

(Ramanujan 1990:50)

The unity of the speaker with the environment is evident in the ease
with which Sanskrit expresses action without asserting subject/object
dichotomy. The ancient rishi-s were aware that the speaker is not the
doer but an instrument. Sanskrit is structured in accordance with this
idea and being conscious of it in language can lead to the realization
of the non-doer state. In most languages, the passive voice is
possible only by using transitive verbs, but in Sanskrit passive
expression is natural and the preferred way, and all types of verbs,
transitive or intransitive, can be passive. By contrast, in English,
active speech – with the emphasis on the subject

performing the action in the verb – is preferred. The difference

reflects two diverse attitudes: one mindset wants to be in control of

action and the other does not demand credit for the same.39

Mysticism and the Outer World

In higher states of consciousness, rishi-s have inquired into the

nature of external objects. This inquiry led them to develop practical
taxonomies of the physical world. An example is the elaborate plant
taxonomy in ancient India. According to the assessment of William
Jones, published in 1795, this taxonomy was more advanced than
the standard Latin-based ones used by Western botanists. Jones
writes, referring even to Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778), the father of
modern taxonomy:

I am very solicitous to give Indian plants their true Indian appel

ations, because I am ful y persuaded that Linnaeus himself would
have adopted them had he known the learned and ancient language
of this country …

(W. Jones 1795: 237-312)

According to Hindu philosophy, each and every element in creation

has consciousness, which is its nucleus (original vibration). This
principle was the basis on which ancient Indian medical scientists
and botanists studied plants. They combined pariksha (mental
investigation) with discovery by intuition to produce systematic
knowledge that could be subject to peer review. The thousands of
names of plants available in ancient treatises are expressions of this
inner process. Naming was inseparable from realizing its essence. In
Ayurveda, the names allow us to understand not only the
morphological characteristics of a plant but also its medicinal
properties. Ancient Indian vaidya-s (medical scientists), could
discover the exact properties of plants and their multidimensional
aspects without the laboratory measurement and observational
facilities on which modern empirical science relies.

Sanskrit and Dharma

Dharma and Sanskrit are deeply intertwined. Without doubt, it is an

understanding of Sanskrit, its inherent harmony and generative
powers that enables dharma to flower. The Sanskrit grammarian,
Katyayana and the author of the Yoga-sutra-s, Patanjali vociferously
express this view at the outset of the Mahabhasya (the commentary
on Panini’s sutra-s): that Vyakarana (grammar) can be written when
the shabda, artha and their relation follow a standard. Shastra
prescribes a certain form of shabda, which is already used in a
particular artha, so that, when employed (with the knowledge of
Vyakaranam), it would render dharma; this also implies that the
opposite would give adharma.

One of the deeper goals of this book is an attempt to enable, via the
theme of Sanskrit non-translatables, the larger framework of ideas
and concepts of dharma into modern conversation and provoke new
thinking.

Fifty-Four Sanskrit Non-Translatables

Starting with chapter 3, there are fifty-four non-translatable Sanskrit

terms and their commonly used English equivalent that are
compared, and their limitations discussed.

The selection of these terms and their classification has a rationale,

and has not been done arbitrarily:

The chapter on Metaphysics discusses words that define the

fundamental nature of reality. Some very important concepts like
Brahman, atma, maya, jiva and others are analyzed.

Cosmic Tattva describes words that define ontological categories

forming the cause of manifestation of this universe and the
foundation of all that we perceive in the phenomenal world.

Vedic Cosmos discusses words related to the different entities and

grades of existence in the Hindu cosmological

understanding of the universe.

Vedic Psychology considers the constituents of the antahkarana

including manas, buddhi, chitta and ahankara.

Yoga discusses the various limbs of ashtanga yoga such as asana,

dhyana, samadhi and ahimsa, and other key concepts.
Sadhana discusses words related to the essential, practical, lived
dimension of Hinduism such as sadhana, puja, in addition to Karma,
Jnana and Bhakti-yoga.

Vedic Shastra discusses critical differences between words

describing shastra and the English equivalents which are moored in
Abrahamic conceptions, key among them being shastra that cannot
be translated as ‘scripture’.

Hindu Dharma takes on some of the most abused words, including

sanskriti translated as ‘Culture’, samskara as ‘Ritual’, dasa as
‘Slave’, seva as ‘Service’. This chapter also takes on the deeply
hurtful translation of Hanuman as ‘Monkey God’.

The last chapter discusses terms specific to kavya.

The chapters on Cosmic Tattva, Cosmos and Metaphysics give the

basis of much of the categories and operating principles for the
meanings of Sanskrit words. There is much at play in these three
chapters.

Darshana and philosophy are used interchangeably in the discussion

of the Sanskrit non-translatables. Strictly speaking, darshana has a
‘lived’ and experientially verified basis, unlike philosophy. The
contexts of the darshana give specific framings for the evolution of
meaning of words. As discussed previously, there is nothing arbitrary
about words, meanings and their relationship in Sanskrit. The three
are fixed, unlike languages like English where there are no
constraints on them. For instance, consider ‘evolution’

as a term. Nothing stops one from changing meanings of words;

hence, there exists the concept of evolution of meaning ‘over time’.

In contrast, Sanskrit texts, though written thousands of years ago,

still mean the same.
A darshana constrains and frames the meaning of a word. As an
example, Figure 7 shows the evolution of prakriti in the Sankhya
worldview. The cosmological basis of the Sankhya governs the
meaning of many of the terms discussed.

Understanding the evolution of prakriti is central to understanding

dharmic ideas of involution and evolution. We study each of the

evolutes of prakriti as a Sanskrit non-translatable and the cosmic

worldview of the Sankhya darshana is discussed. The diagram of
prakriti describes the overall context of the Sanskrit non-translatable.

Prakriti is the basis of both nature and the individual.

Figure 7: Twenty-five Tattva-s of Sankhya System and Evolution of

Prakriti
Figure 8 depicts jiva as the conception of the finite individual in terms
of its various components. Jiva, as understood in Vedic terminology
has its aspects in constituents such as antahkarana and making up
the sthula sharira and sukshma sharira. Along with the
understanding of the evolution of prakriti, the understanding of jiva
constitutes two of the most necessary fundamentals to
understanding the non-translatables discussed ahead. Both, Figures
7 and 8, need to be understood together for accessing the more
subtle meanings discussed in this book.

Figure 8: Jiva

The fifty-four terms in nine chapters are summarized in Figure 9.

Originating from the primordial Om, discussed in the chapter on

Metaphysics, this illustration can be used as a ready reckoner to
navigate the book.
Figure 9: Part 2 Overview

3
Metaphysics

Almost all Indian metaphysical systems deal with the nature of the
individual self, the external insentient world, Universal Self or
Brahman and the ultimate goal of man, namely, to escape from the
limitations of this phenomenal life. In this chapter, seven terms
commonly used in Indian metaphysics have been selected that cover
these subjects, including atma and jiva, maya, and saguna/nirguna.

The sacred syllable Om holds a very important place in all dharmic

traditions, and a section is devoted to discussing its metaphysical
significance. Another section highlights the distinction of Hindu
dharma from Abrahamic concepts of monotheism and polytheism
while the section on kaivalya addresses the Indian view of the final
goal of human life and its distinction from the same in the Abrahamic
traditions.

The Indian rishi-s had direct intuitive vision of metaphysical concepts

such as atma, jiva, maya, etc., which are the fundamental truths of
reality and verifiable by one willing to make an effort. In the Vedantic
thought, these entities are not independent but inseparably related
and dependent on the one ontologically independent principle – the
Brahman. The Abrahamic idea of soul does not apply to them.

Indian metaphysics also deals with the nature of causation.

Vedanta propounds the theory of causal relation called satkaryavada

(Vedantic theory of causality) which holds that the effect does not
come into existence out of nothing. Any effect is always potentially
present in its cause and is only a manifestation of that potential, just
as a whole tree is potentially present in a seed and manifests from it.

An important corollary that follows from the principle of satkaryavada

is that the cosmos, including all the sentient jiva-s and insentient
matter in it, is eternal and has not been created ex-nihilo at some
point in time. The whole cosmos is only subject to cyclic
manifestation and concealment, and not creation and destruction.
Indian seers strongly believed that being cannot arise from void or
non-being and vice versa. Abrahamic traditions, however, believe
exactly the opposite and maintain that God created the universe and
its contents.

Saguna/Nirguna is not Qualified/Quality-less

The terms nirguna and saguna are commonly employed in Hindu

philosophy to describe the nature of absolute reality, Brahman. The
word nirguna is usually translated as ‘without qualities’ or
‘qualityless’ and saguna as ‘qualified’ or ‘with qualities’. Thus, we
have terms such as nirguna Brahman and saguna Brahman which
are often mistaken for Brahman without qualities and Brahman with
qualities, respectively. This section is devoted to a clarification of
these very important concepts in Indian thought and the inaccurate
nature of their English translations.

Brahman is defined in the Brahma Sutra-s as that from which the

origination, sustenance and dissolution of this entire cosmos takes
place. The second sutra states that the essential characteristics of
Brahman are creatorship and preservation of cosmos. 40 If Brahman
is the source and cause of this cosmos, then how can it be
completely devoid of guna-s?
The universe around us has many attributes and this implies that
Brahman cannot be without attributes because Brahman as cause,
and universe as effect, represent two different states of one and the
same substance. According to satkaryavada, the effect pre-exists in
its cause in a nascent form. For example, seeds yield oil because
they contain it in a subtle form, whereas no amount of pressure can
make sand produce oil.

The word nirguna means that Brahman is without any guna-s or

material attributes. The Chandogya Upanishad (8.1.5) says that
Brahman is free from all conditioning such as old age, death, hunger,
sorrow, thirst, and so on; the Upanishadic texts deny the
phenomenal attributes of Brahman but not the transcendental ones.

Nirguna does not mean that Brahman or Bhagavan is devoid of all

qualities. What it means is that Bhagavan is completely free from
limitations of finite existence. Bhagavan is also nirakara because he
is devoid of material form; this simply means He is beyond prakriti

and His attributes are transcendental and trans-empirical.41

The term nirguna lays emphasis on the negation of material

qualities, whereas saguna stresses on the affirmation of
transcendental spiritual qualities. Nirguna Brahman also means a
manifestation of Bhagavan in which His qualities remain
imperceptible and unmanifest. It is important to note here that
imperceptibility of qualities does not mean their absence.

In Bhagavatam, it is stated that although there is only one tattva

(Ultimate Reality), this indivisible tattva manifests in three different
ways to the devotees according to their different capacities.42 These
three different forms of that one tattva are called Brahman,
Paramatma and Bhagavan by the knowers of reality.

Figure 10: Ultimate Reality (Gaudiya-Vaishnava’s Worldview)

Bhagavan or Brahman cannot possess material qualities because all
material qualities have dualities. The Purana-s narrate that when
Bhagavan Shri Krishna as a child broke the butter pot of mother
Yashoda, she tried to bind Him around a mortar with ropes.

However, to her surprise, any length of rope could not go around His
belly, showing even as a small boy that Bhagavan can be both big
and small at the same time. Thus, absolute reality is paradoxical and
achintya or inconceivable from our worldly point of view and one
should not analyze entities beyond the material realm, through

material logic.43

Brahman is inconceivable for us because the human mind, being a

product of prakriti and its guna-s, simply cannot conceive anything
which is beyond prakriti. It is for this reason that shastra-s are the
only valid means for gaining knowledge of Bhagavan or Brahman. It
would thus be better to employ the terms nirguna and saguna as
they are and not confuse them with terms like qualityless or qualified.

Atma is not Soul

It is common for scholars and laymen alike to translate atma as

‘soul’; this section discusses the concept of atma and the

inappropriateness of this translation.

Atma is the foundational principle of Indian philosophy and

spirituality. In Hinduism, atma is considered to be the conscious and
intelligent principle within the inert mind-body complex. It is the true
self of a human revealed when stripped of all that is temporary,
perishable, and subject to the limitations of space and time.

The word atma is derived from the Sanskrit root ata which means
satatya gamane or ‘that which is in constant motion’. 44 Atma is
always in movement from one body to another because of the cycle
of births and deaths. Hindu philosophy has at its heart the difference
between atma and prakriti: while prakriti is the conditioning principle
and subject to evolution, atma is immutable and remains untouched.

In the Bhagavad Gita (2.24), Bhagavan Shri Krishna describes atma

as sarva gatah (all-pervading), as it is found everywhere, within
different forms of life, from the largest plants and animals to the
smallest micro-organisms. It also pervades the body that it occupies.
According to Christian theologians, plants and animals do not have
an immortal soul. Similarly, there have been debates in the Vatican
on whether people in the newly discovered lands in America in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by Europeans and later, people of
color, have a soul or not. For a long time, the West believed that
women did not have a soul. As opposed to this, there has never
been an iota of doubt in the Hindu dharma that all living creatures,
whether plants or animals and irrespective of how enormous or tiny
they may be, have atma; this is a major difference between the two

concepts. In Hindu tradition, atma is clearly recognized as something

distinct from the physical body.

Atma in Hinduism is beyond all gender identities and is not male,

female or neuter; it is present wherever we see signs of life
irrespective of the size, form, mobility of the living creature. 45 The
Bhagavad Gita very clearly states that each conscious being is a
combination of kshetra and kshetrajna. 46 Kshetrajna is another
word for the atma and kshetra denotes the field of activity or, in other
words, the body.

In Hindu philosophy, atma is regarded as eternal and indestructible.

It is without any origination or beginning, immortal and ageless; the
Bhagavad Gita states that an atma is never born and never dies.47
In contrast, Christianity accepts the soul as created anew.

In Hinduism, consciousness ( chetana) is regarded as the essential

nature ( svarupa) as well as an attribute ( dharma) of atma.

This is similar to the way heat can be considered to be the essential

nature and attribute of fire, or light, that of the Sun. Consciousness
being its very nature, an atma is always conscious and it is because
of the atma that there is consciousness in the psycho-physical body.

In contrast, there is no connection between the soul and

consciousness in Western approaches. The West’s ideas of
consciousness linked with various manifestations of the world are
comparatively underdeveloped and reliant on borrowings from the
Eastern traditions.

In Vedanta philosophy, atma is characterized as sat, chit and

ananda. Sat means that atma is eternal and unchangeable and there
is no transformation ( vikara) in it. Chit means that atma is conscious
and can acquire knowledge of itself and external objects, while
ananda means that it is free from every kind of suffering. A person
suffering from some ailment or pain in the waking state becomes
unaware of it in deep sleep because atma is ananda and no pain or
material pleasure can touch it. Such attributes are absent in the
West’s characterization of the soul.

Atma is also self-luminous because it does not require anything else

to know itself, just like a lamp does not require any other light source
to reveal itself. It reveals itself as ‘I’ to each individual and so

no person doubts his own existence. Atma is the controller of the

body and is the knowing subject ( jnata), agent behind all human
actions ( karta) and enjoyer ( bhokta).

There are two kinds of atma: jivatma and Paramatma.

Paramatma is the supreme person responsible for the functioning of

the whole cosmos and jivatma is an integral part ( amsha) of
Paramatma, who is called the amshi.48 It should be noted that
amsha does not mean a spatial part of the whole because
Paramatma or Brahman does not admit any spatial division. Being
an amsha of Paramatma means that jivatma is totally supported by,
and dependent on, Paramatma. All these qualities are alien to the
Christian concept of soul.

Christianity, on the other hand, emphasizes that God decides which

souls have truly accepted Christ as their savior on Judgment Day,
based on which the souls are either sent to heaven or hell. The soul
is thus subject not to karma but to sin, which is fundamentally and
completely different from karma. Furthermore, there is neither a
monotheistic God nor any Judgment Day in the Hindu tradition, and
the atma is by definition, pure, untouched, beyond life and death.

The relationship between atma and Bhagavan is thus fundamentally

different from the Western relationship between soul and God.

There is thus clarity in Hindu philosophy regarding the nature and

role of the atma. In contrast, the Christian soul is not in any sense an
integral part of the Christian God but an altogether different entity.

There is a disconnect and clear lack of development of the concepts

of soul, consciousness and God. While there is integral unity in the
former paradigm, there is a synthetically developed idea in the latter,
often under the influence of other traditions. It would be grossly
misleading to translate atma as soul as the two are vastly different
concepts.

Maya is not Illusion

Maya is a pivotal concept in Indian thought and is often

mistranslated as ‘illusion’, thereby creating a general misconception
that Hindu philosophy is world-negating, pessimistic and

unproductive. This is wholly incorrect. This section explains how

maya is different from illusion.

Maya denotes limitation and due to its influence, an individual atma

gets associated with physical and subtle bodies, resulting in
bondage. Maya is the principle responsible for the manifestation and
diversity of the material world. In many systems of Hindu philosophy
(such as Sankhya and Shaiva Siddhanta), maya is identified with
prakriti. The word maya is derived from the root ma which means ‘to
create or produce’ and thus maya denotes the creative Shakti of
Brahman or Bhagavan.

It is only the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy where maya has

been interpreted by some as the illusion through which Brahman or
absolute reality falsely appears as the universe. However, even in
Advaita Vedanta, maya itself does not stand for illusion but it is the
cause of illusion.

An important point to understand vis-a-vis maya is that it is not an

impersonal entity. Maya is the mysterious and inscrutable Shakti of
Bhagavan through which He manifests this world order. Thus, maya
has a feminine personality and is often referred to as Maya Devi in
Hinduism. This is the reason that Hindus often name their daughters
Maya, Mayavati, and so on. It would be absurd to give such names
to girls, had maya meant just illusion.

Maya Shakti is two-fold in its aspects and is accordingly divided into

nimitta-maya (or jiva-maya) and upadana-maya (or guna-maya).

Upadana-maya acts as the material cause of this physical world.

Nimitta-maya is concerned with an individual jiva and has the two-

fold function of either deluding a jiva by obscuring pure
consciousness or leading to mukti. Jiva-maya is called avidya-maya
when it conceals the true nature of self. Similarly, it is called vidya-
maya in its benign aspect when it leads to mukti. 49
Figure 11: Maya

Bhagavan Shri Krishna says in the Bhagavad Gita that living beings
are deluded because their ignorance covers the truth.50 Maya
makes us wrongly believe that our true identity is merely this
physical body and produces cognition of the material world that
keeps us trapped in samsara or cycle of birth and death. Maya
functions in a manner very similar to virtual reality goggles which
blocks the outside reality, even as they keep us fully engaged.

The effects of maya do not vanish on their own or according to our

wish. Illusions, on the other hand, are due to defects in perception
(subjective or objective) and vanish once they are rectified.
Bhagavan Shri Krishna says in the Bhagavad Gita that maya is very
difficult to overcome through one’s own efforts but those individuals
who surrender to Him cross very easily. 51

Maya has the ultimate purpose of bringing a bound jiva back to

Bhagavan. She impels a jiva to activity by creating diverse sense
objects and also a desire for them. A jiva, upon realizing the
transient nature of material pursuits, finally turns toward Bhagavan
for eternal happiness and attains mukti.

Maya cannot understand itself. All the methods of Western science,

being materialistic in nature, are attempts within maya to understand
the world. When scientists study the physical world, they are bound
to do it by using the products of maya, as the mind, intelligence,
senses or any other external physical instrument are all instruments
of maya. Hindu shastra-s, on the other hand, are discovered by rishi-
s that transcend maya and provide a method by which a jiva can
become free from maya.

Illusion is defined as a deceptive appearance, a false idea or belief

and does not convey any idea of projection by Bhagavan.

Maya’s functioning is clear – one aspect is to conceal the truth, and

the second, is to project something false in the place of truth. The
concept of illusion in the West lacks such clarity without the precise
metaphysical structure as seen in maya. Therefore, translating maya
as illusion gives an impression that it is an unreal entity. However,
Maya is a wondrous Shakti of Bhagavan and hence absolutely real.

Jiva is not Soul

It is a common perception that there is no difference between a jiva
and an atma and both words are commonly translated as ‘soul’.

However, there is a very significant difference between the two.

Atma is eternal and pure self-luminous consciousness which has no

limitations or conditioning. Jiva, on the other hand, denotes an atma
when it becomes conditioned under the influence of avidya or karma
and falsely identifies itself with prakriti.

There are two types of atma-s: baddha-s and nityamukta-s.

Nityamukta-s are those atma-s which have never been conditioned

and have always remained without bondage. They are eternally free
and engaged in the seva of Bhagavan in the transcendental realm.

Baddha-s are atma-s which are conditioned and caught up in

material bondage. Such atma-s are designated as jiva-s and are

called anadibaddha-s, which means that their bondage has no

beginning in time and is causeless. It is important to note here that
bondage of souls in the Judeo-Christian tradition, in contrast, has a
beginning and is caused by the Original Sin committed by Adam and
Eve.

The bondage of baddha atma-s, though beginningless, has an end.

These baddha atma-s can become free from their conditioning and
bondage by realizing their true identity (i.e., self-realization).

This liberation of a jiva is possible at any time. A soul, on the other

hand, has to wait till Judgment Day to be raised to heaven.

All jiva-s are atma-s but all atma-s are not necessarily jiva-s. Jiva is a
complex entity with atma at its core and many conditioning layers
superimposed on it due to avidya. A conditioned jiva forgets its true
nature as pure consciousness and wrongly thinks that it is the
physical body, manas and buddhi. It superimposes the
characteristics of body such as gender, old age, sickness, tallness,
fatness upon itself and becomes a samsara-bound jiva.

This misidentification is the cause of several universal problems.

People associate themselves with one particular nation or religion,

leading to conflicts. However, all these characteristics actually have
nothing to do with atma, which is beyond all these limitations. An
atma may have taken birth as a Hindu today but it can be a Muslim
in the next birth. When our physical body is made in India, we think
we are Indians and if it is made in America then we identify
ourselves as Americans. All these bodily identities of nationality,
religion or relationship to family members are limitations which keep
us trapped in this physical world. These identities belong to jiva and
not atma.

It is not to suggest that one surrenders these identities and relinquish

duties based on them; it is important to execute our duties and
responsibilities with awareness. We can either become too deeply
engrossed in them and forget our true essence as atma, or we retain
an awareness of our true identity. We can perform our duties as a
parent, husband, wife or as patriotic citizens of a country without
forgetting our true identity as atma. This is the central teaching of
Bhagavad Gita which Bhagavan Shri Krishna imparts to Arjuna.
Bhagavan tells Arjuna that, as a warrior, it is his duty to fight

but at the same time remain situated in yoga. 52 He explains yoga

as a state where a person remains equanimous in every situation by
abandoning attachment to success or failure. It is only attachment to
results which leads to happiness and sadness; once this attachment
is relinquished, these emotional states also disappear.

Kaivalya is not Salvation

This section discusses the Sanskrit term kaivalya which is often

translated as ‘salvation’. Salvation in Christian soteriology refers to
deliverance of a human being from the Original Sin and its
consequences brought about by faith in Christ as ‘Saviour’. Salvation
involves the entry of a pious Christian into heaven and the
enjoyment of pleasures there.

Kaivalya is a very different concept and etymologically the word is

derived from the word kevala which means ‘only’, ‘alone’ or

‘isolated’ and signifies purity. This purity is in the sense of being free
from the material entanglements and conditionings of prakriti, which

happens on attaining kaivalya or mukti.53

In Hindu moksha shastra-s, mukti is said to be of five types: sayujya,

salokya, sarupya, sarshti and samipya. These five types of mukti can
be broadly classified into two groups: impersonal mukti and personal
mukti. Impersonal mukti occurs when a person gets freed from
beginningless avidya and realizes his true identity with Brahman
(Universal Consciousness) and merges into It.

When a person stops identifying with his body or ego and realizes
that he is identical with Brahman, then he frees himself from the
clutches of prakriti; this state is called kaivalya mukti. Such an
impersonal kaivalya mukti is attained by those who follow jnana
marga.

The other four types of mukti – sarupya, salokya, sarshti and

samipya – are of personal nature where a jiva does not lose its
individuality, as in the case of sayujya mukti or kaivalya mukti. In all
these mukti-s, a person reaches the divine abode of Bhagavan with
the help of bhakti. In the context of personal mukti, the word kaivalya
signifies prema for Bhagavan.54
Figure 12: Kaivalya

In the Srimad Bhagavatam (11.9.18), Bhagavan Himself is referred

to as kaivalya because He is eternally free and isolated from all
material designations and, in a sense, is liberation personified. In the
Yoga and Sankhya schools of Indian philosophy, kaivalya denotes a
state of exclusiveness which lies in the separation of self (purusha)

from not-self (prakriti). Thus, the word kaivalya may have different
meanings depending on the context.

In contrast, the word ‘salvation’ refers to a singular concept. In

Christianity every human being is born with the Original Sin. The life
purpose of every human being is to get rid of that Original Sin by
believing in Christ. When a believer dies, due to the intercession of
Christ with God, he/she attains salvation. In Hinduism, there is
nothing like Original Sin because Hindus believe that atma has no
beginning and the concept does not fit in with the theory of karma.

Every jivatma reaps the fruits of its own karma and a sin committed
by one person has nothing to do with another. Therefore, the sin
committed by Adam and Eve would not affect the rest of humanity
according to Hindu principles.

Thus, the Sanskrit word kaivalya is very different from the English
word salvation and requires contemplation.

Hinduism is not Monotheism/Polytheism

Western scholars tend to map the Vedic tradition onto the Judeo-
Christian theological framework with categories such as
monotheism, polytheism or pantheism, without any foundational
basis. Unfortunately, today, some Hindus too have adopted this
classification. This section discusses why Hinduism cannot be
mapped onto any of these terms because none of them provides an
accurate and complete description.

Hinduism, unlike Abrahamic religions, does not have just one

authoritative book or one form of God. In the past, Hinduism had an
apposite, and flourishing, system for understanding the shastra-s in
the form of guru-shishya parampara. Today, with the decline of this
parampara and the gurukula system, Hindus have become ignorant
of their shastra-s and rely on speculations or half-baked knowledge
available on the internet. Most Hindus are unable to understand the
original shastra-s due to incompetence in Sanskrit and rely on
English translations authored by Western scholars who are not
practicing Hindus.

If the Hindu view of Ultimate Reality needs to be described in one

term, it can be said that Hindus are tattvavadi-s. According to Hindu

shastra-s, the absolute reality (tattva) is characterized as non-dual

consciousness ( advaya-jnana) by the rishi-s who achieved Its
realization. Advaya-jnana is significantly not translated as ‘monistic
consciousness’ but as non-dual consciousness because the term

‘monistic’ may imply that absolute reality is only one. However, the
word ‘non-dual’ signifies that the absolute reality is indeed one, but
this oneness does not negate variety or multiplicity within it. The
word jnana means that absolute reality (tattva) is purely of the nature
of consciousness.

There is no word in Christian or any theology, be it monotheism,

polytheism, pantheism or any other theism, which completely
describes the meaning of the term advaya-jnana. Monotheism is an
incorrect translation because it implies only one God and no multiple
manifestations and forms of that one God. There are no multiple
deities or devata-s and there is no profound philosophy or framework
which defines the relationship between devata-s and the absolute
reality Brahman in monotheism. The doctrine of monotheism
implicitly believes that God is separate from His creation and that he
has created this universe out of nothing. Similarly, polytheism
believes in the existence of many independent and distinct gods,
completely unrelated to each other. Describing Hinduism using these
terms would involve the blunder of taking a sophisticated, well-
defined, and harmonious system and replacing it with a simplistic,
limited, and logically inconsistent framework. It will inevitably lead to
expunging many profound and fundamental concepts from Hinduism
which do not fit into the meaning of these terms.

Christians eradicated polytheists in ancient Rome, Greece and other

parts of the world in order to impose Christianity. These polytheists
lacked any understanding of the inherent unity of every manifest
thing, including their multiple gods. They had neither shastra-s nor
the Veda-s. Hinduism, on the other hand, has a vast commentarial
tradition to explain the profound ideas present in the Veda-s. If
Hindus start calling themselves polytheists, then it would be
equivalent to a tacit denial of the validity of our shastra-s.

The Ultimate Reality Brahman is described as sat-chit-ananda.

Brahman is immanent but is not exhausted in the manifestation of

sentient and insentient worlds, unlike in pantheism. Brahman is

infinite and Its immanence does not affect Its transcendence.

Brahman remains complete even after the manifestation of this

universe from within Itself. 55

Monotheism and polytheism are merely speculative concepts of a

material human mind, whereas Brahman is not. Brahman can only
be realized in a transcendental state when a person becomes
aligned with that reality. Monotheism, polytheism, pantheism or
animism may describe some part of Hindu philosophy but none of
them represents Brahman completely. The concepts of Brahman,
Ishvara, Bhagavan and others need to be understood on their own
terms to appreciate Hindu metaphysics and one cannot replace them
with merely one term from Christian or any other theology. In
Abrahamic religions, there is no practical method by which
monotheism can be verified or polytheism, pantheism, etc., can be
falsified.

Hindu scholars should rise above their inferiority complex and not
deliberately try and fit Hinduism within these Western theological
frameworks for the sake of Western attention or acceptance. They
should become bold enough to assert that Hinduism can only be
described through the indigenous vocabulary derived from shastra-s.

Om is not Amen

Om (also called Pranava or Omkara), in Hinduism, is regarded as

the most hallowed mantra that embodies the supreme reality
Brahman. The meditative chanting of Om is an effective means for a
person to unify with the Supreme Consciousness. Om is often
compared with words like ‘amen’ or ‘ameen’ used in the Abrahamic
traditions. Some Hindu guru-s claim that they are identical except for
some minor linguistic variations in pronunciation. This section
discusses the significance and prominent position of Om in the
Hindu tradition and its non-translatability.

Western scholars and some Hindu guru-s use many kinds of

seemingly logical arguments to justify the interchangeable nature of
Om with ‘amen’. One such argument by a very prominent Hindu guru
says that the sounds ‘a’, ‘u’, and ‘m’ can all be produced without
using the tongue and thus regarded as fundamental. The guru

further argues that the combination of these three basic sounds is

actually pronounced as aam and not as ‘Om’ as Hindus would like to
believe. Aam is that universal sound which cannot be confined to
any one religion. Any realized being, irrespective of his/her religion,
becomes aware of this universal sound aam. Words such as ‘Om’,

‘amen’ and ‘ameen’ are linguistic and cultural distortions of this

fundamental sound aam. The inflection of words by adding suffixes
led aam to become ‘amen’ in Christianity, ‘ameen’ in Islam and ‘Om’

in Hinduism due to the influence of their respective languages and

cultures.

There are several flaws in the above argument. It is against common

experience to say that ‘a’, ‘u’, and ‘m’ are the only sounds which can
be produced without using the tongue. Guttural consonants like ‘k’,
‘g’ and also vowels like ‘i’, ‘ai’ which are used in almost all languages
can be pronounced perfectly without using the tongue. Thus, this
logic cannot be a legitimate basis to regard only

‘a’, ‘u’ and ‘m’ as the fundamental sounds. Sanskrit being a rich
phonetical language with a strong oral transmission culture, has
emphasized and protected phonetical integrity and such distortions
being the basis for something as fundamental and significant as the
Omkara is highly improbable. It is very clearly stated in the Hindu
shastra-s that Om comprises three constituent phonemes ‘a’, ‘u’ and

‘m’. Any kind of trivialization and modification of it is not permissible

in Sanskrit. Om has a very specific meaning and is irreplaceable.

Om is considered to be the very root of the Veda-s. It is the

primordial sound that came out of Brahma’s mouth at the beginning
of creation. Om is the source and basis of all that is in existence and
is the Shakti that vivifies all creatures in the universe. Om is also the
basis of all speech and is the Shabda-Brahman.56 Om is not just
any word but a very powerful mantra, which makes it non-
translatable and irreplaceable.

Contrary to the importance accorded to Om in the Indian tradition,

words like amen do not hold much significance in the Abrahamic
traditions. The word amen is uttered at the end of a prayer in
Abrahamic religions to mean ‘so be it’. The meaning of amen is more
akin to the Sanskrit word tathaastu. When Hindus chant Om, they
are not repeatedly saying ‘so be it’ or ‘yes’. Hindus

believe that the chanting of Om creates vibrations in a human body

that resonate with the cosmic vibrations. This helps a yogi connect
his consciousness with the Universal Consciousness.

Similarity in pronunciation between two words of different languages

does not imply that their meaning, purpose, evolution, and
functionality are also the same. The chanting and meditation of
amen cannot provide the same spiritual benefits as Om. Christian
theologians and saints too do not claim that simply chanting of amen
would bring salvation. Similarly, no Imam or scholar in the Muslim
tradition says that if one disregards all other beliefs of Islam and just
chants ameen, then that alone would suffice to take one to jannat or
heaven. On the other hand, in the Hindu tradition, chanting Om is
sufficient in itself to lead a person to moksha. It is said in the
Bhagavad Gita by Bhagavan Shri Krishna that one who departs from
the body while chanting the sacred syllable Om will become

liberated.57

It is wholly unreasonable and erroneous to equate something of

paramount importance in one tradition with one of minor importance
in another.

Summary of Metaphysics Non-Translatables

Metaphysics Non-Translatables

Saguna/

Qualified/

Nirguna Brahman refers to

Nirguna

Qualityles

Brahman without any material

qualities
and

eternal

transcendence

from

finite

existence;

defining

it

as

qualityless is absurd as there

can be no entity without any

quality at all.

Saguna Brahman refers to

Brahman possessing spiritual

attributes such as satyam,

jnanam, etc.

The same Brahman is both

saguna and nirguna.

Atma

≠
Soul

Atma

is

the

conscious,

intelligent principle within the

psycho-physical body. It differs

from the Western concept of

soul which is not subject to any

karma but only to sin. Atma is

present in all forms of life,

including plants and animals

and this differs fundamentally

from Christian notions of soul.

Atma is eternal and beyond

time unlike in Christianity

where each soul is created

anew.

Maya

≠
Illusion

Maya is the principle of

manifestation of the material

world and creates conditioning

and phenomena for the atma.

Maya is seen as an aspect of

Shakti and has a personality.

Illusion refers to deceptive

appearance or a false idea,

which is different from Maya.

Jiva

Soul

Jiva refers to the atma in a

conditioned state, under the

influence of avidya and karma.

Soul is conditioned due to the

Original Sin and differs from

both atma and jiva.

Kaivalya
≠

Salvation

Kaivalya refers to the purity

derived from being free of

material entanglements and

has many variations within it.

This is completely different

from Salvation which refers to

the deliverance of a human

being from the Original Sin

through faith in Christ, giving

entry into heaven.

Hinduism

Monotheis

Hinduism believes in the

m/

inherent

unity

of
every

Polytheis

manifested entity. Brahman is

m/

not

exhausted

in

the

Pantheism

manifestation of both the

sentient and insentient world.

Monotheism has only one

God

but

no

multiple

manifestations or forms of the

one God – this is against

dharmic ideas.

Polytheism refers to existence

of distinct, unrelated gods –

this is different from the integral

and unified, yet distinct entities

in

Hinduism.

Pantheism

espouses all things as being

God but God is exhausted in

immanence and there is no

transcendent God which is

opposite to the concepts in

Hinduism.

Om

Amen

Om is the primordial sound,

considered the root of the

Veda-s. Om is the Supreme

Reality and expresses the

totality of the cosmos. In

contrast, Amen is uttered at

the end of Christian prayers to

mean, ‘so be it’. Hindus do not

chant Om to mean ‘so be it’ or

‘yes’; they chant it to connect

with

the

Universal

Consciousness.

Cosmic Tattva-s

The Sanskrit word tattva can be approximately translated as

‘principle’ or ‘thatness’. Tattva is an aspect of reality that has basis in

experienced truth; it is not a fictitious or theoretical construct but an
existing reality, and a truth perceived by consciousness. With their
evolved consciousness, rishi-s have been the originators of much of
the Sanskrit knowledge systems. We owe them for their abilities to
perceive these realities, and for their efforts in transmitting this
knowledge via the unbroken guru-shishya parampara-s.

The Vedic understanding of the cosmos is in stark contrast to that of

modern science as the latter does not acknowledge consciousness
(purusha) as the first principle of reality. This leads to fundamental
dissonances between the two worldviews in every other derivative
conception. Eight compelling cosmic tattva-s are discussed in this
chapter, presenting a different worldview from that of modern
science. Gaining familiarity with how these tattva-s are explained
and how they fit into the overall cosmic reality is critical.

The following sections discuss words that depend on a reasonable

understanding of these cosmic tattva-s.

The terms Shakti, Prakriti, Prana, Akasha, Agni, Vayu, Shabda and
Indriya are discussed in this chapter.

Shakti is not Energy

Shakti is commonly and naïvely translated as ‘energy’, thus

depriving the word of its profundity. Energy denotes an insentient
physical force or capacity to perform activities. It can be controlled by
mechanical means, as seen in the way by which we control the
supply of electrical energy with a switch. In contrast, the Sanskrit
word Shakti does not signify an inanimate, insentient principle as the
word energy. Shakti is the divine feminine.

Western science, similar to the Charvaka-s (ancient Indian

Materialists), is influenced by materialistic ideas and does not
recognize consciousness as an entity distinct from matter. Science
considers consciousness as an epiphenomenon or a result of matter
that arises in the living body from a particular combination of material
elements. Western science offers mechanistic explanations to all
processes in the universe.

Kshemaraja, the celebrated eleventh century philosopher of Kashmir

Shaivism, derives the word Shakti from the verbal root shak which
means ‘to be able to do something’ with the affix ti meaning

‘capability’.58 He then adds that Shakti possesses the attributes of

omniscience, omnipotence and omnipresence. Shakti is thus an
intelligent sentient principle and is the ability to not only do some
physical activity ( kriya) but also to know ( jnana) and will ( iccha).
She has a personality, unlike energy.
Kashmir Shaivism and Virashaivism frequently denote Shakti by the
word vimarsha. 59 Vimarsha is the capability or power of Shiva
(Universal Consciousness) by which He becomes self-aware and
reflects on the events that occur within Him.60 In Hinduism,
Bhagavan is always accompanied by His Shakti and She is
worshipped as the embodiment or personification of His grace,
mercy, infinite bliss and other aspects.61

It is also important to understand that Shakti is not a unitary concept

as there are many Shakti-s with a personality associated with each
kind. For example, Krishna is often depicted as being surrounded by
gopi-s. These gopi-s are Krishna’s various Shakti-s. A description of
sixteen prominent Shakti-s is found in shastra-s such as Vishnu
Purana, and Bhagavata Purana. Jiva Gosvami in his Bhagavat
Sandarbha divides these Shakti-s into three main categories:
intrinsic ( antaranga), extrinsic ( bahiranga) and intermediary (
tatastha). Shakti is not only a transcendental personality but also
immanent and pervades the whole cosmos. We, as individuals, are
an intermediary ( tatastha) Shakti of Bhagavan.

Shakti present within the human body is called Kundalini Shakti in

Tantra due to which an organism is enlivened. She is the source of
essential life-governing currents like prana, virya and others and
when aroused or activated, can lift a person into bliss, knowledge
and ultimately, liberation. Chakra-s are the centers of consciousness
through which the Kundalini Shakti traverses on awakening.

Removing the personhood of Shakti reduces her to the limited

material concept of energy. Western scholarship prefers such
inaccurate translations in order to fit Shakti into Judeo-Christian-
inspired frameworks. Shakti as the Goddess or Supreme Reality is
not allowed in the Abrahamic traditions. When Shakti is translated as

‘goddess’ with a lowercase ‘g’, it not only misrepresents the Hindu

concept, but also finds no basis in the Abrahamic system, which
does not allow female divinity. Shakti as a divine, intelligent,
immanent and omniscient personality is a reminder of the West’s
pagan past, which Christianity brutally eliminated. Thus, the
translation of Shakti into English as energy is problematic.

Prakriti is not Nature

Prakriti is a versatile and multifaceted Sanskrit word supported by

deep philosophical underpinnings and many intricate technical
meanings in different branches of Indian knowledge systems. 62

Unfortunately, the word prakriti is normally translated in English to

the simplistic word ‘nature’, with the profound background and
context removed in this mistranslation. The word ‘nature’ signifies
two meanings in the English language: the physical phenomenal
world and the inherent character of something.

In Sankhya philosophy, prakriti is one of two fundamental entities

that ultimately exist, with the other being the inactive witnessing
consciousness called Purusha. Prakriti is the primordial generative
material principle which contains the whole physical universe in an
undifferentiated homogenous state. It evolves through a continuous
series of transformations into this world of multiplicity. When this
universe gets dissolved at the end of a creation cycle ( kalpa), then
all that is insentient gets absorbed into the original material matrix or

prakriti.63

At the beginning of a creation cycle, prakriti consists of three

constitutive elements (guna-s): sattva, rajas and tamas in a state of
equilibrium. Creation begins when this state, on disturbance, leads to
a process of continuous transformation of prakriti into various
evolutes of the physical universe, with the guna-s in varying
proportions. Each subsequent evolute is more manifest than the
preceding one; the transformation is from subtle to gross.

Prakriti is derived from the verbal root kr which means ‘to do’ or
‘to create’, ‘cause’ or ‘produce’. Prakriti can thus be considered as
the original source or cause of every material thing. The Sankhya
texts also employ the term prakriti along with the term vikriti to

commonly denote various tattva-s emerging during the process of

manifestation of the physical universe. 64 Prakriti here refers to the
precedent cause or the evolvent and vikriti means the subsequent
effect, evolute and modification.

We reconsider Figure 7 from earlier, which explains the sequence of

the evolution of prakriti. The first evolute to emerge is the mahat
tattva and is considered as vikriti. The next evolute to emerge from
mahat is ahankara. With the emergence of each evolute, the
preceding one is considered prakriti and the emergent one as vikriti.

The series of transformations show the recursive nature of prakriti

and translating it as nature eliminates this technical sense.

The Bhagavad Gita discusses many meanings of prakriti such as the

acquired material nature of an individual living being and the innate
character or temperament of an individual according to which every
living being performs karma.65 The prakriti of an individual can be
dominated by sattva, rajas or tamas guna depending on past karma,
and influences a person’s behavior. 66 It is important to note here
that the concept of three guna-s is not at all suggested by the
English word nature.

The word prakriti is also used in the sense of ‘regaining one’s

consciousness’, ‘the notion of form’, ‘the idea of descent’, ‘the radical
or crude form of any word’, ‘a woman’, ‘the male or female organ of
generation’, and the ‘seven constituent elements of a state’. None of
these are indicated by the translation of the word as nature.

Akasha is not Space

Akasha is commonly mistranslated into English as ‘space’, which

implies a continuous three or higher dimensional physical expanse.
The concept of akasha though, is elaborate, treated in every
darshana and subsumes the concept of space as a part of it.

The Sanskrit word akasha is derived from the root kash by adding
the prefix a; the root kash means ‘to shine’ or ‘to be visible’

and is used for akasha because akasha enables manifestation and

thereby visibility of things in the world.67

Akasha is the substrate of space, time and matter and is thus not
space itself but its source. It is not an inert and inactive principle like
space but a potentiality which makes room for further creation. When
akasha sometimes refers to space, it refers to the effect, not the
cause.

Akasha is a transcendental concept and not limited to the physically

observable cosmos. Different kinds of akasha which lie beyond the
limits of elemental space and time also exist. 68 While Western
science focuses on space as a finite concept, akasha is considered
to be infinite. Yoga-Vasishtha discusses three types of akasha:
bhutakasha, chittakasha and chidakasha.
Figure 13: Akasha

Akasha is the substratum for prana, the senses and the mind as well
as knowledge and ideas. 69 It is also considered as the substratum
of sound. Sound, as a material wave, does not exist in inter-
planetary space despite potential sources, but, as an attribute of
akasha, it is present everywhere. 70 In Sankhya-Yoga darshana,
akasha is considered as a penetrable, all-pervasive reality and
functions as a universal medium for finite and separate entities to
move freely.

Translating all of these foundational concepts as ‘space’ is

misleading and erroneous.

Agni is not Fire

Christianity paints a terrifying image of fire, as an instrument of

divine punishment. Hell is Satan’s barbecue. Sinners are tormented
for eternity through roasting in a raging and unquenchable fire.

Agni is much more than fire. It does not merely refer to the physical
phenomenon of combustion producing flame, light and heat.

Agni’s meanings depend on whether the level of existence under

consideration is divine ( alaukika) or mundane ( laukika). In its
primordial sense, Agni refers to Agni Devata, one of the most
important Vedic deities. He is the first deva mentioned in the very
first mantra of Rig Veda Samhita. 71 He has a personality and the
physical fire which burns is one of his manifestations at the material
level of existence. 72 Agni in the dharmic canon is considered
purifying and not a hellish punishment.

According to Sri Aurobindo, Agni is the divine immortal Shakti which

God has established in all mortals, which allows them to remain alive
and active. He calls it, at the level of psychological sense, as the
divine will and active power of Truth-Consciousness.73
Agni devata is the source of warmth and light, which are essential for
the existence of any kind of life on earth.

Figure 14: Levels of Meaning of Agni

The Nyaya philosophy and ancient Ayurveda texts mention different

types of fires or agni-s. 74 Besides the common meaning referring to
the flame generated from combustion of fuel, there is another type of
agni which is responsible for the digestion of the food, called the
jatharagni in Ayurveda or audarya tejas in Nyaya philosophy; it can
be loosely translated as ‘digestive fire’. Bhagavan Shri Krishna says
in the Gita: “I digest the food eaten by all living beings with the

vaishvanara-agni”.75 Nyaya accepts four types of agni: physical,

digestive, lightning and agni in glittering metals such as gold.

There is yet another Agni by which we conduct a yajna who is a deity

and is considered the mouth of Bhagavan Himself. He connects the
divine and the earthly realms and enables human beings to
communicate with the divine beings. This is why, whenever sweets
are either bought or prepared at home on any occasion, they are first
offered to Bhagavan through Agni, and only then consumed as his
prasada.

Translating Agni simply as fire is grossly limiting, as the inner

meanings and profundity are lost. Unless the usage is in a very
limited context of a burning fire, Agni needs to be treated as a
Sanskrit non-translatable.

Vayu is not Air

Vayu is commonly translated into English as ‘air’ or ‘wind’. Air is a

form of physical matter, a mixture of gases. Vayu, on the other hand,
signifies a more extensive concept.

Vayu is a cosmic immanent principle and is not just confined to earth

( bhuloka). Air can be regarded as merely a gross physical
manifestation of vayu on earth. The word vayu is derived from the
root va which means ‘to blow’, ‘to move’ or ‘to go’. Thus, vayu is the
very principle behind all movement and activity in the universe.

The principle of vayu, like many other concepts in Hinduism,

expresses itself in three complementary aspects or dimensions of
reality: elemental, phenomenal and macrocosmic ( adhibhautika),
spiritual or microcosmic ( adhyatmika) and divine ( adhidaivika). The
word vayu, in its original and primary sense, denotes the Vedic deity,
Vayu devata. He is the king of divine musicians known as the
Gandharva-s, and he is regarded as the producer of sound in the
Veda-s. He is considered the strongest among the devata-s and one
of his chief characteristics is fast movement in all directions. 76

Figure 15: Levels of Meaning of Vayu

Hanuman and Bhima, who are distinguished by their physical

strength, are the sons of Vayu. Vayu is also regarded as one of the
dikpala-s (one who is the guardian of directions) and guards the
northwest direction called vayukona. Vayu is one of the names of
Bhagavan Shri Vishnu and is the creator of Agni.

Vayu and prana are related as the macro and microcosmic aspects
of the same reality – what prana is for the living body, vayu is for the
entire cosmos. Vayu supports the existence of all beings because of
this life-giving nature.77 According to science, anaerobic organisms
can survive and grow without requiring any air or oxygen.

According to the shastra-s, no organism, whether aerobic or

anaerobic, can survive without the support of prana or vayu.78

Vayu is a technical term in Ayurveda. It is used synonymously with

vata and refers to one of three dosha-s along with pitta and kapha.
According to the Charaka Samhita, the pre-second century CE
Sanksrit text on Ayurveda, vayu in a living person manifests in
various bodily activities connected with movements. Vayu is also
regarded as the cause of cellular division in the embryonic stage of

human development.79

The inter-relationship between macrocosmic and microcosmic

aspects of vayu is central to understanding its very nature. There are
many healing prayers in the Atharva Veda addressed to Vayu which
are intelligible only when this inter-relationship is realized. Vayu may
be considered to be similar in meaning to air only when it denotes
one of the pancha-mahabhuta-s.

Shabda is not Word

Shabda is commonly translated as ‘word’, ‘speech’ or ‘sound’ which

is an incomplete meaning and a misrepresentation of the term.

Word, as understood in the Western tradition, is something which

does not have any trans-empirical existence. It is associated with
meaning arbitrarily and is man-made, transitory and destructible.

Humans have been associating words with meanings over millennia

and this is how language has evolved.
Shabda in the Indian tradition is eternal, divine ( apaurusheya),
indestructible and is central to man’s existence including his ability to
think. It is used to denote the Veda-s and other shastra-s and is
recognized as one of the three pramana-s along with perception (
pratyaksha) and inference ( anumana). Vedic Shabda is considered
innately infallible due to absence of errors from human limitations
normally caused in perception and inference. 80

According to Indian darshana-s (with a few provisions and

exceptions), Shabda of the Veda-s, their meaning (artha) and the
relation between the two, are eternal and not disrupted even during
cosmic dissolution. The relation between Shabda and artha is innate
and not based on any arbitrary convention fixed by humans.

Patanjali defines Shabda as that, which when revealed, brings about

meaning. It is Shabda which manifests as sound in the empirical
plane through the effort of the speaker and gives rise to meaning in
the mind of the listener.81

Shabda can have an esoteric ( guhya) meaning along with the

primary and secondary meanings. This is generally revealed by a
guru when appropriate, to an initiated shishya. Shabda manifests
itself at four levels in any speech process: para, pashyanti,

madhyama and vaikhari. 82 The words uttered by a speaker and

heard by a listener belong to the vaikhari level of Shabda. Para
Shabda is the transcendent self-luminous consciousness residing in
the muladhara chakra.

Shabda is considered a quality of akasha and means ‘sound’ and

that which is revealed by sound.83 The process of manifestation of
Shabda begins from consciousness, which propels prana into action.

Air, propelled by prana, followed by its articulation in the vocal

organs, leads to the final manifestation of Shabda at the spoken
level.
There are two levels of Shabda according to Bhartrhari: implicit or
inner Shabda, called sphota and the articulate or explicit Shabda
called nada or dhvani. The former is the causal basis of the latter.

The manifested dhvani is temporal in nature while Shabda is eternal

and divine in character. All the innumerable varieties of sounds and
verbal forms such as vowels, consonants, syllables spring forth from
Shabda and ultimately merge into It.

According to Bhartrhari, the idea that the world in its entirety comes
from Shabda is present in the Veda-s. 84 Shabda is regarded as the
Supreme Ultimate Reality and called Shabda-Brahman, which
transcends the bounds of human experience. 85 Vak is another word
for Shabda. All the objects of the entire cosmos are manifested from
Shabda, making it identical with consciousness and is the
substratum of all our thoughts.

Shabda is the ashraya or seat of various Shakti-s. Each Shabda is

associated with a Shakti in the form of its meaning or artha, which
makes it capable of generating the experience or knowledge of a
particular object in the mind of the listener. The Shakti of denotation
is inherent in Shabda just as heat is inherent in fire.

The profound meaning of Shabda is lost when translated as

‘word’, which refers to a unit of language uttered in a spatiotemporal

context. A better Sanskrit equivalent for ‘word’ would be pada and
not Shabda and the latter should remain untranslated in all contexts.

Indriya is not Sense-Organ

Indriya is often translated as ‘sense-organ’ or ‘sense’, which is yet

another case of trivialization of a profound concept. The five parts of
the body, which respond to external stimuli and convey impulses to
the nervous system, thereby generating sensation, are referred to as
the sense-organs.
The word indriya is derived from indra and means ‘a sign’ or ‘an
instrument’ of the self (atma). 86 Indriya-s are the instrumental cause
of atma’s cognitions (jnana) and other experiences.

The fundamental difference between the sense-organs and indriya-s

is that the former is physical in nature, whereas the latter are
psychical and made of subtle matter ( sattvika ahankara).87 This is
the reason that indriya-s have the same properties of illumination
and agility that characterize sattva guna. The sense organs
themselves are referred to as golaka-s, which are seen as the
physiological locations of the indriya-s. 88 Indriya-s can perceive
other

objects but are imperceptible themselves and their existence is

established only through inference ( anumana).89

Indriya-s apprehend their objects only when they come in direct

contact ( prapyakari); otherwise, they could apprehend all objects
whether distant or hidden. 90 Some indriya-s like vision ( chakshus)
apprehend distant objects because they are subtle products of
ahankara and capable of expansion. Western science though,
explains that vision arises when light reflected from an object falls on
the eyes, making it a purely objective phenomenon. In contrast, the
Indian approach to perception is subjective, although they do
recognize objective aspects as well. 91 Indriya-s and the sense
organs also respond differently to resistance ( pratighata) offered by
matter.
Figure 16: Indriya-s

Western physiology has five sense-organs whereas Indian

darshana-s consider eleven indriya-s. 92 Among the eleven indriya-
s, ten are classified into five buddhindriya-s (responsible for
cognition) and five karmendriya-s (responsible for movement). 93
Manas is a class in itself and is regarded as both a buddhindriya and
a karmendriya.
Sense organs, being a part of the physical body, perish at the death
of a person; indriya-s do not. Indriya-s are part of the sukshma
sharira of a person and not of the sthula sharira. Indriya-s are
affected by the karma-s of jiva-s. This is the reason that different jiva-
s have different capacities of vision, hearing, speech or mobility,

even though physically their eyes or ears are similar. Upon death,
indriya-s leave the physical body, along with atma and prana vayu.

Such possibilities do not exist in the case of physical sense-organs,

as they are inseparably connected with the physical body and are
destroyed with it. Sense-organs have a limited role as functional
biological entities and do not convey the planes of meaning of the
indriya-s.

Summary of Cosmic Tattva Non-Translatables

Cosmic Tattva Non-Translatables

Shakti

Energy

Shakti is a sentient principle

and has the ability to do, know,

and will. Shakti also has a

personality. Energy is an

insentient principle.

Prakriti

≠
Nature

Prakriti is the fundamental and

independent

ontological

principle

of

Sankhya

philosophy. It is the generative

principle from which material

universe manifests. Nature

refers

to

the

physical

phenomenal world or character

of something.

Akasha

Space

Akasha evolves from shabda

tanmatra and provides a

substratum for sound. Akasha

is the source of space and not

space itself. Space refers to

the three-dimensional physical

expanse in common usage;

advanced science attributes

more dimensions to it.

Agni

Fire

Agni

conveys

different

meanings at various levels of

existence, including the Agni

devata, digestive fire, physical

fire. Fire only refers to the

phenomenon of combustion.

Vayu
≠

Air

Vayu refers to the Vayu

devata, prana in an individual;

air

is

only

its

physical

manifestation.

Vayu

exists

even apart from bhuloka. Air is

only a form of physical

gaseous matter.

Shabda

Word

Shabda not only refers to

word, sentence, speech and

language

itself

but

also

denotes

the

Ultimate

transcendental principle. The

relationship between Shabda

and artha (meaning) is held as

eternal by the Veda-s. Shabda

is also Shabda-Brahman and is

considered

identical

with

consciousness. Word only

refers to a unit of English

language.

Indriya

≠
Sense

Indriya-s are psychical and not

Organ

identical with their seats of

physiological locations in the

body. Indriya-s evolve out of

ahankara and are eleven in

number. Sense organs are

only five, are physical in nature

and identical with their body

locations.

Vedic Cosmos

According to Hindu tradition, the entire cosmic system of matter and

spirit, with its subtle and concrete forms, is a manifestation of
Universal Consciousness called Brahman or Ishvara and depends
on Him for its very existence. It pervades, enlivens, and harmonizes
each constituent part of the cosmos, with distinctive characteristics
and plurality. The process of creation of the cosmos is the
progressive descent of the Transcendent Divine Consciousness,
through His Supreme Shakti, into progressively more differentiated
expressions of its own Self.

Several schools of Indian philosophy regard this universe as the

body of Brahman and conceive it as Cosmic Person or Virata
Purusha. All orders of existence, whether pleasant or unpleasant,
are sacred to a Hindu because they form inalienable parts of the
playful self-expression of Brahman or Bhagavan. 94

According to Hinduism, it is possible to experience the whole cosmic

order within the human body itself. A person, with his/her individual
phenomenal consciousness can, through appropriate methods of
self-discipline and self-refinement, acquire the power to pass from
one world of existence and experience to another. The term loka
associated with this plane and grade of consciousness is discussed
in this chapter, in contrast with the purely physical concept of a
planet with which the term is frequently equated.

The ultimate goal of every religion is to attain freedom from the

travails of material life. The terms and idioms used to denote it in one
religious system cannot be casually equated with those in another.

For example, the ultimate destiny for the souls of believers in the
Abrahamic religions, namely, heaven or jannat, cannot be compared
with svarga. Svarga does not refer to the place of final liberation in
the dharmic traditions and is a part of the material cosmos meant for
temporary enjoyment of good karma.

Further in this chapter, the terms devata-s and asura-s, commonly

used to denote two important kinds of beings in this cosmos, are
considered and their non-translatability is discussed.

Loka is not Planet

The idea of loka in Hindu shastra-s is often translated as ‘physical

planet’. The Purana-s sometimes describe the inhabitants of these
different loka-s as traveling in various yana-s, or spacecrafts, from
one loka to another.95 However, this does not mean that loka-s refer
to planets.

The word loka is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root luk which
means ‘to see’.96 Hindu shastra-s describe fourteen different loka-s
with gradation in the levels of consciousness of its beings. 97 A
being living in a particular loka such as svargaloka or tapoloka has
attained the necessary level of consciousness required for
admittance to that loka. Beings residing in the brahmaloka have
evolved to achieve a higher level of consciousness while those in the
patalaloka are asura-s that have degenerated to the lowest level.

The gradations in consciousness is not just confined to beings in the

different loka-s but also discerned among humans residing within
bhuloka. These gradations also continue beyond the human level
into the subtler spiritual realms with their distinct corresponding loka-
s. Beings of the svarga loka have a more evolved consciousness
than those of the bhuloka. A loka with a lower level of consciousness
implies a more materialistic temperament of its inhabitants. A person
cannot reach a higher or lower loka just by taking a flight to that loka.

A loka only becomes accessible to a person when he/she has

achieved the necessary qualification suited to that loka.
Figure 17: Loka-s

Thus, a loka is not a physical location in the observable world but a

subtle realm of existence defined by a certain level of consciousness
beyond the material universe. A human, while on bhuloka can

experience svargaloka by elevating his/her consciousness to that

level. At the same time, one must be careful not to relegate the term
to metaphorical language and deny its embodied characteristics by
using Western paradigms of sensory abilities. Spiritual practices like
yoga enable a yogi to experience these different loka-s in the state of
samadhi.

Svarga is not Heaven and Naraka is not Hell

The Sanskrit word svarga is commonly translated in English as

‘heaven’. In Christianity, the Kingdom of Heaven is a place where a

believer ascends upon death if deemed eligible by St. Peter, the
gatekeeper, while those denied permission descend into hell.

According to Christian beliefs, heaven is the place where God lives

and rules as King.

The Hindu idea of svarga is vastly different and in many ways,

contrary to Christian beliefs. Hindus believe in the cyclic nature of
time and everything is subject to periodic manifestation and
concealment. According to Hinduism, svarga is a subtle realm
beyond the perceptible physical world where a jiva in a subtle
svargiya body temporarily resides to enjoy the fruits of its good
deeds. After exhausting the balance of its good karma, a jiva is
bound to return to the lower worlds again. 98 According to Purva
Mimamsa, if a person performs actions as per the dharma enjoined
in the Veda-s, then he/she attains svarga.

The Hindu idea of svarga essentially requires reincarnation and

transmigration of atma, whereas the Christian concept of heaven
rejects reincarnation. Svarga is ruled by Indra, not God and
therefore, it is not the Kingdom of God. Indra is not a specific person,
but a post occupied for a limited period. According to Hindu beliefs,
unlike in Christianity, it is not absolutely essential for a person to cast
aside his physical body in order to gain access to svarga. Thus, the
two concepts of heaven and svarga are very different and

irreconcilable.99

Certain sects of Christianity, such as the Mormons, consider heaven

a kind of retirement plan where a person can eternally enjoy
amenities such as large mansions, good food, high speed internet,

golf etc., according to their tastes. It would be a gross trivialization of

the concept of svarga by regarding it as equivalent to such an idea of
heaven.

A natural corollary to the idea of heaven is the idea of hell. In

Christianity, hell is a place for eternal residence of sinful souls. In
Hinduism, svarga has its antithesis in the idea of naraka, which is
only a place of temporary stay meant for the purification of wrong-
doers by making them exhaust their stock of bad karma. 100 An
individual’s good and bad karma-s done in his lifetime are finite and
unique to the person. A finite cause cannot beget an infinite effect;
hence the fruits of these karma-s can only be finite and never
eternal. Thus, a jiva going either to svarga or naraka has to stay
there only for a temporary period. The time spent by jiva-s in naraka
is not only for punishment and repentance for their sins as in the
Judeo-Christian framework, but to transform them through the
understanding of Brahman. The entire foundational metaphysics for
the two concepts is different and cannot be mapped onto each other.

Asura is not Demon

Demon is very commonly used in English to translate the Sanskrit

word asura. The biblical tradition considers demons as the
personification of evil and the cause of all suffering.101 Demons are
former angels that were banished from heaven after a failed attempt
by them to overthrow God from his throne under the leadership of
Lucifer, who was the chief angel musician of God and came to be
called Satan. Hinduism does not have concepts such as devil,
demon or Satan in its worldview.

The Sanskrit word asura can be understood etymologically in two

ways. It can be derived from the word sura by adding the prefix a
before it. Sura denotes the devata-s and asura, its opposite, means

‘one who is opposed to the devata-s’. Devata-s are benign beings

appointed to look after the management of this cosmos, while asura-
s, driven by their malicious and destructive nature, try to disrupt
it.102

Asura can also refer to one who believes only in the enjoyment of
material pleasures of life, devoid of any higher spiritual purpose. 103

Another way of understanding the meaning of the word asura is in

terms of a clan, a lineage or a dynasty. Purana-s recount that the
revered sage, Maharishi Kashyapa had thirteen wives, two of whom
were Aditi and Diti. The sons of Aditi are called aditya-s which is
commonly used for the devata-s, and the sons of Diti are called
daitya-s, which refers to the asura-s. Thus, the asura-s and the
devata-s are born of the same father and are half-siblings. It is only
due to their different behavioral characteristics that they are
designated as devata-s and asura-s. This sense of lineage is not
suggested by the English word demon or devil.

Although asura-s generally possess vices, there are instances when

they have displayed extraordinary virtues. For example,
Hiranyakashyapu was a cruel asura but his son Prahlada was just
the opposite and amongst the great devotees of Bhagavan.104

Prahlada’s grandson Bali, also an asura, was a great devotee of

Bhagavan as well.

Asura-s are sometimes shown to be recipients of valuable

knowledge of the shastra-s. For example, the important ancient
Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta was first revealed to an
asura named Maya by Surya Bhagavan. 105 This is not the case
with demons, and we do not hear of noble or righteous demons in
the Judeo-Christian tradition.

The conflict between the devata-s and asura-s is also connected

with the institution of yajna. 106 In Hinduism the universe is seen as
a benevolent provider and a yajna is conducted to thank and give
back to the cosmic process. Devata-s try to help in the yajna, and
asura-s disrupt the performance of the same. This concept of yajna
is not found in the Abrahamic religions and hence demons and
angels cannot be distinguished on the basis of their support or
opposition to yajna-s. It is thus clear that the word asura denotes a
class of beings in the Hindu cosmology very different from the
Judeo-Christian concept of demon or devil.

Devata-s are not Gods or Angels

The word devata is derived from verbal root div; one of the meanings
of div is ‘to praise’ or ‘adore’. Thus, devata-s are personalities
adored and worshipped by all humans because they bring welfare to
humanity. A devata is completely different from Judeo-Christian
ideas of angels and gods.

Angels in Christianity and Judaism are messengers of God, that

have been organized into a hierarchy based on the New Testament.

The first rung of this hierarchy is seen as servants of God and their
primary role is protection and care of His throne in heaven. The
concept of Bhagavan is wholly different from the idea of God, as he
is transcendent and omnipresent. Bhagavan is superior to devata-s
and His abode is eternal and different from svarga where devata-s
reside.

Angels were created ex-nihilo by the Judeo-Christian God. In

Hinduism, however, the jivatma-s, which are eternal, manifest or
emanate from Bhagavan at the time of manifestation. They acquire
the body of a devata, human or any other being based on their past
karma-s. A jivatma with unusually good past karma-s takes on the
position of Indra devata. There is no such possibility in Christianity,
as it does not even have a cyclic concept of time.

Further rungs of Christian angelology consist of angels who act as

messengers of God to humans. They follow the orders of the angels
in the higher rung and provide material benefits to the humans based
on their authority. Angels cannot be worshipped by humans and it is
considered blasphemous in Christianity to do so, whereas devata-s
are meant to be worshipped and grant boons and other material, as
well as spiritual, benefits.

Angels expelled from heaven due to their sins are called ‘Fallen
Angels’, with Satan being the most well-known. These Fallen Angels
incite humans to commit sins. Such a concept has no place in the
Hindu worldview at all. Furthermore, angels are not allowed to wed,
whereas each devata has his female counterpart representing his
Shakti. These differences show that devata-s and angels are
different concepts and translating devata as angel is completely
incorrect.

Christianity’s angelology has changed with its expansionist history.

The initial milites Christi labeled as pagan all those who were

non-Christians during the times when Christianity was advanced

brutally across Europe. The pagans had diverse traditions, their own
order and rituals, with some being polytheistic, pantheistic, animistic
and some even monotheistic. All these divergent and different
cultures were replaced by Christianity and, in the process, concepts
of gods and angels were co-opted and transformed into the
monotheistic Abrahamic framework.

The use of the word god (lowercase ‘g’) to denote Hindu devata-s
has become prevalent even amongst Hindu spiritual guru-s. This is
misleading as the word ‘god’ is used to refer to beings which have
been subsumed into Christianity through its expansionist history,
from the various pagan, polytheistic and animistic cultures across
Europe. These gods have no unity under a single, integral
framework unlike in Hinduism, where the various devata-s are
connected in the Vedic cosmology and metaphysics. Using the word

‘gods’ to denote devata-s is misleading as devata has aspects, at

many levels, such as deity of choice ( ishta devata) and deity of a
place ( grama devata).

In recent times, authors such as Devdutt Pattanaik who write about

Hindu deities, depict them as only super humans or heroes with
extraordinary powers. They don’t recognize their error of retaining
Sanskrit terms for Hindu deities while applying Christian
understanding of gods to these words. Some authors even depict
Bhagavan Shiva and Bhagavan Shri Krishna as just exalted human
beings of extraordinary capabilities and use specious interpretation,
which is a consequence of colonial and post-colonial attempts to
historicize our canon in order to provide them more legitimacy. 107

Similar to the word ‘god’, sometimes the English word demi-god is

also used as a substitute for the Sanskrit word devata. This
translation for devata is even more inappropriate. Demi-god is
defined as a being born from the sexual union of a god and a mortal
being. Devata-s, on the other hand, are divine beings and hence this
translation is highly misleading.

Summary of Vedic Cosmos Non-Translatables

Vedic Cosmos Non-Translatables

Loka

Planet

Loka is not an observable

world, but an embodied plane

of existence defined by set

consciousness levels. Planet

as a physical body does not

convey the same meaning.

Svarga/

Heaven/

The Hindu idea of svarga

Naraka

Hell

requires transmigration and

reincarnation, for it refers to a

subtle realm where jiva-s stay

temporarily to enjoy the fruits

of their good deeds before

returning to lower worlds again.

Naraka is a temporary place

for a jiva to exhaust his/her bad

karma-s. Heaven is a place to

which a Christian believer

ascends and eternally lives

after death. Only eligible

people are granted admission

while the rest are cast into Hell

eternally.

Asura

Demon

Asura-s challenge the deva-s

in maintaining cosmic order,

though there are asura-s who

have been benevolent as well.

Demons

are

the

personification of evil and

always incorrigibly bad.

Devata

≠
god

Devata is one who is an object

of adoration and who manages

order in the cosmos. Whereas,

‘god’

refers

to

titans/superhuman beings of

the pagans that Christianity

has subsumed.

Vedic Psychology

Vedic psychology is a system rooted in Vedic thought and underpins

numerous yogic techniques present in the tradition for a person’s
psycho-spiritual development. It provides an understanding of
human behavior and is a practical knowledge system for achieving
happiness. In the Indian tradition, dharma, philosophy and
psychology have remained inseparably connected.

Inquiry into psychological aspects such as emotions, desires, will,

perception and illusions formed an important element of Indian
philosophy. The quest of the Indian rishi-s to understand and realize
the self has been the cornerstone of all philosophical and
psychological pursuits.
Mental health is a pre-requisite for any spiritual pursuit. The analysis
of Self propelled Indian thinkers into a detailed study of human
perception, desires, feelings and emotions, through which they also
understood the value of concentration and awareness.

Thus, training and control of will, forms an important part of Vedic

psychology.

The fundamental difference between Vedic psychology and modern

Western psychology lies in the subjective and intuitive methods to
study man (i.e., first-person empiricism) employed by the former, as
against the latter’s reliance on purely experimental and inferential
methods (i.e., second and third person). Indian seers derived their
psychological principles on the basis of their spiritual experiences
and not mere theorizing. Western psychology studies the inner
states of the mind through interpretation of its outer expressions,
based on pre-conceived notions and theories. In contrast, the
subjective methods and theories of Vedic psychology are verifiable
by a person’s own direct inner experience.

The basic principles underlying the Vedic approach to human

psychology include:

The existence of Supreme Consciousness or Brahman as the

essence of the entire universe.

The atma, or individual consciousness as the essence of human

personality.

The intimate and direct relation of individual consciousness with

Brahman.

The atma as the entity which enlivens and enlightens the

antahkarana (manas, buddhi, etc.) and the body with its
consciousness.

The principle of karma and rebirth.

The absence of these foundational concepts in Western psychology
leads to many unsolved problems such as the continuity of human
experience, origin and nature of mind, the relation of mind and body.

Western psychologists analyze the human being through a

mechanistic framework, as a brain-driven machine, the thoughts,
passions and emotions of which are ultimately reducible to nerve
impulses in the brain. The central and primary role of consciousness
in the Vedic system is contrasted by Western psychology’s view of
seeing consciousness as an epiphenomenon of a bio-mechanical
human brain. Vedic psychology conceives a person as a composite
of physical body ( sthula sharira), antahkarana (comprising chitta,
buddhi, manas and ahankara) and consciousness or atma.

Consciousness is irreducibly distinct from the physical body and the

antahkarana.

The Western psychological framework is unfortunately, universally

applied, replacing the insights of other cultures. This flawed
approach leads to an artificial and forced mapping of the Indian
psychological concepts onto the Western model, reflected in the
careless translations of terms such as sukshma sharira, manas,
buddhi, ahankara used in the Indian tradition, as mind, intelligence
and ego. We study these terms in detail in this chapter.

Sukshma Sharira is not Astral Body

Most systems of Indian philosophy recognize the existence of

sukshma sharira apart from the physical body or sthula sharira.

Sukshma sharira is often translated as ‘astral body’, which predates

Christianity and originated in ancient Greece.

According to Hindu philosophy, every jivatma is surrounded by three

sharira-s, with the sthula sharira being the outermost, surrounding
the sukshma sharira which, in turn, encases the karana sharira. All
the thoughts of a person emerge within the sukshma
sharira and it is necessary for transmigration of a jiva from one birth
to another.

Sukshma sharira is subtle ( asthula) and said to be constituted of

seventeen tattva-s which include the five prana-s, five buddhindriya-
s and five karmendriya-s, manas and buddhi. 108 At the time of
death, atma leaves the physical body along with sukshma sharira
and migrates to a higher or a lower loka according to its karma. It is
the sukshma sharira which gathers the physical body around it at
birth and abandons it at death. The variegatedness in human beings
is because of differences in their sukshma sharira, including different
physical forms. Sukshma sharira continues till the final release or
mukti is attained by a jiva.

All experiences in the different lives of a jiva during its transmigratory

existence leave certain residual karmic impressions or samskara-s
which remain in the sukshma sharira.109 The physical body cannot
carry samskara-s during transmigration as it ceases to exist at death.
Thus, sukshma sharira has a distinct individuality.

According to the Brahma Sutra, the warmth ( ushma) that we feel in

a living body by means of touch belongs to the sukshma sharira.110

This is the reason that bodily heat is not felt after death while
qualities such as form and color continue to be perceived.

In comparison, an astral body is regarded as a vehicle to clairvoyant

sight and other occult powers. It lacks any rigorous intellectual
foundation like the Veda-s and its relationship with reincarnation is
non-existent. The astral body is composed of finer matter and is said
to be surrounded by an aura of flashing colors. It is a medium of
transmission between the brain and mind and is able to move rapidly
to great distances, making a person capable of cosmic travel.

The translation of sukshma sharira into ‘astral body’ eliminates the

concept of transmigration and stored impressions from past lives.
While all living beings have sukshma sharira, astral body is limited
only to humans.

The digestion of the elaborate system of sukshma sharira into a

simplified, though inconsistent, entity of astral body deserves a
detailed study. Digestion of this kind, while distorting the Vedic

framework, leaves out essential Hindu elements, making the concept

itself poorly developed.

Manas is not Mind

Manas occupies a pivotal and central position in the Indian

psychological tradition. It performs the role of connecting
consciousness (atma) with the physical body. Perception involves 1)
the contact of jnanendriya-s with the external objects; 2) jnanendriya-
s with manas; and 3) manas with the atma. Thus, manas is the
interface between the internal and external worlds of a human being.

The atma does not come in direct contact with anything physical and
interacts with the external world through the manas. The indriya-s
give all the sensorial data received by them to the manas, which acts
as the central processor, reflecting on the data. The manas unifies all
the data received from different indriya-s in our cognition of an object
and makes them function in unison. For instance, to describe an
object while we see and touch it simultaneously, the common point
where the indriya-s of vision, touch and speech meet is the manas.

Manas works in a binary mode and qualifies an object of cognition

with a feeling of either like ( raga) or dislike ( dvesha).

Manas is by nature insentient or unconscious ( achetana) and only

reflects consciousness. Manas is concerned with immediate raw
evaluation ( nirvikalpaka jnana) without any rational or logical
analysis, similar to a child’s judgment. A quick, transient, cognitive
evaluation of a given situation in a number of alternate ways is the
basic function of manas.
The preferences of manas are influenced by the accumulated
samskara-s stored in the chitta. The inclinations of manas will alter
with the change of one of the three guna-s – sattva, rajas and tamas.

Manas permeates the whole body, similar to consciousness and

functions without space-time constraints.

Manas is a crucial factor in the experience of phenomenal

awareness and body-centeredness. An uncontrolled manas
overpowers the buddhi of a weak person, directing all his actions
based only on raga and dvesha, which leads to the continuation of

karmic cycle and bondage. A disciplined manas can thus become a

source of liberation from suffering through self-realization. 111 All the
methods of Yoga such as dharana, dhyana and samadhi are meant
to control the manas. Similarly, in bhakti yoga, activities such as
japa, puja also indirectly accomplish the same.

Western theories on the mind, range from equating it to one’s true

self, or one’s thoughts, to being analogous to the software running
the brain. Some radical thinkers even deny the existence of the
mind, in contrast with the Indian psychological tradition, and view it
only as a certain disposition of behavior. 112 Physicalism,
functionalism, mind-body duality and dualism are all considered, but
none fully studied or understood. The seat of manas in the Indian
tradition is the heart whereas the Western models associate the
mind with the brain. Western models of mind do not involve the
entire inner cognitive apparatus (antahkarana) with manas, buddhi,
chitta and ahankara, as its functional aspects. Consciousness,
memory and perception are combined into a cognitive set meant by
the mind. One cannot casually replace manas with a Western
substitute like mind, as it would render the whole system incoherent
and it would fall apart. It is unfortunate that this confused exploration
often draws on the work of several Eastern traditions and concepts
but seeks to incorporate it into its framework in a piecemeal manner
of digestion.
Buddhi is not Intelligence

Buddhi is the chief functional aspect of the antahkarana and is

responsible for producing cognition in a human being. The chief
characteristic of buddhi is to discriminate and comprehend things
and is commonly translated as ‘intelligence’. In any cognitive act, the
discrete and immediate impressions of objects by indriya-s are
synthesized and assimilated by manas and then reach the buddhi,
after which the ahankara unifies them. The buddhi identifies,
categorizes the object, and determines the response to it.

Buddhi is unconscious by nature and only reflects the atma’s

consciousness. When one sees an object, the visual impressions
generated by the eyes reach the manas, which synthesizes it and

generates the feeling of like or dislike for the object, without any
determinate knowledge about it. The impression reaches buddhi,
which then compares it with the past impressions stored in the chitta.

Through such comparison, buddhi ascertains and generates a

determinate knowledge and resolves the action that needs to be

taken regarding the object.113

Buddhi is the factor in the psychological apparatus which prevents a

person from acting impulsively. This is highlighted in Katha
Upanishad (1.3.3) where the atma is said to be the rider of the
chariot of the human body, buddhi to be the charioteer, manas to be
the reins and senses to be the horses drawing the chariot. Thus,
buddhi as charioteer discharges the cognitive and emotional
functions and arrives at decisions. Ahankara or the ‘I’ feeling comes
into play whenever buddhi makes a positive or a negative judgment.

Thus, cognition consists of the following steps:

1. The indeterminate knowledge that there is some object

2. The buddhi determines the object

3. The ahankara self-arrogates the knowledge

4. The buddhi decides the appropriate response

Buddhi is predominantly sattvika and manifests through tendencies

such as virtue (dharma), wisdom (jnana) and non-attachment (
vairagya) in man. The actions of the manas leave a karmic trace
whereas buddhi fixes one in the calmness of self-knowledge,
removes desires and impulsive responses, leading to calm
discrimination and absence of karmic reactions.114 A person who
acts under such an influence of buddhi and achieves realization is
called buddha or ‘the awakened one’.

Buddhi is very different from the Western concept of intelligence

which can be measured with the help of Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
tests. Buddhi’s role of providing determinate knowledge differs from
the West’s definition of intelligence which borrows from disciplines
such as psychology, learning, philosophy and others. The process of
cognition and the role of buddhi in it is well defined whereas it
remains open-ended in the Western model of intelligence.

Intelligence in the West is associated with the mind and the brain,
whereas buddhi is not a part of the brain but of the sukshma sharira.

Chitta is not Unconscious Mind

Chitta in Vedic psychology is a foundational part of the conditioned

jiva and denotes the repository of karmic samskara-s in the
antahkarana, which is wrongly translated as the ‘unconscious mind’.

Chitta is the individualized mahat tattva for one particular atma.

Mahat tattva is all-pervading and the part an individual uses to store

his/her own experiences and memories is called chitta. It is within
the chitta that consciousness or chetana first permeates from the
atma. The word chitta and chetana derive from the same root chitti
which means ‘to be conscious’ or ‘to be aware’. Chitta is thus the
foundation on which the complete psychological complex of an
individual is built.

Chitta is located in the heart region where the atma is believed to be

located and is constant through the different lives of a jivatma. It
stores memories of all experiences as samskara-s. Chitta is
responsible for the distinct personality of each individual. One can
think of the chitta as similar to a hard disk that stores past
impressions unique to the person. According to the law of karma, the
effect of any karma is not always instantaneous. The cause
generally remains registered and dormant in the chitta for a long time
before giving rise to its effect in suitable environment. 115

The various spiritual sadhana-s are meant to ultimately free a

person’s chitta from all its samskara-s. Patanjali’s Yogasutra says
that yoga is the quietening of all the activities of chitta leading to the
drashta or seer becoming situated in his own pure self-luminous

consciousness.116 Dharmic society created its social order to

regulate the chitta for good samskara-s for all its members.

Similar to how one can transfer contents between two hard disks, the
conditioning and content of one chitta can be transferred to that of
another. This takes place all the time during interaction between
people. Yogi-s and accomplished guru-s can manipulate chitta-s and
even delete karma-s stored in the chitta to eliminate their
consequences.

According to Freud (1856-1939), the founder of psychoanalysis, the

unconscious mind is a reservoir of thoughts, wishes, feelings and
painful memories from one’s present life. Western psychologists do
not believe in the law of transmigration and reincarnation of the
atma. The unconscious mind thus, has nothing to do with one’s past
lives and has no karmic record. In contrast, the chitta is the
storehouse of samskara-s from the past and present lives. Chitta
cannot thus be surgically clipped out from the Vedic psychological
complex and transplanted into the Western theories of mind.

Ahankara is not Ego

Ahankara is that constituent of the antahkarana which initiates the

process of individuation and gives identity to the psycho-physical
framework of a person. The word ahankara means ‘that which gives
a sense of aham’ or ‘I-ness’ and is erroneously translated as ego.

Consciousness without any sense of I-ness would not be self-aware

and hence meaningless. Ahankara’s function is to personalize
various experiences by linking them together as ‘my own’.

Ahankara is the self-arrogating principle that brings subjectivity into

the activities of all body parts and associates them with the person.
Ahankara generates a unique identity in a person in the form of
empirical self. When one says, ‘I am’, it implies that one is neither an
object nor any other person but a distinct individual. Every action
needs an agency and that is the ahankara. It is not possible to give
up ahankara completely as long as one is connected to the material
body and one can only minimize some of its activities.

A person becomes caught in a self-perpetuating karmic cycle

because of ahankara. As long as one acts with a sense of doership
due to ahankara, he creates more karmic impressions in the chitta.

These, in turn, shape one’s unique identity and further strengthen

their notion of empirical self.

The surrender of ahankara, only to Bhagavan is one of the means of

its purification. Deluding oneself, especially in the absence of proper
sadhana or guru, and indulging in actions without purifying one’s
psyche, leads to disastrous consequences for oneself and others,
and the accumulation of colossal bad karma.
Besides the meaning of ahankara as the self-referencing system at
the individual level, the term has another similar meaning at the
cosmic level. In Sankhya metaphysics, ahankara is the third evolute
in the chain of evolution of prakriti and develops out of mahat tattva.

It is the cosmic individuating principle responsible for limitations,

separation and variety in the universe. Ahankara in an individual
body is a material thing and a part of the cosmic ahankara.

Ahankara needs the consciousness from atma in order to function.

The atma’s sense of ‘I’ness is spiritual and when connected to a
particular body, gets superimposed onto the material ahankara and
they function as one single unit. 117 This sense of unity leads to
conditioning and identification with the mind-body complex and the
actions performed by them. If one rises above ahankara, then
everything becomes Universal Consciousness, because without
ahankara, there is no conditioning and no limited existence.

Ahankara gives rise to both positive and negative traits in a person’s

behavior. According to Sankhya philosophy, there are three types of
ahankara: sattvika ahankara, rajasika ahankara and tamasika
ahankara. Sattvika ahankara leads a person towards good deeds,
tamasika ahankara towards inertia and dullness and rajasika
ahankara towards aggressive domination. Yoga helps transform
tamasika and rajasika ahankara into sattvika ahankara before
transcending ahankara itself.

It is not possible to give up ahankara completely, as any sadhana to

transcend it still creates karmic impressions which perpetuates the
samsara. Bhagavan Shri Krishna says that even sattvika ahankara
binds one to the material world in subtle ways. 118 Therefore,
sadhana, such as bhakti-yoga aims to transform it by considering
only Bhagavan as the real doer of all one’s actions.119

In Western psychology, Freud’s concepts of id, ego and superego

dominate discussion on the subject. The id, which Freud considers
as the first division of the mind to develop, contains two biological
drives – sex and aggression – that are the source of all psychic or
mental energy. The id’s goal is to pursue pleasure and satisfy
biological urges. The ego, as the second division, develops from the
id during infancy. The ego’s goal is to find safe and socially
acceptable ways of satisfying the id’s desires. The superego, the

third of Freud’s division of the mind, develops from the ego during
early childhood. The goal of the superego is to apply the moral
values and standards of one’s parents and society in satisfying one’s
wishes. Freud considered a large part of the ego’s material to be
conscious, such as information we gather in adapting to our
environments. A smaller part of the ego’s material is unconscious,
which stores repressed desires.

Ahankara, unlike ego, does not come into existence during infancy
or childhood but is something every sentient being is born with.
Ahankara is not concerned solely with the satisfaction of desires in a
morally acceptable way as is the ego. Apart from the Freudian
psychoanalytic model, other Western psychological models too fail to
compare with the entire complex of antahkarana, interlinked with the
dharmic cosmological framework in the Indian tradition. The
mistranslation of ahankara as ego especially distorts the profound
meanings of core Indian metaphysical concepts, necessitating it to
be used as a non-translatable.

Summary of Vedic Psychology Non-Translatables

Vedic Psychology Non-Translatables

Sukshma

Astral

Sukshma Sharira is subtle,

Sharira

Body

made of seventeen tattva-s. At

the time of death, the atma

leaves the concrete physical

body along with its sukshma

sharira and migrates according

to its karma. Sukshma sharira

has a distinct individuality.

Astral body is a vehicle of

clairvoyant sight, occult powers

and is finer than physical

matter. Translating sukshma

shakira as astral body destroys

the concept of transmigration

and

storing

of

karmic

impressions.
Manas

Mind

Manas connects the atma and

the concrete body in a linear

relationship. It qualifies an

object of cognition with a

like/dislike feeling. Western

theories on the mind are

varied and even conflicting.

Consciousness, apart from the

mind

is

not

considered;

Western theories also do not

have an equivalent cognitive

apparatus to the indriya-s and

the antahkarana.

Buddhi

Intelligenc

Buddhi is the chief form and

functional

aspect

of
the

antahkarana that produces

cognition. Discrimination is the

main function of the Buddhi.

Intelligence is not precisely

defined

and

refers

to

something

that

can

be

measured and the dharmic

concept of Buddhi has little to

do with this.

Chitta

Unconscio

Chitta is the individualized

us Mind

aspect of mahat and is the

foundation of the complete

psychological complex of an

individual. It retains memory in

the form of samskara-s and is

responsible for the distinct

conditioning of each individual.

Chitta is very different from the

unconscious mind

which

does not consider the laws of

transmigration,

rebirth

and

karma.

Ahankara

Ego

Ahankara is a component of
the antahkarana responsible

for the individuality and agency

of a person. It is also the

individuating

principle

responsible

for

limitations,

separation and variety in the

Universe.

Ego,

unlike

ahankara which is ever-

present, comes into existence

during infancy or childhood.

Ego’s goal is to find safe and

socially acceptable ways of

satisfying desires.

Yoga
Yoga is one of the six systems of Hindu darshana-s. It is derived
from the verbal root yuj, which means ‘to unite’; Patanjali defines
yoga as cessation of all thought process and becoming situated in
one’s own self. Yoga was discovered and developed by the austere
and wise Indian seers of the past; the tapasya performed by them
through truthfulness, ahimsa, abstinence and devotion to Bhagavan
were transformed into the systematic methods such as dharana,
dhyana, and samadhi.

Yoga is characterized by a permanent, sublime state of

consciousness (samadhi), where a person attains complete control
over the senses, mind and body. It is a grave error to translate this
highest yogic state (samadhi) as ‘trance’. Trance is an abnormal
(tamasika) state of mind under the influence of drugs or alcohol,
where a person has no control.

Patanjali describes eight stages in his ashtanga-yoga: yama,

niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and
samadhi. The attainment of each of these involves rigorous and strict
sadhana. These eight terms carry deep and specialized meanings
for which no English equivalents exist. However, many modern yoga
instructors commonly and senselessly translate the last five as
meditation. The word ‘meditation’ does not even begin to accurately
represent the meaning of any of these terms individually and using it
indiscriminately for all five is a crude distortion.

Ahimsa forms an important part of the first stage or limb of

Patanjali’s ashtanga yoga called yama; this chapter considers its
mistranslation as ‘non-violence’. In the yogic system, any disease or
pain in the body happens due to the imbalance of prana and control
of it (pranayama) is an important element in yoga sadhana; this
chapter discusses its mistranslation as breath. Chakra is another
important concept in the yoga tradition, commonly mistranslated as
energy-center or energy-wheel.
Yoga is widely popular across the world, mainly focused on the
physical and auxiliary aspect of asana-s. With this increase in
popularity, the risk of misinterpretation and mistranslation of the
yogic terms through self-styled yoga instructors and their eventual
digestion into popular culture has also escalated, necessitating their
recognition as non-translatables.

Ahimsa is not Non-violence

Non-violence is commonly defined as the use of peaceful means to

bring about political or social change. The principle of non-violence
denotes the practice of being completely harmless and kind to other
living beings. The traditional Hindu concept of ahimsa also
emphasizes the qualities of kindness and harmlessness, but not
absolutely or unreservedly. In the pragmatic world, some use of force
becomes inevitable to ensure that truth and justice prevail.

Etymologically, the word ahimsa derives from himsa by adding the

prefix a. It is a common misconception that the prefix a or an is used
to give the opposite meaning to a word. For example, jnana means
‘knowledge’ and ajnana means ‘ignorance’. However, the prefix a
has six meanings and one of them means ‘less’ or ‘small’. In case of
the word ahimsa, it means minimizing himsa or violence and not
complete absence of violence.

According to the Hindu view, there is always some himsa involved in

the continuation and preservation of life and this is not regarded as
violence.120 However, himsa, though unavoidable, can be
minimized through governing principles called ahimsa dharma.

Non-violence cannot be regarded as an absolute rule independent of

context. The ideas of ahimsa are derived from the shastra-s which
recognize that total elimination of violence is impossible and
unnatural, and that the only pragmatic solution is minimization of
violence. Bhagavan Shri Krishna inspired Arjuna to fight the
righteous battle at Kurukshetra, because taking appropriate, punitive
action against adharma is an act of ahimsa, and an intrinsic part of
the Kshatriya dharma whereas inactivity is an act of himsa.

Gandhi mistranslated and digested the word ahimsa into ‘non-

violence’. His teachings and methods are based on non-violence and
not ahimsa.

The word himsa either cannot be translated as ‘violence’. Himsa is

not limited to physical harm but includes other manifestations as
well. The legal text, Manusmriti states that there are three forms of
violence or himsa: physical, verbal and mental. Though the term
violence has acquired expanded meanings in the West, physical
violence still constitutes its dominant meaning. In the Indian context,

himsa and ahimsa applies to each of the three sharira-s and one can
determine the exact nature of harm and path of healing, within the
psycho-physiological complex of the Indian system. Violence and
non-violence, on the other hand, are related to a completely different
Western framework of mind-body complex. Thus, ahimsa and himsa
should not be decoupled from the Indian tradition with inadequate
and misleading translations.

Prana is not Breath

Prana is derived from the root an, which means ‘to breathe,’ and has
the prefix pra used for the word to mean ‘that which comes before
breath’ or, ‘that which gives rise to life’. Prana is often translated into
English as ‘breath’ or ‘vital air’. 121 The word ‘breath’ signifies the
physical movement of air during respiration and is a sign of life.

Prana is not just breath but is the basic force of life responsible for
activating the psycho-physical body, including breath. 122

Prana is the bridge linking atma and antahkarana along with the
physical body. Atma sustains life only through the prana, as the
former transcends space-time and cannot directly influence anything
material such as the manas or the indriya-s. Prana first imbues chitta
with consciousness, which then transfers it further down to
ahankara, manas, buddhi, indriya and eventually the entire body is
permeated. Prana, unlike breath, is not just confined to the
respiratory system of the body but is a force that vitalizes different
sections and makes them function in a coordinated manner. Prana’s
role of channeling consciousness into the psycho-physical body of a
living being cannot be captured by the word ‘breath’.

Prana assumes five differentiated forms and pervades the whole

body as prana, apana, vyana, udana, and samana. Prana in the form
of vyana maintains cardiac activity and is responsible for blood
circulation; samana activates the intestine and is responsible for the
digestion of food. Prana is responsible for any voluntary or
involuntary movement and activity in the body.123 When a part of
our body is given anesthesia, we lose consciousness in that part
because the flow of prana gets obstructed.

Prana is the cause of all energy that we see; it is present in air as

well as in food. When we eat food or breathe in air, we are taking in
prana from them into our bodies. Natural environments of an ocean,
lake, river and mountains rejuvenate one because more prana is
available at such places. Fresh food has more prana than artificially
preserved frozen food; one can lose prana by overeating and gain it
by fasting, which helps balance prana. The source of all the prana in
vegetation and other life forms on earth is the sun; some Indian yogi-
s have been known to practice Surya-yoga, the yogic method of
surviving only on the prana from the sun.

Mantra-s function as storehouses of prana which can be tapped into

by adept sadhaka-s for gaining energy and vitality. Disease is
considered as a deficiency of prana in the affected part of the body
and mantrika power brings healing through its replenishment.

Pranayama is another yogic method of controlling prana and has the

ability to cure diseases. Pranayama also influences the chitta and
can become instrumental in removing karma. Prana is also obtained
from loving relationships. None of these ideas are conveyed through
the mistranslation ‘breath’.

Chakra is not Energy Center

The term chakra used in tantric yoga, though popular in Western

lexicon, is poorly understood by the English-speaking world. Chakra-
s have been, unfortunately, studied by some only through
independent reading, without any guidance from a proper guru,
resulting in theoretical and inaccurate understandings, as
exemplified by psychologists such as Carl Jung (1875-1961).

The primary focus of Vedic philosophy has been the phenomenon of

consciousness. As discussed earlier, the presence of atma imparts
consciousness to the insentient human body. The tantric yoga
tradition considers the chakra-s to be the seats or loci through which
consciousness radiates into the human physical system. These
chakra-s are not anatomical locations in the physical body and are
only experienced by yogi-s during dhyana. Chakra-s are a part of
sukshma sharira, are not identical with nerve plexuses and
disappear at death.

Generally, seven chakra-s are commonly recognized across tantric

yoga schools: muladhara, svadhishthana, manipura, anahata,
vishuddha, ajna and sahasrara. 124 They are located along the
central nervous system, between the muladhara at the base of the
spinal column to the sahasrara at the crown. In tantric texts, each
chakra is symbolically represented as a lotus flower with a particular
number of petals because Shakti (consciousness) radiates outwards
from a chakra in petal-like emanations. Thus, a literal translation of
chakra as ‘wheel’ or ‘center’ is a complete distortion of its meaning.

The status of chakra-s as active, inactive or partly active represents

the levels of spiritual consciousness attained by the sadhaka and
reflects his natural abilities and interests. As the consciousness of a
person rises higher, the veils obstructing the chakra-s get
progressively lifted and the sadhaka becomes freer from lower
material nature. The chakra-s are associated with their
corresponding loka-s and the rise of the Kundalini Shakti also brings
about the level of consciousness of the associated loka.

The highest chakra sahasrara symbolizes the plane of

transcendence and a person attains the state of samadhi when
consciousness reaches this chakra. This ascent of consciousness
from the muladhara to the sahasrara, aided by yogic techniques, is
the rise of the Kundalini Shakti. This progressive ascent through the
chakra-s allows the Shakti to absorb all twenty-four material tattva-s
until She enters the sahasrara and becomes one with the Universal
Consciousness.

Each chakra representation has petals that represent sound

vibrations in the form of Sanskrit syllables. Every represented
syllable has a certain Shakti in it and the sum total of all the syllabic
sounds in the petals of a chakra is the mantra of that chakra. The
center of each chakra has a letter that represents the root ( bija) of
the mantra, the chanting of which assists in uplifting consciousness.

There is a divinity related with each chakra, representing the forces

manifest and latent in it.

A common mistranslation of chakra is ‘energy center’; chakra-s

represent particular forms of consciousness and are not merely
physical energy centers. Energy is a material and insentient concept,
with no well-defined connection with consciousness. Calling chakra-s
merely ‘energy centers’ is a gross trivialization of their profound
meaning. The concept of chakra is interconnected with many other
concepts such as loka-s and mantra-s in the Indian knowledge
system, which contribute to its proper comprehension. This
interconnected and internally consistent philosophy is distorted when
isolated parts from it are mapped on to a different system.

Figure 18: The Seven Chakra-s

Dhyana is not Meditation

The word dhyana is derived from the Sanskrit root dhyai to mean

‘think’ or ‘contemplate’. According to Patanjali, dhyana refers to fixing

one’s mind on a specific object without any deviation. 125 Meditation
includes techniques to promote relaxation, build internal energy, life
force and develop compassion; it is also used to refer to deep
thinking on a particular subject.

Figure 19: Yoga

In dhyana, the purpose is not to specifically develop qualities such

as love and compassion; they emerge spontaneously from dhyana
and preceding stages in yoga sadhana. A yogi’s chitta becomes

withdrawn from all sense desires in pratyahara. Compassion

develops due to practice of ahimsa, cleanliness ( shaucha) and
truthfulness as required in the first two steps of yoga sadhana,
namely, yama and niyama. Each of the stages in the figure above
has a unique purpose in yoga and labelling all these terms as
meditation is a serious case of reductionism and over-simplification.

It is akin to mixing assorted remedies for different diseases and

referring to them all as one ‘medicine’.

Samadhi is not Trance

The word samadhi in Indian philosophy denotes a transcendental

state of super-consciousness in which a person goes beyond the
barriers of his/her normal cognition based on the psycho-physical
mechanism. Samadhi is often translated using words such as

‘trance’, ‘hypnotic state’ or ‘altered state of consciousness’. This

section highlights the distinction between samadhi and other banal
translations.

Trance is defined as a half-conscious state, characterized by a

dazed condition or absence of response to external stimuli, typically
induced by hypnosis or drugs. Samadhi is the very antithesis of
trance; it is an elevated state of consciousness in which a person’s
awareness is beyond the ken of the wakeful state. Samadhi
transcends the limitations of space-time and makes accessible the
sensorial and the super-sensorial realities of the present, the past as
well as the future. In samadhi state, a yogi gains knowledge of the
principles underlying and controlling the harmony of the cosmos
called ritambhara prajna.

The word samadhi is derived from the Sanskrit root dha by adding
the prefixes sam and aa. The root dha means ‘to fix’ or
‘concentrate’ and sam denotes ‘complete’ or ‘perfect’. Samadhi
brings together all the dissipated and scattered forces of manas. It is
attained by intense contemplation on an object and is a state where
the sadhaka, the object of his contemplation and the act of
contemplation lose their distinctions. Thus, in the state of samadhi,
all the fluctuating mental states ( chitta vritti-s) become still.

The Yoga-sutra-s mention several samadhi states which are broadly

classified into sabija samadhi and nirbija samadhi. 126 Sabija
samadhi is attained by concentrating the chitta on some object or
idea such as a mantra, a sound or light. In nirbija samadhi, there is
no object before consciousness, and the ego gets completely
dissolved. 127

Maharishi Patanjali speaks of a very important method in yoga

sadhana called samyama, which is the simultaneous application of
the last three yogic states of dharana, dhyana and samadhi on an
object. 128 During samyama, a sadhaka enters into the state of
samadhi while retaining full awareness of the external world. When
the object of samyama is Ishvara, it leads to emancipation and
unlimited ananda for a sadhaka. Similarly, the performance of
samyama on the Sun gives knowledge of the different realms of the
entire universe or cosmos. 129 Thus, samadhi is an extremely
consummated and accomplished state and cannot simply be called
trance. Nobody in a bewildered and confused state of trance can
attain knowledge of the entire cosmos.

Samadhi gives a yogi mastery and control over the forces of nature,
which cannot be induced by drugs or hypnotism as in the state of
trance. Trance is merely a tamasika state with a distorted vision of
reality, often accompanied by a false sense of joy or exhilaration. A
person in a trance suffers from an undisciplined and deluded mind
with which it is impossible to attain any higher state of realization. A
person goes into a drug-induced trance to escape the worldly reality,
whereas a yogi goes into samadhi to rejuvenate and re-engage with
worldly reality. A person becomes capable of achieving samadhi only
after a highly disciplined life of sadhana.

There are no shortcuts such as drugs or hypnotism for attaining

samadhi.

Summary of Yoga Non-Translatables

Yoga Non-Translatables

Ahimsa

Non-

Ahimsa emphasizes kindness

violence

and

harmlessness,

but

recognizes that himsa is not

completely avoidable. Non-

violence

requires

the

unconditional use of peaceful

and harmless means ‘to bring

change’.

Prana

Breath

Prana

connects

the

consciousness of atma with the

inert psycho-physical body of

an individual. It is not just

confined to the respiratory

system but pervades the whole

body.

Breath signifies the air inhaled

or exhaled during respiration.

Chakra

Energy

Chakra-s are considered to be

Centre/Wh
seats

through

which

eel

consciousness radiates into

the human physical system.

Chakra-s are not anatomical

locations in the physical body

perceptible to the human eyes.

The word energy need not

have any connection with

consciousness, as insentient

machines also have energy

and capacity to do work.

Dhyana

Meditation

Dhyana is a specific limb of

ashtanga yoga revealed by

Maharishi
Patanjali.

Meditation is a term used

indiscriminately to denote the

latter five limbs of yoga,

collapsing

many

technical

aspects of the sadhana into

one ill-defined word.

Samadhi

Trance

Samadhi

refers

to

transcendental state of super-

consciousness where a person

goes beyond the barriers of

egocentric
psycho-physical

setup. Trance refers to a half-

conscious state characterized

by absence of response to

stimuli, typically induced by

drugs or hypnosis.

Sadhana

The essence of Hinduism lies in the immediate intuitive experience

of the divine, which requires a sadhaka to follow certain essential
forms of discipline known as sadhana. Bhakti, yoga, jnana, nama-
japa, sangita are some forms of sadhana depending on the
temperament of a sadhaka. Sadhana is commonly translated as

‘spiritual practice’ or simply, ‘practice’. This chapter evaluates this

translation, along with those of other major forms of sadhana-s.

Sadhana is not Spiritual Practice

Sadhana comes from the Sanskrit verbal root saadh which means ‘to
reach a goal’. Sadhana is the experiential side of Hinduism and a
process by which a sadhaka reaches the goal of spiritual perfection
(moksha) in his/her spiritual journey. On the other hand, the word

‘practice’ denotes a customary, habitual, or expected way of doing

something and can be related to anything such as practicing a sport.

However, these self-gratifying actions cannot be called sadhana

because the word is used only in the context of attaining moksha.
Indifference or absence of desire (vairagya) towards worldly
possessions or fame is an important element in any sadhana.

Sadhana may refer to different paths such as the karma marga if a

person is a karma yogi or bhakti marga if one is engaged in bhakti
activities such as japa, kirtana, puja, or contemplation on divine
leela-s of Bhagavan. Sadhana is a conscious effort at manifesting
the divine qualities within an individual and is limited to humans. The
word ‘practice’, on the other hand, can be used even in the case of
training animals.

The word practice can denote an activity which is the very antithesis
of sadhana; for example, one may practice how to smoke, but there
is no such thing as sadhana of smoking. Sadhana leads to an
expansion of one’s consciousness; any activity which makes one
more selfish and contracts his/her consciousness by increasing the
feelings of ‘I’ ( ahanta) and ‘mine ’( mamata) cannot be called
sadhana.

Sadhana is a way of life in accordance with dharma and Hindu

shastra-s and one cannot devise one’s own sadhana based on
wishful thinking. Only one who has realized the ultimate truth and

crossed different stages towards moksha through the shastra-s can

guide an aspirant in sadhana. Some proponents of spirituality
declare their disbelief in any shastra pramana and teach sadhana to
followers without reference to any shastra. They claim their sadhana
to be a new creation based on their independent experience.

Bhagavan Shri Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita says that those who
act as per their own desires, discarding the injunctions of the
shastra-s, attain neither perfection, happiness, nor moksha. Thus,
claims of sadhana-s independent of shastra-s are in direct violation
of the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita. People sharing their own
independent methods of attaining perfection are free to sell their
independent spiritual program but should call it practice and not
sadhana.130

Puja is not Ritual

Puja is a form of sadhana in Hinduism through which a devotee

expresses prema and bhakti towards a personal deity. The word puja
derives from the root puj which means ‘to honor or to respect with
devotion’ and this section discusses its mistranslation as ‘ritual’.

Ritual refers to a sequence of activities, religious or non-religious,

involving gestures, words and objects performed in a prescribed
order according to a particular tradition. The purpose of puja is not
perfunctory continuation of a certain tradition, but an expression of
prema to establish a relationship with the deity. The articles used in a
puja such as incense ( dhupa), lamps ( deepa), flowers ( pushpa)
and activities such as singing, and chanting are for the pleasure of
the deity and to create an atmosphere of ananda. The offerings in a
puja express the devotee’s prema and gratitude towards Bhagavan
and lead to transformation and purification of his self. The vigraha of
a deity to whom puja is offered is identical with the personhood of
the deity and personifies Ultimate Reality for the bhakta.

Karma-yoga is not Path of Action

Karma-yoga is regarded as one of the means for the attainment of

moksha in Hinduism and is popularly translated as ‘path of action’.

The word karma has two meanings: a) any action or activity of a

person in present and past lives; and b) activities prescribed by the
shastra-s, performed with a certain mental attitude, such as yajna-s,
recitation of mantra-s, worship of a deity and other dharmic activities
as used in the compound word karma-yoga. The word ‘action’, on
the other hand, is used to denote anything performed by an
individual in his life as the concept of past life or karma is absent
among the adherents of Abrahamic religions; the word ‘action’ is
narrowly confined in its scope to just one life.
The mistranslation ‘path of action’, at best refers to mundane
activities of a person performed to perfection, but are of no
consequence from the lens of karma-yoga, as they do not lead to
spiritual upliftment. As per the law of karma, all actions cause
reactions and perpetuate the cycle of samsara. ‘Path of action’ gives
the freedom of action but not the freedom from action, i.e., it can
never grant a person liberation or moksha.

Bhagavan Shri Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita defines karma-yoga as

the art of working in proper consciousness. 131 Karma, which
normally keeps one bound to samsara, can also act as a means to
escape it. In karma-yoga, a person engages in worldly activities at
the physical level, but at the psychological level he/she surrenders
all desires for the enjoyment of fruits of actions and offers them to

Bhagavan.132 Desire and ego are the common motivational forces

for all human karma-s ( sakama karma). Karma-yoga acknowledges
this relationship between desire and karma and works towards
transcending it by eliminating the attachment to the fruits of actions (
nishkama karma).133 Nishkama or desireless karma done in
accordance with the shastra-s is dharma; even the sense of doership
of action called kartrtva bhava is a sign of ignorance.

Hinduism classifies all karma-s as sattvika, rajasika and tamasika; it

is only sattvika karma-s performed as an offering to Bhagavan which
help a person to transcend the three guna-s of prakriti and not
merely performing good deeds. In Christianity, emphasis is laid on
the performance of good deeds which when performed in
accordance with the Christian ethical principles,

secures a believer a place in heaven. However, in karma-yoga the

focus is not only on the nature of action but also the agency and
inner attitude of the person. The Bhagavad Gita says that only an
atma bewildered by a false identification with the body thinks itself to
be a doer when, in reality, all actions happen by the impulse of the
three guna-s. 134 Karma-yoga culminates in the complete
harmonization of personal will with the Supreme Divine will and
realization of oneself as an instrument of It.

Karma-yoga is thus, a process very different from the ‘path of action’

in which one remains bound to this material world and begins when
one surrenders the ‘path of action’ to seek liberation from material
bondage.

Jnana-yoga is not Path of Knowledge

Jnana-yoga is prescribed in the Hindu shastra-s as a means for

moksha. It is commonly translated as ‘the path of knowledge’ and
this inaccuracy is considered here.

Knowledge is defined as facts, information and skills acquired

through experience or education. In general, it denotes awareness of
any material object, a quality, an act or an emotion by bringing them
into relation with the knower; knowledge thus reveals empirical
reality. On the other hand, jnana in the compound term jnana-yoga
does not refer to the conditioned and limited knowledge of empirical
life. Jnana normally refers to any kind of cognition but in the context
of jnana-yoga, it refers only to the realization of the essential nature
of self as identical with the Brahman called Brahma-jnana or atma-
jnana. The subject-object dichotomy which persists in all cases of
knowledge is transcended in jnana-yoga.

In the Indian tradition, jnana refers to both empirical knowledge (

apara-jnana) and transcendental knowledge ( para-jnana). 135
Jnana-yoga is not only the process of knowing but is a sadhana and
involves sadhana -sadhya relationship. Jnana is the sadhana, and
realization of identity with Brahman is the sadhya. ‘Path of
knowledge’ does not convey the sadhya and the relationship. The
sadhana of jnana-yoga does not merely involve intellectual study.

According to Advaita Vedanta, a sadhaka of jnana-yoga must

possess qualifications including the ability to discriminate between
eternal and transient entities ( viveka) and non-attachment to worldly
objects (vairagya) along with other requirements.136 No amount of
knowledge on worldly matters aids the path of jnana-yoga, and the
sadhaka needs to follow the sadhana-chatushtaya of Advaita
Vedanta or similar prescription from classical yoga and observe strict
adherence to moral and ethical codes from these paths. 137

A man of knowledge may be harmful to society, but a jnana-yogi

embodies wisdom and enlightenment for society. Jnana-yogi-s are
those who have risen above worldly pleasures and pain. Thus,
jnana-yoga, which deals with transcendental matters should not be
reduced to mundane levels as ‘path of knowledge’.

Bhakti-yoga is not Path of Devotion

In Hinduism, Bhakti-yoga is one of the simplest means for attaining

moksha. Given its all-inclusive and uncomplicated nature, Bhakti-
yoga has attained popularity worldwide as a means to God-
realization. Bhakti-yoga is commonly translated as ‘the path of
devotion’ which is an over-simplification of the Sanskrit term. The
word ‘devotion’ can be used in a purely secular sense, as in the case
of devotion towards one’s family members, business or job.

However, the word bhakti is used specifically for Bhagavan.

Bhakti, commonly translated as devotion, derives from the verbal

root bhaj which means ‘to offer seva’.138 The sadhana of bhakti-
yoga requires two entities – a bhakta who practices bhakti and
Bhagavan who is the recipient and object of bhakti. In bhakti-yoga,
the supreme goal of human life is to attain unbounded prema for
Bhagavan, devoid of any self-interest, which leads to, and
culminates in, divine communion. 139

Bhakti-yoga is founded on an individual’s emotional relationship on a

personal basis with the Supreme Being and is not possible with
some impersonal force, energy or principle. Bhakti-yoga essentially
requires a divine personality, with attributes and form ( nama-rupa),
to adore with shraddha. This finds expression through various
stunning and diverse forms and traditions in Hinduism, for instance,
seen in

temple architecture and murti-worship; the latter is especially

prohibited in Abrahamic religions and regarded as idolatry and
sacrilegious.

In different sampradaya-s of Hinduism, bhakti-yoga is used as a

technical term to denote certain practices to be followed by a bhakta.

For instance, in the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya, the practice of

bhakti-yoga involves a seven-fold discipline called sadhana-saptaka,
to steadily direct the mind towards Bhagavan.140 Similarly, the
Gaudiya Vaishnava sampradaya, following Bhagavatam, explains
bhakti-yoga as constituting the following nine-activities: listening to
the leela-s of Bhagavan ( shravana), chanting Bhagavan’s names (
kirtana), constantly remembering Bhagavan ( smarana), offering
seva at Bhagavan’s feet ( pada-sevana), worshipping Bhagavan (
archana), offering obeisance to Bhagavan ( vandana), considering
oneself as a dasa of Bhagavan ( dasya), considering Bhagavan as
friend ( sakhya), and complete surrender to Bhagavan ( atma-
nivedana). Thus, bhakti-yoga is complex and cannot be translated as

‘the path of devotion’.

Summary of Sadhana Non-Translatables

Sadhana Non-Translatables

Sadhana

Spiritual
Sadhana is the process of

Practice

attaining the spiritual goal of

moksha. Self-gratifying actions

cannot be referred to as

sadhana. The word practice

applies to a range of things,

from sports to music and art,

and refers to the habitual and

expected

way

of

doing

something.

Puja

Ritual

Puja is a form of spiritual

sadhana where a devotee

expresses his bhakti towards a

personal deity. Ritual involves procedure which may or may

not be religious, with a

sequence of activities, in

accordance with some custom

or tradition.

Karma-

Path of

The compound word karma-

Yoga

Action

yoga

refers

to

works

performed as prescribed by the

shastra-s, with a selfless

mental attitude. Path of action

refers to ordinary activities

which cause reaction from the

perspective of karma, leading

to further entanglements in the

material world.

Jnana-

Path of

Jnana-yoga refers particularly

Yoga

Knowledg

to the path of yoga which leads

to the awareness or realization

of the essential nature of self

as identical with the ultimate

Brahman. The subject-object

dichotomy which persists in

cases

of

knowledge

is
transcended in jnana yoga.

Knowledge

refers

to

information,

facts,

skill

acquired through experience,

revelation of empirical reality.

Bhakti-

Path of

In bhakti-yoga the supreme

Yoga

Devotion

goal of human life is to attain

unbounded

prema

for

Bhagavan devoid of any self-

interest, leading to divine

communion.

Bhakti-yoga

essentially requires a divine

personality, with attributes and

form, to adore.

The word ‘devotion’ can be

used in a purely secular sense,

to convey devotion towards

one’s

family

members,

business or job; however, the

word bhakti is used specifically

for Bhagavan.

Vedic Shastra

Shastra refers to the corpus of authoritative texts in the Hindu

tradition which have served as the guiding force for millennia.

Vedic shastra broadly refers to the Veda-s, the Upanishad-s and all
the allied sacred texts including the Vedanga-s, Itihasa-s, Purana-s
and Smriti-s. These shastra-s have been traditionally studied and
transmitted orally by one generation to the next, by learning from
qualified guru-s ensuring protection from distortion. This chapter
considers the mistranslations of terms such as Shastra, Shruti,
Itihasa, Purana, Tantra and guna.

Shastra is not Scripture

In Abrahamic traditions, the word ‘scripture’ refers to a book which

God reveals for the guidance of all humans through a chosen person

– a prophet – at a particular time in history. Any revision to the

scripture is allowed only through a new prophet sent by God. The
instructions received through such past revelations constitute the
scriptures. A scripture is sacrosanct and frozen in a particular
historical time and there is no scope for any alteration of its content.

Shastra, however, is not something Bhagavan revealed to any

chosen person at a particular time in history. Shastra-s are classified
as Shruti and Smriti. Shruti-s (Veda-s) denote texts which are eternal
( nitya) and not created by anyone at any point in time (
apaurusheya). Shruti-s are only perceived by the enlightened rishi-s
through supranormal means. Smriti-s refer to sacred texts written by
ancient rishi-s to explain the Shruti-s and derive their authority from
them.

The most fundamental shastra is the Veda, and manifest in the same
form at the beginning of every kalpa (creation cycle), similar to the
descent of Bhagavan ( avatara).141 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
(2.4.10) says that the shastra-s such as Veda-s, Itihasa-s and
Purana-s, are the very breath of Brahman and are similarly eternal.

In contrast, the coming of Jesus created Christian scriptures which

did not exist before; thus, its teachings are part of history. The Veda-
s are ahistorical and there was never a time when humanity was
bereft of them. This feature of eternal truth vis-à-vis historical truth
highlights a very fundamental distinction of shastra-s from scriptures
and emphasizes the inappropriateness of using the word ‘scripture’

for Hindu shastra-s.

Conversely, it is misleading to use the word shastra for the scriptures

of Abrahamic tradition because in Hindu tradition, a text is regarded
as authoritative and a part of the shastra-s only when it is in
conformity with the Veda-s. The Bible and the Quran, which do not
share ideas that are basic to the Veda-s such as the eternality of the
atma, law of karma and reincarnation cannot be considered
shastras. Only those parts which are in conformity with Veda-s can
be accepted as shastra.

While scriptures were dictated to chosen prophets, without any

regard to merit, the Veda-s as impersonal knowledge at the
adhyatmika level, become an object of cognition when one has
purified oneself through rigorous sadhana and tapasya. Such a
spiritually qualified and enlightened person is called a rishi in Hindu
tradition. Rishi-s are highly revered and worshipped, whereas in
Abrahamic traditions, the worship of a prophet may be regarded as
blasphemy. While scriptures are not personified, the Veda-s have a
personality.142

Another important distinction between the shastra-s and the

scriptures lies in the way they are learnt. Indian tradition of learning
has been primarily oral through conscious choice, and the Veda-s
were accurately transmitted and preserved through the unbroken
lineage of guru-shishya parampara.143 Abrahamic scripture derives
from, and rests upon, the idea of a written text documenting the
decrees of God for man while the Veda-s embody the oral

tradition.144

The Smriti-s are dynamic and adaptable to reinterpretation for

different epochs, preventing their irrelevance with time.145
Scriptures,
in contrast, lack these evolving aspects, making them frozen at a
particular historical time and reducing their relevance in the modern
world. The dynamic aspect of Hindu shastra-s is completely lost
when they are translated as scriptures, adding to the reasons why
the shastra is a Sanskrit non-translatable. 146

Shruti is not ‘That which is Heard’

Shruti is a profound term in Sanskrit, commonly mistranslated as

‘that which is heard’. Shruti is used to signify the intuitive hearing

experienced during samadhi and not merely something that is
auditory. Ancient Indian rishi-s experienced a resonance with the
subtle and supra-physical cosmic forces, leading to the manifestation
of the Vedic mantra-s which are referred to as Shruti-s.147 Since
Shruti-s and Veda-s are synonymous, the Shruti-s are nitya and
apaurusheya; Hinduism is called sanatana (eternal) dharma because
it based on the Shruti-s.

According to tantric texts there are two types of sounds – ahata and
anahata. 148 The ahata is produced when two things strike, such as
the sound uttered by a person while speaking. However, the sound
of the Veda-s is anahata, which means that it is not produced by any
conjunction of objects. Anahata sound is beyond the realm of senses
and is eternal. Anahata Shabda is silent to the physical ears of an
ordinary person but can be perceived by yogi-s in samadhi.

The process for the correct pronunciation of the mantra-s in the

Shruti-s involves a deep knowledge of phonetics ( shiksha), which
activates the nerve centers of the listener and affects the universe. A
change in intonation can completely alter the effect produced by a
Shruti mantra on the listener and hence, guidance of a learned guru
is essential.

According to Indian philosophy, Vak has four levels and Figure 20

shows its forms from most concrete ( vaikhari) to subtlest ( para)
manifestations.

Figure 20: Vak

Para Vak is nothing but the Shruti-s. Indian thought has four levels of
speech or language and corresponding levels of hearing. Shruti is
not something heard at the vaikhari level but at the level of Para Vak,
by rishi-s. Considering the profound implications of mistranslating
such a term, Shruti is a prime example of a Sanskrit non-
translatable.

Itihasa/Purana is not History/Myth

In Indian tradition, Itihasa and Purana denote a corpus of texts which

are foundational to the Indian ethos in all aspects. There are two
Itihasa-s – Ramayana and Mahabharata – whereas the Purana-s are
many in number, with eighteen of them regarded as more exhaustive
and important. Itihasa and Purana, have been misinterpreted due to
their mistranslation as ‘history’ and ‘myth’ respectively.

History is regarded as knowledge relating to past events connected

to a particular people, country, period or persons, usually written as a
chronological account. Itihasa-s and Purana-s also contain historical
facts, but are neither merely books of history, nor tales of fantasy
(myth). Itihasa-s and Purana-s are a part of the Vedic literature and
regarded as the fifth Veda. 149

Purana-s are regarded in Hinduism among the fourteen or eighteen

branches of traditional knowledge.150 Purana-s are vaster in time,
spanning numerous kalpa-s and their narrative is not linear in time
as in the case of history.151 They narrate incidents from different
yuga-s to spiritually enlighten a person and have information related
to geography, astronomy, political theory, culture, economics,
philosophy and several other streams of knowledge and not merely
reporting historical facts. A Purana by definition contains five
subjects: creation of the universe, secondary creation and
dissolution of the universe, genealogy of gods and our ancestors,
reigns of various Manu-s and events during those reigns.152 The
word Itihasa, etymologically means ‘so it has been’; Amarakosha
(1.6.4) defines Itihasa as a text which narrates events that occurred
in the past.

The word Itihasa can be broken down into three units: iti, ha and
asa. Iti means ‘thus’, ha means ‘was’ and asa means ‘expansion’;
thus, Itihasa means ‘expansion or elaboration of an incident which
happened in the past’.153 Maharishi Valmiki in the Ramayana and
Maharishi Veda Vyasa in the Mahabharata have used historical facts
for pedagogical purposes. The Indian conception of Purana-s and
Itihasa-s can be regarded as an interpretative account of past events
in a cultural or a spiritual context.

This unique and insightful method of narration has made the Purana-
s and the Itihasa-s timeless literary works. The renowned
etymologist Yaska, in his work Nirukta (111.19), has defined ‘Purana’

as pura navam bhavati which means that anything old which

becomes new is known as ‘Purana’. Thus, although the Purana-s
and the Itihasa-s narrate very old incidents, they are also new in the
sense that the principles illustrated by them are eternal and ever-

applicable in a person’s life. The Bhagavad Gita, which is a part of

the Mahabharata, describes among other things, the way a human
mind functions and is as relevant today for anyone as it was in the
past.

Purana-s and Itihasa-s convey the knowledge of the Veda-s in a

lucid and engaging manner to everyone. 154 The Western genre of
history has no underlying foundation in anything equivalent to
Shastra, unlike the Purana-s and Itihasa-s have in the Veda-s.

Maharishi Veda Vyasa selected numerous interesting and actual

incidents from the past and narrated them in the Mahabharata in a
way that anyone hearing them would gain some wisdom. These
stories teach the principles of the Veda-s without the accompanying
rigor and intensity, while they can be remembered more easily than
the abstract mantra-s or sutra-s in the Veda-s.

The different Purana-s relate an incident from a kalpa with a different

prakriti to cater to the needs of tamasika, rajasika and sattvika
people. 155 This is because people have an inherent attraction
towards an incident if it is molded and presented according to their
own prakriti. 156

Tantra is not Tantric Sex

Tantra-s are Hindu shastra-s, with unique metaphysical doctrines,

based on the experiences of seers and yogi-s. Tantra-s deal with
sadhana-s for elevating a person’s consciousness but are
unfortunately misconstrued as being about sex, black magic and
rituals.
Hindu shastra-s consist of two broad complementary divisions:
Veda-s ( nigama) and Tantra-s ( agama). 157 Tantra is derived from
the root tan which means ‘to spread out’ or ‘expand’; thus, Tantra is a
shastra which leads to the expansion of one’s knowledge or

consciousness.158 The Tantra-s are not subject to vaidikachara and

do not require a person to be born in a varnashrama system or to go
through the upanayana samskara for commencing their study unlike
the Veda-s. There is no restriction of birth, gender, place or age to
begin the study of Tantra-s. 159

The revealed knowledge of the Veda-s is confirmed by the

experiential knowledge of the Tantra-s.160 Tantra-s are not only
manuals of sadhana-s but also present a well-developed theory of
epistemology and ontology, which is in consonance with the
Upanishad-s. Tantra-s deal with a variety of subjects such as the
description of the Supreme Being Brahman, the principles of
creation, maintenance and destruction of the universe, the worship
of devata-s, construction of temples, the various chakra-s in the
human body, dharma, mantra, yantra, medicine and astrology.

The approach of Tantra-s for transcending this material world is

unique. They do not favor the mortification of mind and renunciation
of this material world, instead accept the bodily instincts positively.

Tantra-s attempt to integrate the limited sensory perceptions of the

individual with the cosmic forces of the universe. They do not hold
desire and moksha in opposition but use the desire itself as a means
to self-realization. 161 Tantra-s do not directly prescribe a life of self-
abnegation but allow a person to engage in worldly life with
awareness.

There are three broad divisions of Tantra-s: Shakta, Vaishnava and

Shaiva to help transcend the three guna-s of prakriti: sattva, rajas
and tamas. 162 A very fundamental tenet of Tantra-s is yat yat ande
tat tat pinde which means that whatever exists in the vast world
outside also exists within an individual body. 163 The ancient Indian
Tantrika-s were scientists investigating the deepest mysteries of the
cosmos in the laboratory of their own bodies.

Tantra has been equated by the West to sex, erotica and black
magic and this completely wrong and misleading interpretation is
now imported to India and accepted by Indians. The misconceptions
in creating such a view of Tantra is partly due to the incompetent and
literal translation of the tantrika terms by Western scholars. For
example, bhuta shuddhi has been translated by the well-known
nineteenth-century English scholar Monier Williams as ‘removal of
demons’. 164 The symbolic language of the Tantra-s is lost on many
Western scholars, who take an uncritical view of the texts in the
absence of initiation and guidance from a guru. The symbolic
language of the Tantrika texts is to prevent their misuse by

unqualified people, who only seek sensorial gratification and not

moksha.165

Many great Indian saints from various sampradaya-s such as Adi

Shankaracharya, Yamunacharya, Shrila Jiva Gosvami and
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, followed the Tantra-s and achieved
God-realization. The legitimate spiritual path of the Tantra-s, aided
by the easier accessibility to knowledge and pecuniary motives, has
unfortunately been reduced to hedonism and marketable products.

Tantra is an invaluable dharmic asset and part of its heritage; its

protection from such distortion is deeply important and a primary
responsibility.

Guna is not Quality or Mode

The word guna is often translated as ‘mode’ or ‘quality’ irrespective

of the context and the many technical meanings associated with it.
Prakriti, is composed of three constituent elements: sattva, rajas and
tamas (its guna-s); the sense here, denoted by guna is that of a
constituent or a component part. It is important to note that these
three guna-s themselves have certain qualities inherent in them.

According to Nyaya-Vaisheshika, it is dravya or a substance which

has some quality inherent in it. However, quality itself is qualityless.
For example, when sugar is considered sweet, the sweetness is a
quality found in the substance sugar, but sweetness itself does not
have any quality. Thus, guna is not the quality itself but the
substratum of qualities. Each of the three guna-s of prakriti manifest
certain characteristic qualities: from sattva guna arises equanimity,
from rajas arises greed and from tamas guna arises delusion and
ignorance.166 The diversity in this world is due to the difference in
the proportion of three guna-s in the constitution of various things.
167 Unfortunately, English translations of the sankhya texts replace
guna with ‘quality’ or ‘mode’, which is evidently a case of
mistranslation.

Indian thought also considers sattva, rajas and tamas guna-s as the
three Shakti-s of prakriti. Other meanings of the word guna include:
multiplication as seen in Jyotisha Shastra and ganita, a

class of vowels (a, e [ए] and o [ओ]) as seen in Panini’s

Ashtadhyayi. 168 In the Arthashastra (7.1), guna is used as a

technical term to denote the six forms of state policy dependent on a

king.169 None of these different technical meanings of the word

guna have any connection with the word ‘quality’. It is the complete
elimination of several different meanings from different branches of
Indic knowledge systems that is achieved by mistranslating guna as

‘quality’ or ‘mode’.

Summary of Vedic Shastra Non-Translatables

Vedic Shastra Non-Translatables

Shastra

Scripture

Shastra-s refer to the corpus

that is treated as eternal

knowledge, complete, true, and

timeless.

Historicity

and

prophethood, key agents in

creation of scriptures, have no

meaning in Hindu shastra-s.

Scripture refers to the book

which God reveals for the

guidance of human beings

through a prophet in history.

Only prophets revise the

scripture, otherwise it is frozen

in time and sacrosanct.

Shruti

That

Shruti signifies the intuitive

which is

hearing during samadhi and

heard’

not merely physical hearing

though ears, which is what

‘that

which

is

heard’

misrepresents.

Itihasa/

History/

Itihasa-s

and

Purana-s
Purana

Myth

contain

historical

and

chronological facts but are not

merely books of history with

no relevance to the present

and are definitely not tales of

fantasy as is meant by myth.

Both are seen as sources of

traditional knowledge and are a

part of Vedic literature.

Tantra

Tantric sex

Tantra refers to shastra-s

which have been based on

experiences of seers and yogi-

s. Tantra-s are complementary

to Veda-s; the former is based

on induction while the latter is

based on deduction. Initiation

and a guru are required to

learn Tantra and hence it is

written in a language that

needs

deciphering.

Mistranslation of Tantra as

Tantric sex reduces a spiritual

path to perverted hedonism.

Guna

Quality/

Guna has several technical

Mode

meanings

in

Hinduism,

including
constituents

of

prakriti, a class of vowels and

forms of state policy (in

Arthashastra). Quality/Mode

refers to a generic attribute

which takes away from the

particular meanings of Guna.

10

Hindu Dharma

Dharma is a term intrinsically unique and central to the Indian

civilization. It is derived from the Sanskrit root dhr which means ‘to
support’ or ‘sustain’; dharma thus means ‘that which supports or
upholds the world and its beings’. Hinduism is called sanatana
dharma (i.e., the eternal dharma) which supports the physical, social
and moral order of the entire manifested world.

Sanatana (eternal) here is not a qualification of dharma; it means

that whatever is eternal is dharma and also that what we call
dharma, has to be eternal. Dharma defies an exact rendering into
English or any other language; it does not refer to a system of
abstract ideas or beliefs having no essential connection with life nor
is it a set of rules to be blindly followed in daily life without any
understanding of the basic principles. Hindu dharma is actually the
Hindu way of life.

Hindu dharma is very wide and universal in its scope. It is not based
on the message of any single prophet or Avatara or on the teachings
of any one sage, saint or religious reformer. Although the Veda-s are
regarded as the authority in Hindu dharma, the Manusmriti (2.6)
regards the traditions and practices of those who know the Veda-s,
the conduct of virtuous people and an individual’s conscience as
important sources. Hindu dharma is thus founded on the varied
experiences and teachings of muni-s, rishi-s, acharya-s and bhakta-
s, making it nurturing of diversity, naturally assimilative and a highly
efficient system with an open architecture for adaptation.

A few terms related to Hindu dharma and their mistranslations are

considered here.

Samskara is not Ritual or Ceremony

Samskara-s refer to the various purificatory actions done for

sanctifying and refining the body, mind and intellect of a person. The
performance of these samskara-s is essential to make an individual
a practicing Hindu. Most Western scholars generally translate
samskara as ‘ritual’; ritual or ceremony refers to a series of actions
performed that may or may not have a spiritual consequence. The
flag ceremony in most countries and taking the oath of office are

examples of rituals and ceremonies which have no spiritual

consequence and are secular in nature.

The word samskara is derived from the verbal root kr by adding

prefix sam and it means ‘purification’ or ‘embellishment’. Hindu
dharma believes that it is rare for a jiva to gain birth in a human body
and hence it takes great care to protect and nurture the body and
mind of an individual. Samskara-s aid this by purifying and
embellishing the body, mind and intellect of a person to make it a
worthy dwelling place for the atma.

Samskara-s can be likened to the process of installation of software

on a computer and are meant to efficiently run a human body. A total
of forty-one samskara-s is required to be performed at various
milestones in a person’s life to consciously mold and refine one’s
character. Garbhadhana is the first one and the final samskara is
shraaddha or antayeshti which is done after the death of an
individual. Shraaddha is also performed annually for a person by his
descendants in perpetuity. Garbhadhana is done at conception to
attract a good atma to take birth and purify the minds of the

prospective parents before conception.170

Figure 21: Sixteen Samskara-s

Samskara-s are not irrational and futile priest-craft but give a sense
of identity to an individual, when performed at various milestones in
a person’s life. The samskara-s at different ages of an individual,
such as initiation ( upanayana), tonsuring ( mundana), end of
studentship ( samavartana), marriage ( vivaha) and others, help one
recognize the change in his identity and become sensitive and aware
of one’s duties and responsibilities. Samskara-s guide the life of an
individual according to one’s age.

While rituals in Abrahamic traditions also exist and have religious

significance, samskara-s in Hindu dharma are significant because of
their effects on the karmic imprints at the level of the chitta. The
outward samskara-s are believed to create an elevated state
externally, while imprinting the effects of this in purifying the chitta.
171

As the Abrahamic framework neither has the concept of antahkarana

nor karma, translating samskara as ritual is superficial and
misleading. The word ‘ritual’ is also used to denote formalism such
as signing a treaty or an agreement as seen in ‘corporate ritual’ and

‘bureaucratic ritual’. Hindu samskara is wholly different from this.

Samskara-s for Hindus are the experiential side of their dharma and
an outward physical expression of the subtle inner spiritual forces.

Hanuman is not Monkey God

Hanuman is one of the most popular and revered deities in Hinduism

who is believed to bestow strength, wisdom and knowledge on His
devotees. Unfortunately, Western scholars tend to frivolously
translate Hanuman as ‘monkey god’ to stereotype the Hindus as
primitive and ignorant people who worship monkeys, snakes and
elephants.

In Hinduism, there are certain deities whose divine bodies may bear
some resemblance in their external features with particular creatures
in our mortal world. However, it would indeed be unintelligent to
regard a deity as simply a monkey or an elephant on the basis of this
partial external resemblance. Hanuman is described as a vanara in
the Ramayana. Vanara-s were devata-s who incarnated to help
Bhagavan Shri Rama; they took birth in bodies with partial
resemblance to monkeys and humans.172 Thus, to

translate Hanuman as ‘monkey god’ or Ganesha as ‘elephant god’

only betrays the ignorance and intention of the translator.

Hanuman is a highly learned devata, erudite scholar and widely

acclaimed for his knowledge of Veda-s and Vyakarana. 173 This is in
obvious contrast to a monkey, which is a very rajasika creature,
unlike Hanuman, who embodies pure sattva guna.

Hanuman is also called Kapisha and one of the meanings of the

word kapi in Sanskrit is ‘monkey’. However, the word kapi also
means ‘one who resembles or has a complexion like that of a
monkey or an ape’. Vanara-s were a different type of human beings
and the word vanara itself is derived from the Sanskrit word va and
nara which means ‘slightly like human being’. Another Sanskrit word
which is used to denote vanara-s is kimpurushah, formed by a
combination of two words kim and purushah. Purushah again means

‘human being’ and kim means ‘what’ and is used here in the sense
of amazement. Vanara-s may have been a different species of
human beings that is no longer extant, which had some physical

features of monkeys.174

Hanuman is a great bhakta of Bhagavan Shri Rama and is

considered as an avatara of Bhagavan Shiva who appeared on earth

to assist Bhagavan Shri Rama in His fight against the evil asura-
s.175

Hanuman is considered among the seven chiranjeevi-s (immortals)

in Hinduism who are ever present physically on earth.176

Sanskriti is not Culture

Sanskriti is commonly and loosely translated as ‘culture’. Culture is

defined as the quality in a person or society that concerns excellence
in arts, letters, manners and scholarly pursuits.177 Sanskriti, on the
other hand, is not just confined to the material world and includes the
pursuit of a higher purpose. Samskara and sanskriti are cognate
words; sanskriti is a means to create samskara-s that will transform
a person into a valuable member of society.

Sanskriti comes from the Sanskrit root kr which means ‘to do’ or

‘to make’, and the prefix sam conveys a sense of embellishment or

some additional improvement. Etymologically, sanskriti refers to

actions done for the holistic refinement and perfection of all the
potentials within a human being. The Sanskrit word prakriti means

‘the raw natural life without any refinement’, such as the way animals
live.

Sanskriti embraces all the aspects of an individual’s life and is not

merely confined to fine arts. Sanskriti provides the guiding principles
for an individual to cultivate innate potentials for individual and social
refinement. Sanskriti is for the harmonious perfection of all the four
varna-s in the traditional Hindu society.

Purushartha-s in dharmic traditions recognize man’s needs and

provide a framework for their legitimate pursuit and development.

This social set-up is based on the Vedic foundation and sees divine
manifestation everywhere, thus creating a life-affirming view not
subject to extremes of nihilism or hedonism. Dharmic society
leverages its Vedic psychology to guide and direct man’s daily life for
optimal individual and collective well-being, while keeping the
spiritual goal of moksha as the overarching aim. It is this unique
setup which incorporates profound concepts of rasa and samskara-
s, to create a vibrant way of life, i.e., sanskriti. Hindu sanskriti,
therefore, is an inseparable part of the integrally unified Hindu
dharma.

Aesthetic and sensual pursuits in sanskriti are thus under this

framework, differing from ‘culture,’ which is ill-defined in comparison,
devoid of any unified or singular metaphysical foundation, and is a
case of Western synthetic unity.178

Sanskriti is not just concerned with one life span of an individual but
considers an atma’s journey through several births. However,
Western culture assumes just one life, to be spent in pursuit of
material pleasures. Such a culture can be arbitrary, at the individual’s
discretion, and include choices that might be harmful to the individual
and society, reflected in the frequent usage of words such as ‘pop-
culture’ or ‘drug-culture’. In the Hindu culture, such hedonism and
destructive behavior is called vikriti, which is the opposite of
sanskriti. In contrast, the word sanskriti can only be applied for
deeds with the motive of spiritual upliftment of an individual and
society. Sanskriti should be used only for positive lifestyles based on
dharmic principles, and vikriti for abusive forms of lifestyles.

Agama is not Ritual Text

Agama-s are a vast body of literature and not accurately studied or

even compiled in modern times. They provide procedures for temple
worship, temple-architecture, town-planning, fine arts, administration,
healing with the use of Shakti-s, even bringing rain, and virtually
every domain of practical living connected with temples in the Hindu
society. They also describe the various utsava-s or festivals to be
celebrated and the processions to be conducted at temples. Veda-s
and Agama-s are complementary to each other; Agama-s can be
considered as the applied side of the Veda-s and have been passed
down through the traditional guru-shishya parampara. They have
been incorrectly translated as ‘rituals’.

The Agama-s provide specific procedures for the consecration or

sanctification of a building, an image or an item to make it effective
for the purpose of worship.179 They also describe presentation of
music, dance, drama and other performances in the presence of a
deity. These procedures cannot be labeled as rituals because these
are the ways, according to Hindu thinking, to realize the
transcendent, omnipresent and immanent absolute reality. The
procedures specified in the Agama-s facilitate the visualization of
that absolute reality to offer worship.

The ceremonies and procedures in the Agama-s are intended to

affect the workings of the cosmos, although the effects may not be
immediately perceptible in every case. The Agama-s describe the
protocols performed for invoking the deity’s personal presence in the
temple in the form of the vigraha. The processes explained in the
Agama-s are practical ways to develop a personal relationship and
receive direct experience of the divine. The Agama-s are broadly
classified into three groups: Vaishnava Agama-s, Shaiva Agama-s
and Shakta Agama-s, according to their affiliation with a particular
deity.

The Agama-s, similar to the Dharmashastra-s, provide procedures

for carrying out all the samskara-s; thus, Agama-s are a complete
knowledge system dealing with the entire gamut of events in a
person’s life from birth to death.

The procedures provided in the Agama-s are karma-s to be

performed to produce certain outcomes. They are designed as per
the principles of causation. They eventually lead a person to uplift
their consciousness and discard their conditioned existence in this
physical body and attain liberation – which, according to Hinduism, is
the ultimate purpose of human birth. Agama-s, like science, are not
based on mere speculation but on the actual experience of the yogi-
s and seers who investigated the subtle inner workings of this
nature.

Naga is not Naked

The Naga-s form a very ancient sect of Hindu ascetics known for
their martial arts and extremely strenuous sadhana-s. 180 They
traditionally remain without clothes and besmear their body with
specially prepared vibhuti or bhasma which can be loosely translated
as ‘sacred ash’. The Western world is greatly fascinated by them
because they keep their bodies unclad, leading to the misportrayal of
the Naga-s as ‘naked’ sadhu-s. Such a portrayal undermines the
underlying philosophy behind this practice followed by the Naga-s,
while also giving undue importance to just one aspect of their
spiritual life, overshadowing other significant ones. It is important to
distinguish the Naga-s from Western nudists, with whom they are
unfortunately compared.

The Naga sadhu-s are fiercely independent, dignified, confident and

austere in their behavior unlike Western nudists who practise
sensual self-indulgence. In contrast to the Western nudists, the Naga
sadhu-s remain unclothed to detach from all worldly feelings and
desires. The Naga-s have risen above all bodily identity and do not
care about worldly opinion. Their unclad bodies ( digambara)
covered with bhasma signifies their freedom and renunciation of all
materialistic and worldly concerns.

According to Hindu philosophy, the physical body is not the true

identity of an individual and misplaced focus upon it leads to a
further entanglement with the material world. The bhasma covering a
Naga sadhu is a reminder of the transitory nature of the physical
body, which eventually turns into ash on cremation. This is a part of

their sadhana for spiritual realization and not meant for any
hedonistic enjoyment like the Western nudists.
A person is ordained as a Naga only after undergoing rigorous tests
and tapasya spanning several years. The initiates obey many strict
vows which include sleeping on the bare ground, not having more
than one meal a day, not indulging in flattering or abusing anyone
and, of course, not covering themselves with any cloth.

Thus, an initiate has to earn the title of a Naga by proving his worth
and it cannot be gained just by discarding clothes.

The Naga-s are organized into formal groups called akhada-s and
each akhada has its own rules, policies, organization, governance,
and lineage traced to ancient times. The Naga-s undergo training in
the use of traditional weapons, wrestling and other martial arts for
this purpose. Some Naga-s are shastradhari sadhu-s (weapon
wielding) and others are shaastradhari sadhu-s (specializing in the
shastra-s). When the Naga-s move in any procession, for example,
during the Kumbh mela, they display their martial skills with the
various maneuvers of their swords, tridents ( trishula-s) and spears (
bhala-s). Thus, the Naga-s are a class of warrior sadhu-s found
within many sampradaya-s or traditions of Hinduism. They do their
sadhana for spiritual emancipation but are additionally responsible
for the protection of non-combatant sadhu-s and can resort to
violence for that purpose if necessary.

In historical times, there have been some key battles fought and won
by the Naga-s and they do not hesitate to sacrifice their lives for the
protection of dharma. In 1757 CE, the Naga sadhu-s fought against
the fanatical Afghan forces of Ahmad Shah Abdali at Gokul near
Mathura. Ahmad Shah Abdali’s decree led to an indiscriminate
slaughter of people including sadhu-s and the burning of the region
around Agra and Mathura for seven days. Four thousand Naga
sadhu-s offered stiff resistance to the Afghans at this crucial
moment. Around two thousand Naga sadhu-s sacrificed their lives in

this battle at Gokul.181

Given this incredible history and background of the highly dignified
Naga sadhu-s, it is derisive to compare them with nudists as the two
are the very antithesis of each other.

Dasa is not Slave

A Sanskrit word is often deliberately mistranslated into English by

Western scholars with an ulterior motive to denigrate the Hindu
tradition. A case of spiteful mistranslation can be found in the
Sanskrit word dasa. The word dasa is mistranslated as ‘slave’ so
frequently that almost everyone accepts this as the correct meaning.

Thus, the word devadasi comes to mean ‘female slaves of the

temple’. People see dasa as equivalent to the shameful and
inhumane system of slavery followed by the Westerners until just a
few generations ago.

The word slave denotes one who is under the forced authority of
another person. A slave is completely controlled by his owner and is
forced to obey the owner’s commands and a slave could be beaten
or even killed by his master with impunity. The Europeans were
involved in brisk slave trade and captured and forcefully transported
them from the African countries to the Americas and Caribbean
islands. Similarly, Islamic invaders forcefully took skilled artisans and
craftsmen from erstwhile India to Central Asia as slaves to construct
various monuments for them. Slaves were disposable property of
their masters and in medieval and modern times, were bought and
sold in markets.

In Hindu dharma, dasa is nowhere near a derogatory word like

‘slave’ but carries a sublime philosophical meaning. It is considered

to be the true nature ( svarupa) of a jiva to be a dasa of Bhagavan.

One is not a dasa to another human being but only to Bhagavan,

through complete surrender to Him. Dasa is one who feels blessed
by offering seva to Bhagavan and derives ananda from it. Hanuman
is an ideal example of a dasa and is worshipped for the same. Being
a dasa of Bhagavan is the highest honor for a person and to attain a
continuous dasya bhava towards Bhagavan is the culmination of all
spiritual sadhana-s. If dasa meant a slave, then such a high regard
for it would not have been possible. The slave-masters in Western
history did not treat their slaves as human beings and the question of
worshipping the slaves would be ridiculous.

A dasa realizes oneself to be an amsha of Bhagavan and as

belonging to Him; he feels delighted to do seva for Bhagavan out of

prema and his own volition. There is no compulsion or coercion from

anyone on him to behave in this manner. Thus, the word dasa has
no similarity with the word slave. Slave is a disrespectful term,
whereas in India, dasa is a venerated term and this can be seen
from the names of many great bhakta-s such as Tulsidasa, Surdasa,
Ramdasa and Krishnadasa who proudly called themselves as dasa.

Seva is not Service

Seva is a Sanskrit word commonly used to denote selfless activities

done for realization of Bhagavan by the Hindus. It has become
commonplace to equate seva with ‘service’, even though service
refers to work done by one for another person or an organization,
often in expectation of some material benefit.

The word seva does not refer to work done by someone in an office,
shopping center, hotel or other customer service for monetary
benefit. Seva refers to the activities done by an individual for the
pleasure of Bhagavan without any trace of egoism and is rendered
through one’s body, mind and wealth.182 Thus, seva is a devotional
act and the highest form of worship of Bhagavan. It is defined as the
unbroken flow of mental activities towards Bhagavan.183 Even a
penurious person has the capacity to offer the finest items to
Bhagavan during his manasika seva with an unswerving emotion of
love. Seva is motivated purely out of love and reverence for its
recipient.

In Hinduism, the whole world of insentient and sentient entities is

regarded as an amsha or a part of Bhagavan and He exists within all
of them as their inner controller; thus, the concept of seva includes
all the jiva-s. This is reflected in the emphasis given to offer seva to
one’s guru, parents, the elderly, guests or any suffering jiva. Seva

and Bhakti are closely related and synonymous.184

Seva can be offered to Bhagavan directly or indirectly through one’s

obligations towards family and society or by helping someone in
distress. The realization of the underlying presence of Bhagavan in
every jiva along with a complete lack of self-interest is essential for
one’s actions to qualify as seva. It is not only a means to spiritual

upliftment, but an end in itself. Service without this principle to help

out fellow humans is not seva because such service does not
perceive them as manifestations of Bhagavan.

Seva demands a purity of mind and a sevaka’s (performer of seva)

mind should be free from anger, greed, lust, pride and other negative
emotions. Such a pure mental orientation is denoted by the term
seva-bhava and a person doing seva has to cultivate this seva-
bhava within her/him. The concept of seva is a very important
element of the Sikh dharma and the Sikhs lay great stress on kar
seva. Kar means ‘hand’ and kar seva thus refers to seva done with
hands. The Sikhs consider it meritorious and an act of piety to offer
seva in gurdwara-s. They do it willingly for the pleasure and
happiness of their guru-s and the Supreme Being.

In Christianity, missionaries are motivated to help the poor or needy

non-Christian people with the purpose of converting them.

Such charitable actions are based on vested interests and cannot be

called seva. All the seemingly good work done by them only masks
their true agenda of conversion.

Guru is not Teacher

Guru is one of the several words of Sanskrit that has officially been
recognized as part of the English lexicon and used in two ways – as
an expert, such as management guru or investment guru and as a
teacher of any subject, ranging from cooking, sports to science or
any other vocation. Teacher is defined as ‘a person who teaches or
instructs as a profession’ and therefore expects remuneration. The
Sanskrit word guru is, however, very different in its original meaning
and has been distorted and trivialized in its adoption.

The word guru is formed by gu, meaning ‘ignorance’ and ru, referring
to ‘the remover’, to denote one who removes ignorance.

Guru helps his shishya-s overcome the bondage of the material

world by showering them with wisdom. 185 Bhagavan appears in the
form of a guru as a tattva-darshi to help comprehend the Veda-s and
elevate people’s consciousness for moksha. 186 A guru is thus an

abode of all virtues and serving him is tantamount to the worship of

all the devata-s. 187

A person must exhibit an immaculate moral rectitude to be called a

guru, besides possessing profound knowledge of the shastra-s.

The word teacher does not demand so many essential qualifications;

anyone with a requisite college degree or other academic
qualifications is entitled to become a teacher. Guru, no doubt, is an
expert in his subject and also acts as a teacher, but these are
necessary, and not sufficient, characteristics of a guru.

In the Indian tradition, no part of human life and activity is devoid of

spirituality. The secular and mundane subjects such as military
warfare, taught by the guru-s, were also based in spirituality. The
various weapons such as Brahmastra, Varunastra, Indrastra required
the knowledge and application of a higher science of mantra-s, as
seen in the spiritual instruction of guru Dronacharya in the
Mahabharata. This ancient Indian military science ( Dhanur-vidya),
along with others such as engineering ( Sthapatya) and Ayurveda,
are all part of the Veda-s called the Upaveda-s. The guru who
teaches these is no doubt dealing with something practical (
vyavaharika) but this knowledge is always inseparably linked to the
transcendental knowledge ( paramarthika). Being pragmatic in
vyavaharika life does not make the activity secular in the modern
sense; it is always to be performed as part of one’s sva-dharma.

As mentioned earlier, a guru must also be a role model of exemplary

moral character for his/her students. A guru will not be involved in
any act of moral turpitude. However, a teacher in the modern sense
is not bound by any such moral code. A teacher can be brilliant in his
subject with a plethora of accolades but that cannot be a measure of
his character. In fact, in modern Western society a distinction is
made between the academic and personal life of a teacher and the
flaws of personal life are overlooked as private matter. However, for
a guru, personal life is far more significant than academic life. The
reverential attitude which the personality of a guru evokes in his
students is the very foundation of a guru-shishya relationship. This
would not be possible if the guru happens to be morally corrupt,
notwithstanding his mastery over his subject. This is the reason that
the unflinching veneration accorded to Dronacharya

by Ekalavya in the Mahabharata would not be normally possible for a

modern teacher to receive from one’s student.188

A guru is one who has mastered his senses and behaves with
dignity and equanimity. The purity of his inner being is manifested in
scrupulous outer behavior and propriety. A guru sets himself as an
example for his students to emulate by practicing the virtues that he
preaches. The education imparted by a guru is not merely within the
classroom, but also shows the disciples the art of leading a dharmic
life. In the gurukula system of traditional education, a person lived
with the family of his guru and learnt from his behavior towards his
children, wife, parents and friends.

Another point of distinction between a guru and a teacher is that the

latter imparts knowledge to students for regular monetary benefit,
whereas this was considered anathema in the gurukula system. It
was only after the completion of education that a student was
expected to offer something in return to the guru as guru-dakshina.

The continuance of the tradition of knowledge inherited was

paramount for the guru and not monetary benefit. This is still in
practice by some guru-s of classical Indian music.

The Sanskrit word guru cannot just be added as another synonym

for the word ‘teacher’ to enhance the English language. It should
come into English on its own terms and without any trivialization of
its original meaning.

Shraddha is not Faith

Shraddha is commonly mistranslated as ‘faith’. Faith is described as

confidence or trust in a person or thing based on casual conviction or
blind belief. For example, faith could be directed towards an airline
known for its punctuality or a person considered to be honorable.

Faith can also be belief in the commandments of a particular religion

or confidence of an individual in one’s government or society. Faith is
also used in the sense of loyalty or commitment towards a promise,
or an organization based on character or as a part of a contract.

The word shraddha etymologically derives from a combination of two

words, srat and dha. Srat is a Vedic term for truth ( sat) and dha
means ‘to hold’ or ‘to nourish’; shraddha thus means ‘to hold or align

your mind with the truth or reality’. Shraddha in its original and
primary sense denotes feelings of reverence towards the divine or a
spiritually evolved being; in the secondary sense, shraddha can also
be used in the context of mundane things. Having shraddha for the
shastra-s is not the same as having faith in an airline; the latter is a
transaction based on reputation and business prospects.

There are four types of shraddha: the first is the transcendental

shraddha directed only towards Bhagavan and the other three are
material shraddha-s affected by the sattva, rajas and tamas guna of

prakriti.189

One’s shraddha in Bhagavan is the result of karma carried over from

previous lives and accompanies a jivatman after death.

Shraddha purifies the antahkarana and augments the efficacy of

sadhana.190 Shraddha cannot be used in the context of negative

and profane matters. Hindus have shraddha in the rivers Ganga or
Yamuna because they are the manifestations of the divine Mother.

Similarly, Hindus have shraddha in Veda-s because they are the very

speech and prana of Bhagavan.191

The Sanskrit word closest to faith would be vishvasa. Shraddha

contains the sense of vishvasa in it but goes much beyond; it is
associated with reverential feelings. One can have vishvasa in a
business transaction for instance, without having shraddha
associated with it.

Shraddha also refers to the absence of ‘ill-will’, ‘spite’ and

‘judgment’ ( asuya) while doing charity ( dana). The Danasagara

places great importance on shraddha and refers to it as an essential
character of the donor, i.e., dana must be done happily,
unconditionally and without judgment of the recipient.192 Faith does
not have such specific significance and study associated with it in
various contexts, as the term shraddha.
Summary of Hindu Dharma Non-Translatables

Hindu Dharma Non-Translatables

Samskara

Ritual/

Samskara refers to acts done

Ceremony

to purify the existence of a

person and make one’s body

worthy for the atma.

Rituals are acts done for the

sake of continuing a past

tradition and have no higher

inner significance.

Hanuman

Monkey

Hanuman is considered to be

God

an avatara of Bhagavan Shiva

who appeared on earth to

assist Bhagavan Shri Rama.

Monkey-God is a translation

that derides the Hindus as

primitives

who

mindlessly

worship monkeys, snakes and

elephants.

Sanskriti

Culture

Sanskriti aims at spiritual

evolution of mankind and the

collective

society,

across

lifetimes. Sanskriti refers to not

only material upliftment, but

also spiritual. Culture is

usually associated with the

pursuit of excellence in the

material world. It is for purely

aesthetic

or

entertainment

purposes.

Agama

Ritual

Agama refers to a vast body of

Hindu

literature

which

discusses

customs

and

methodology on a range of

topics,

including
temple

worship, architecture, fine arts,

administration etc. Veda-s are

known as nigama-s and

agama-s

are

seen

as

complementary

to

them.

Translating agama-s as rituals

is totally misleading.

Naga

Naked

Naga-s remain naked because

they are free from bodily

egotism, worldly feelings and

desires.
Naked and sensual pleasure

seekers are the antithesis of

this as they believe in

materiality.

Dasa

Slave

Dasa is a respectful term and

refers to one who abandons

one’s self-centeredness and

surrenders completely to the

Divine.

Slave is a derogatory term

denoting one who is under the

forced authority of another

person. Slaves were kept by

the Islamic invaders and

Europeans

and

slavery
continues in places to this day.

Seva

Service

Seva refers to selfless acts

done for God-realization as a

part of sadhana.

Service refers to work done in

return for some material

benefit, as in the case of

service-industry.

Guru

Teacher

Guru is one who helps a

person in overcoming the

bondage of the material world.

Guru is regarded as the

embodiment of deva-s and has

a strong moral and ethical

character.

Teacher is just an expert in

mundane knowledge and no

prerequisites

of

moral

faultlessness are required to

be a teacher.

Shraddha

Faith

Shraddha is associated with

feelings of awe and reverence

towards its object and is used

in the context of Bhagavan.

Faith refers to confidence or

trust one has in another person

or entity which may not

necessarily be due to any

reverential feelings.
11

Kavya

The success of any civilization is measured not only by the levels of

perfection achieved in material well-being and science but also in
fine arts. Kavya can be considered as an indicator of the richness of
a culture and India has been the foremost among world civilizations
in producing kavya masterpieces. Ancient seers have declared
kavya to be the source of highest ananda and it can even lead a
person to moksha. Veda-s, the most ancient texts available to the
world, exhibit fine specimens of kavya and abound in the use of
various figures of speech. Ramayana is regarded as the first ideal
kavya in the Indian tradition. Mahabharata, another important work of
the Itihasa genre, abounds in the various figures of speech such as
similes ( upama), metaphors ( rupaka), hyperbole ( atishyokti) used
commonly in Indian kavya works. Rajashekhara, an eminent Indian
tenth century kavi, states that in certain Indian traditions, kavya-
shastra was regarded as the seventh Vedanga.

Today, Bharata’s Natyashastra is the oldest extant work on kavya-

shastra.

Indian kavya-shastra laid great stress on the qualities required in a

person to be called a kavi. Any person composing a few catchy lines
at leisure did not qualify for this important title. A kavi was expected
to know grammar, prosody, lexicons, legends, worldly affairs, logic
and the sixty-four fine arts, be proficient ( nipuna) in the sciences
and the shastra-s such as Purana-s and Itihasa-s to create a good
kavya.193 Rajashekhara says that a kavi should always be pure in
speech, mind and body. Indian kavya-shastra-s say that a kavi
should abound with bhakti, have vast and varied learning, and be
free from depression, as Indian tradition believes that pratibha or the
power to create a good kavya has divine inspiration behind it.
According to kavya-shastra-s, the form of a kavya is not its true
essence. Thus, a kavya need not necessarily be in verse but can be
both in prose ( gadya) and in metre ( padya). Kavya must be
grammatically faultless and thus, knowledge of vyakarana is a must

for a kavi.194

The delight that one gets on reading a kavya is due to the rasa that
runs through it. A kavya should be able to bring out different

rasa-s through the manner of its description in order to make it full of

charm and merit.

Kavya-shastra is intimately connected with the pursuit of dharma and

is not meant only for the sake of worldly pleasure as is the case with
poetics. This chapter considers seven terms related to the kavya-
shastra which have been mistranslated: kama, bhava, rasa, prema,
leela and ananda.

Kavya is not Poetics

The word kavya is not only a part of the vocabulary of Sanskrit

language but is used very commonly in other regional languages of
India. Kavya is often translated into English as ‘poetry’ and kavya-
shastra as ‘poetics’ by even important scholars of Sanskrit.

According to Indian texts, the essential function of kavya is ethical

and not aesthetic, decorative or recreational. The string of words
used in a kavya is just its physical body or outer garb while its atman
is dhvani or rasa.195 Acharya-s of Indian kavya generally reject the
Western doctrine of ‘art for art’s sake’. There is a statement very
often found in the Indian kavya texts regarding the purpose of kavya:
ramadivat vartitavyam na tu ravanadivat. 196 This means that a
person should learn from any kavya to emulate the moral principles
and ideals depicted in the character and behavior of Bhagavan Shri
Rama and not Ravana or his associates. Maharishi Valmiki, revered
as the adi-kavi in the Indian tradition says that a kavya should be
inspired by noble vision and should take all the human values of life
into account. 197

Mahimabhatta, a prominent twelfth century acharya of kavya-shastra

from Kashmir, writes in Vyaktiviveka that the primary purpose of a
kavya is similar to that of shastra-s – kavya imparts instructions
regarding the prohibitions and the injunctions to lead an ethical life
similar to the shastra-s but it uses the medium of attractive stories.
198 Similarly, Bharata Muni, Acharya Dandin, King Bhojadeva and
other writers also believe that imparting wisdom on how to live
according to dharma is one of the purposes of kavya. 199

Mammata, another great eleventh century acharya of kavya-shastra

from Kashmir, lays down six purposes of kavya in his work

Kavyaprakasha: acquisition of fame, wealth, imparting knowledge of
social living, destruction of evil, attainment of highest ananda and
giving moral advice to a person. There are two types of kavya: that
which is enacted on the stage ( drishya) and that which is heard (
shravya). 200 Both these means were utilized to transmit knowledge
to the people.

Kavya provides the wisdom of the Vedic shastra-s through a more

delightful and easier medium to those more temperamentally
inclined. Poetics can be secular, atheistic or anti-religious; a poet can
ridicule the fundamental principles of a religion, be driven by material
profit and is not bound by truthfulness in his poems. However, kavya
has none of these blemishes and is meant to provide the essence of
all the shastra-s and the knowledge contained in Veda-s, Vedanga-s,
Itihasa-s and Purana-s to the common masses.

Kama is not Lust

This section discusses the word kama which is often translated as

‘lust’ or ‘sex’. Lust is defined as a strong emotion or feeling that

manifests in the form of an intense yearning for sex, expensive
objects, power, even food; lust is a powerful psychological force and
produces an overwhelming desire for its object.

Kama derives from the Sanskrit root kamu which primarily means

‘desire’. The dharmic point of view considers kama as one of the four
purushartha-s or goals of human life along with dharma, artha and
moksha. The original and primary kama of every sentient being is
happiness which can be fulfilled through various means; thus, kama
is a more fundamental and broader concept and not simply lust.

The pursuit of kama is the result of the disconnect between a jivatma

and the ananda of the Brahman (Sachidananda), due to the jiva
identifying itself only with material reality. It is this pursuit which
manifests in yearning for various objects, furthered by misidentifying
oneself with physical, emotional and mental entities. Hinduism
recognizes this entanglement and provides a structure to legitimately
pursue kama without letting it degenerate into mere lust. According

to Hindu dharma, kama should not be satisfied in a way that

becomes self-perpetuating and an obstacle to dharma or artha.

In Hinduism there are four types of shastra-s corresponding to the

four aims of human life: Kamashastra, Arthashastra, Dharmashastra
and Mokshashastra. All these shastra-s provide guidance to lead a
balanced life by satisfying the legitimate needs of a human. The
ancient Indian treatise of Kamasutra written by Vatsyayana says that
indulgence in kama, which means ‘sexual enjoyment’ in this treatise,
should not be at the expense of dharma and artha. Similarly, in the
Arthashastra, written by Kautilya, it is said that a person should not
make money in a way that goes against the dharma. Thus, the word
kama used in the shastra-s denotes a concept which is regulated by
the scriptural injunctions and is not an unbridled pursuit like lust. The
process of karma-yoga as well as the concept of varnashrama
dharma in Hinduism is meant to gradually bring a person out of this
lower nature towards the higher principles of life.
One of the names of Shri Krishna is Kamadeva and in the Bhagavad
Gita, he says that He is kama which is not against the

dharma.201 Several scholars with a superficial knowledge of

Hinduism, such as Wendy Doniger, desacralize the word kama in
Hindu texts and uses this mistranslation to distort the divine
relationship between the gopi-s and Bhagavan Shri Krishna, for
instance. 202 Doniger’s misinterpretations neither have any
resonance with the commentarial tradition of the domain nor are they
based in any practices of the land.203 There is a saying in Sanskrit,
atmavan manyate jagat, which means that a person sees the world
according to one’s own conditioning.

Bhava is not Mood

Bhava is sometimes translated as ‘mood’ and this section considers

its inappropriateness. The word mood denotes a temporary state of
mind of a person, liable to change at any time. Bhava is not a state
of mind but refers to a state of consciousness of an individual.

Etymologically, bhava derives from the root bhu which means ‘to be’
or ‘to exist’ and hence it signifies the natural and persistent state of
consciousness of a person, which colors and influences all
interactions and functions. In Indian shastra-s on kavya and natya,
this dominant bhava is referred to as sthayi bhava. Bhava-s form the
basis for classifying rasa-s and for each primary rasa, there is a
corresponding sthayi bhava. 204

Bhava is related to the character of a person, is more consistent and

permanent than mood and guides a person in all his spiritual and
social interactions. The bhava of spiritual people is stable but in the
material world, the mood of a person always changes. Although
bhava is a consistent state, the same person may have different
bhava-s towards different people. According to Natyashastra, there
are eight sthayi bhava-s, while Rupa Gosvami has discussed five
major bhava-s associated with bhakti in his magnum opus Bhakti-
rasamrita-sindhu. 205

Anything which is in accordance with the sthayi bhava of a person

brings a positive feeling, and anything contrary to it produces a
negative feeling. Modern psychology’s developments have been
based on the study of the abnormal mind more than the normal
mind, while being devoid of any understanding of a yogic or
meditative mind, not attached to material pleasure. Studying the
dominant bhava of a person can give deep insights into the reasons
behind the particular way in which they act or behave, while helping
predict the response of a person to different situations. Ancient
Indian texts on natya, kavya and rasa consist of exhaustive and
unique studies and analysis of human psychology. The concept of
bhava can be used as a system for developing a new psychology,
based entirely on rasashastra-s.

Rasa is not Mellow or Taste

Rasa in the Vaisheshika darshana denotes taste and is of six kinds:

sweet, sour, saline, bitter, pungent and astringent. The liquid
extracted from any fruit or flower is also commonly denoted by rasa.

These two commonplace meanings have led to the translation of

rasa as ‘taste’ or ‘mellow’ even in highly technical subjects such as

Kavya and Natya, leading to a trivialization of the profound concept.

In the Sanskrit treatises on Kavya and Natya, the word rasa has a
highly technical meaning. 206 Rasa manifests through the
combination of vibhava, anubhava and vyabhichari or sanchari
bhava-s. When these three bhava-s come together and combine
with any of the eight sthayi bhava-s, it leads to the emergence and
realization of rasa by a qualified person.207 Bharata Muni excludes
the senses of touch, taste and smell from contributing to the rasa
experience. 208
An audience for a drama, musical performance or a kavya, must
have certain qualifications to realize rasa; such a qualified person is
called a Sahridaya or a Rasika and this quality is called Rasikatva or
Sahridayatva. Bharata Muni lists some of these qualifications as
good character, knowledge of the various fine arts in general and
Natya in particular.

Bharata Muni’s meticulous study of the human mind is reflected in

the theory of rasa. When a rasika witnesses a drama, the various
bhava-s represented by an artist through words, gestures, music
excite the sthayi bhava within a rasika and make him experience a
particular rasa. The vibhava-s, anubhava-s and sanchari bhava-s
expressed by a performer heightens the sthayi bhava within a rasika,
through cognition of the performer’s expressions, and consequently
culminates into rasa. The theory of rasa thus provides a deep insight
into the mechanism of arousal of human emotions and sentiments.

The Upanishads regard Brahman to be rasa and the experience of

rasa as similar to Brahman realization. 209 Thus, rasa is a complex
and sublime psychological concept and not an ordinary material
concept such as taste. Rasa cannot be similarly considered as a
description of some physical quality or form of an object and its
psychological impact on the human mind. The experience of rasa is
transcendental, rooted in the spiritual plane and it is not equivalent to
the experience of taste or mellowness of some fruit or of some
aesthetically designed physical object.

Prema is not Love

Love is associated with tender, passionate affection of a person for

another; it also refers to sexual passion or desire between two
people. Prema only partially encompasses the first meaning and is
completely different from the second. The word prema and its
cognate priti are both derived from the Sanskrit verbal root prin
which means to give satisfaction or pleasure ( tarpane). In prema
there are two entities: the first is the subject of prema ( ashraya) and
the other is the object of prema ( vishaya); the ashraya always acts
to please the vishaya.

Prema, in the Gaudiya Vaishnava sampradaya, refers to the essence

of Hladini Shakti or bliss potency of Bhagavan. In Bhakti literature,
prema refers to unalloyed and selfless devotion towards Bhagavan
and is a very potent element in the human-divine relationship.

Prema is unconditional, self-fulfilling, without the expectation of any

return and without undue physical attachment. Prema is its own
reward and an end in itself. A better equivalent for love in Sanskrit
would be the word moha which means fondness or attachment out of
self-interest. Although the words prema and love may exhibit some
overlap in their meanings, they are very different concepts: Prema is
uplifting and leads to the dissolution of egotism and material
attachment, whereas love may intensify one’s attachment to the
physical body.

Leela is not Pastime

The Sanskrit word leela is often translated into English as ‘pastime’,

‘play’ or ‘sport’.

Typically, pastime refers to activities of enjoyment or hobby. Leela is

totally different as it is connected with the divine activities of
Bhagavan and is not used for the mundane recreational activities of
humans. Leela is effortless and spontaneous, revealing the inherent
Shakti of Bhagavan. Leela springs from the exuberance of the
ananda of Bhagavan and has no mundane purpose or any material
aim and is thus beyond the law of karma, unlike human pastimes.

Leela-s are eternal and beyond the limitations of space and time.

Leela of Bhagavan appears in two-fold ways due to the limitations of

jiva and may be manifest ( prakata) or unmanifest ( aprakata). When
Bhagavan withdraws the effect of Maya-Shakti or descends in this
mortal world, then the same aprakata leela becomes prakata. The
aprakata leela can also be realized in a limited way through
meditation on sacred mantra-s ( upasana) but the full realization
occurs only in moksha. The creation of the world with different types
of jiva-s is also an aspect of Bhagavan’s leela.210

One would not attain liberation by listening to the pastime activities

of another; however, listening to the leela-s of Shri Krishna leads to
liberation. Bhagavan out of prema for His devotees takes an avatara
in this phenomenal world to guide humanity by His leela-s, towards
dharma. 211 Thus, leela, besides being a spontaneous, self-
conscious activity and an expression of unlimited ananda, is also
educative for the conditioned human beings.

India has a long tradition of enacting Bhagavan’s leela-s in many

traditional art forms and on stage, as seen in the various Rama
leela-s or Krishna leela-s performed every year across the country.

The enactment of these divine leela-s is a form of sadhana and

incurs spiritual benefit for performers as well as the audience. In
contrast, the pastime activities of any person may not serve such
elevated purposes and may even promote moral degeneracy. Sadly,
the Indian tradition of performing leela is being distorted and
degraded by reducing it to a secular performance and removing any
transcendental and sacred associations. This further highlights the
need to retain leela as a non-translatable.

Ananda is not Bliss

Ananda is a fundamental and profound concept in Indian philosophy

which is often inappropriately translated as ‘bliss’ or ‘happiness’.

While bliss is a mundane concept connected with ordinary life,

ananda is a deeper and multidimensional concept with gradation in
its meanings.
The original sense of the word ananda signifies an essential
characteristic of Brahman or Bhagavan. When a jivatman attains
union with Brahman, it loses its individual identity and attains
kaivalya mukti. This state, free from all suffering and devoid of all

activity, is called brahmananda. When a jivatman enters the leela of

Bhagavan and performs seva it attains a state called bhaktyananda.

The limited joy experienced by a human being in this world is called

martyananda. Thus, there are three levels of ananda, and the
highest is when a jivatman attains bhaktyananda.

The supreme reality in its undifferentiated, indeterminate and

attribute-less aspect is called Brahman, whereas It is called
Bhagavan when determinate and qualified with infinite auspicious
attributes. Bhagavan is called sacchidananda vigraha in a verse from
Brahma-Samhita which means that His vigraha is constituted of
ananda. 212
Figure 22: Ananda

A bhakta when doing seva of Bhagavan with prema experiences

ananda, which has no equivalent in English. Such ananda by nature
is eternal and unlimited unlike bliss or happiness pursued in this
world, which is a transient phenomenon and a temporary absence of

suffering or pain. There is, thus, an internal gradation in the concept

of ananda with a whole spectrum of meanings. 213 When we
collapse all the different varieties of meanings denoted by the word
ananda into words such as bliss, joy, happiness which do not have
gradational structure and profundity, then the very essence of the
word ananda is lost in such translation.

Summary of Kavya Non-Translatables

Kavya Non-Translatables

Kavya

Poetics

Kavya is meant to provide the

essence of all shastra-s to the

common man. The essential

function of kavya is ethical and

not

merely

aesthetic,
decorative or recreational. Art

for art’s sake is not the general

view in kavya.

Poetics can be secular, with a

poet even free to ridicule the

fundamental principles of a

religion.

Kama

Lust

Kama is one of the four

purushartha-s

(goals)

of

human life according to Hindu

dharma. Kama should not be

satisfied in a way that it

becomes an obstacle to

dharma, artha and moksha.

Lust
is

powerful

psychological

force

which

manifests in the form of an

intense

pursuit

of

sex,

expensive objects or power.

Bhava

Mood

Bhava refers to the persistent

state of consciousness of an

individual.

Mood refers to a temporary

state of mind of a person which

is liable to change.

Rasa

Mellow/Taste

Rasa is the technical term

used in the Natyashastra.

When a qualified person hears

a kavya or witnesses a drama

then it leads to the emergence

and realization of rasa.

Taste, unlike rasa, refers to an

ordinary material concept.

Prema

Love

Prema has no connection with

carnal

desires

and

is
completely selfless. Prema is

not used while referring to

insentient things.

Love,

among

other

associations,

has

sexual

connotations. It could be

selfish and directed towards

insentient things.

Leela

Pastime

Leela is connected with the

divine activities of Bhagavan

and is not used for mundane

recreational

activities
of

humans. Leela reveals the

inherent Shakti and springs

from ananda of Bhagavan.

Pastime is an activity that a

person

indulges

in

for

enjoyment and is synonymous

with hobby.

Anand

Bliss

Ananda is gradational, with the

highest

level

called

bhaktyananda enjoyed by a
bhakta and the lowest level

referring to material happiness.

Bliss refers only to material

happiness

and

has

no

gradations in it.

Acknowledgments

This book is the result of important support from several individuals

throughout its development. The original plan was merely to produce
a series of educational videos on the subject in which both the
authors would be in conversation. Jessica Richmond of Jiva Institute
was immensely helpful in coordinating all the logistics for video
recordings over a period of three years, including locations at the
studios of Infinity Foundation in Princeton (USA) as well as Jiva
Institute in UP (India).

It was then decided to turn the videos into a book and bring out both
the book and the videos as multimedia products.

Subhodeep Mukhopadhyay, Seema Mishra and Anurag Sharma

turned the video recordings between the authors into a transcript and
this became the first rough draft for the book. Manogna Sastry,
Shalini Puthiyedam and Anurag worked hard through multiple
iterations to edit it both internally as well as with the external editor.

T.N. Sudarshan helped with important research on specific topics.

Divya Sharma was the in-house graphics expert who polished up the
figures while Anurag ensured the accuracy was not lost in the
process. Manogna took overall ownership for the quality of the
manuscript till it was turned over to the publisher. Shalini coordinated
the overall administrative process. Sanjana Roy Choudhury did the
final editing making excellent inputs on a tight time schedule.

It is thanks to the combined efforts of this team that the book

became possible after many years of work. We are thankful to
Nityananda Misra for writing the Foreword and Dr. Korada
Subrahmanyam for providing inputs to the book.

Authors

Selected Bibliography

Aurobindo, Sri. 1997. Col ected Works of Sri Aurobindo: The Future
Poetry Pondicherry. Sri Aurobindo Ashram Press.

Aurobindo, Sri. 1998. Hymns to the Mystic Fire. Pondicherry. Sri

Aurobindo Ashram Press.

Aurobindo, Sri. 1998. The Secret of the Veda. Pondicherry. Sri

Aurobindo Ashram Press.

Aurobindo, Sri. 1999. Col ected Works of Sri Aurobindo: The

Synthesis of Yoga.

Pondicherry. Sri Aurobindo Ashram Press.

Avalon, Arthur. 1953. The Great Liberation. Madras. Ganesh & Co.

Avalon, Arthur. 1960. Principles of Tantra. Madras. Ganesh & Co.

Bagchee, Prabodh Chandra. 1950. India and China: A Thousand

Years of Cultural Relations. Bombay. Hind Kitabs Limited.
Balasubramanian, R. 2003. Theistic Vedānta: History of Science,
Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol 2, Part 3. Delhi.
Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.

Basu, Manoranjan. 1986. Fundamentals of the Philosophy of

Tantras. Calcutta.

Mira Basu Publishers.

Bhanu Swami, HH. 2014. Translation of Uj vala-Nīlamaṇi. Chennai.

Sri Vaikuntha Enterprises.

Bhattacharjee, Arun. 1981. Greater India. New Delhi. Munshiram

Manoharlal Publishers.

Bhattacharya, Rama Shankar. 1976. Sankhya Tattvakaumudi.

Varanasi. Motilal Banarasidass.

Bhishagratna, Kaviraj Kunjalal. 1911. An English Translation of the

Sushruta Samhita. Calcutta.

Bil imoria, Purushottama. 2007. Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions

and Contemporary Chal enges. England. Ashgate.

Burgess, Ebenezer, Tr. 1935. Sūrya-Siddhānta. Gangooly,

Phanindralal, Ed.

Calcutta. University of Calcutta.

Carman, John Braisted. 1981. The Theology of Ramanuja. Bombay.

Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute.

Chaitanya, Krishna. 1965. Sanskrit Poetics: A Critical and

Comparative Study.

Bombay. Asia Publishing House.

Chari, S.M.S. 2000. Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology and
Religious Discipline. Delhi. Motilal Banarasidass.

Chari, S.M.S. 2004. Fundamentals of Viśiṣtadvaita Vedānta. Delhi.

Motilal Banarasidass.

Chatterji, Kshitish Chandra. 2003. Technical Terms and Technique of

Sanskrit Grammar. Kolkata. Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar.

Das, Sudhendu Kumar. 1934. Sakti or Divine Power. Calcutta.

University of Calcutta.

Doniger, Wendy. 2009. The Hindus: An Alternative History. New

York. Penguin.

Dwivedi, Rewaprasad. 1936. Vyaktiviveka. Varanasi. Chowkhamba.

Dyczkowski, Mark. 1989. The Doctrine of Vibration. New Delhi.

Motilal Banarasidass.

Eck, Diana. 1982. Banaras: City of Light. New York. Knopf.

Eliot, T.S. 1964. The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism: Studies
in the Relation of Criticism to Poetry in England. London. Faber &
Faber.

Friedman, Thomas L. 2005. The World is Flat: A Brief History of the

Twenty-first Century. New York. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Gajendragadkar, A.B. 1959. The Kāvyaprakāśa of Mammaṭa.

Bombay. Popular Book Depot.

Hiltebeitel, Alf. 2001. Rethinking the Mahābharata. Chicago.

University of Chicago Press.

Jones, Wil iam. 1795. ‘Botanical Observation of Select Indian

Plants’. Asiatic Researches, Vol 4: pp. 237-312.
Joshi, Kireet. 2011. Synthesis of Yoga ( History of Science,
Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization), Vol XVI, Part 4. New
Delhi. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.

Kak, Subhash. 2002. The Gods Within Mind, Consciousness and the
Vedic Tradition. New Delhi. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.

Karpatri Maharaja, Sri. 2001. Ramayana Mīmāṁsa. Vrindavan.

Radhakrishna Dhanuka Prakashan.

Kearns, Cleo. 1987. T.S. Eliot and Indian Traditions. Cambridge.

Cambridge University Press.

Lamb, Alastair. 1975. ‘Indian Influence in Ancient South-East Asia’.

In A Cultural History of India. Ed. A.L. Basham. London. Oxford
University Press.

Lannoy, R. 1971. The Speaking Tree: A Study of Indian Culture and

Society.

London. Oxford University Press.

Malhotra, Rajiv. 2011. Being Different: An Indian Chal enge to

Western Universalism. New Delhi. HarperCol ins Publishers with
India Today Group.

Malhotra, Rajiv. 2013. ‘Vivekananda’s Ideas and the Two

Revolutions in Western Thought’. in Vivekananda as the Turning
Point: The Rise of a New Spiritual Wave. Ed. Swami
Shuddhidananda. Kolkata. Advaita Ashrama Press.

Mandlik, Vishvanath Narayan. 1886. Mānava-Dharma Śāstra.

Bombay. Ganpat Krishnaji’s Press.

Mishra, Kamalakar. 1999. Kashmir Śaivism: The Central Philosophy

of Tantrism.
New Delhi. Sri Satguru Publications.

Mishra, Sampadananda. 2005. Sanskrit: And the Evolution of

Human Speech ( Based on Sri Aurobindo’s Linguistic Theory).
Pondicherry. Sri Aurobindo

Society.

Nath, Vijay. 2001. Purānas and Acculturation. New Delhi. Munshiram

Manoharlal Publishers.

Pandey, Kanti Chandra. 1950. Comparative Aesthetics: Indian

Aesthetics. Vol 1.

Banaras. The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office.

Parmeshwaranand, Swami. 2000. Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Vedic

Terms. New Delhi. Sarup & Sons.

Potter, Karl. 2015. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume XIX.

New Delhi.

Motilal Banarasidass.

Rajavade, V.K. 1940. Yaska’s Nirukta. Poona. Bhandarkar Oriental

Research Institute.

Ramanujan, A. 1990. ‘Is there an Indian way of thinking? An informal

essay’. In India through Hindu Categories. Ed. M. Marriott. New
Delhi. Sage Publications.

Ramaswamy, K., Nicolas de, Antonio, and Banerjee, Aditi. 2007.

Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America.
New Delhi. Rupa & Co.

Ryle, Gilbert. 1949. The Concept of Mind. Chicago. University of

Chicago Press.
Sandal, Mohan Lal. 1923. The Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini. Al
ahabad. Union Press.

Santideva, Sadhu. 1999. Encyclopaedia of Tantra. Vol. 1. New Delhi.

Cosmo Publications.

Sarkar, Jadunath. A History of Dasnami Naga Sanyasis. Al ahabad.

Sri Panchayati Akhara Mahanirvan.

Sen Sharma, Deba Brata. 1990. The Philosophy of Sadhana. New

York. State University of New York Press.

Sharma, Pandit Kedarnath. 1965. Kavyamimamsa. Patna. Bihar

Rashtrabhasha Parishad.

Singh, Jaideva. 2007. Spanda-Kārikās: The Divine Creative

Pulsation. New Delhi.

Motilal Banarasidass.

Sul ivan, Bruce M. 1994. ‘The Religious Authority in the

Mahābhārata: Vyāsa and Brahmā in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition’.
Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 62: pp. 377-401.

Tagare, G.V. 2002. The Praytabhijñā Philosophy. New Delhi. Motilal

Banarasidass.

Travis F., Olson, T., Egenes, T., Gupta, H.K. 2001. ‘Physiological
patterns during practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique
compared with patterns while reading Sanskrit and a modern
language’. International Journal of Neuroscience. 109 (1-2): pp. 71-
80.

Tripathi, Ramsagar, ed. 1987. Dhvanyāloka of Ānandavardhana:

with the Commentary Locana and the Tārāvalī. New Delhi. Motilal
Banarsidass.
Vasu, Srisa Chandra. 1897. The Ashtadhyayi of Panini. Benares.
Panini Office.

Whitney,

Wil iam

Dwight.

1905.

Atharva-Veda

Samhitā.

Cambridge

Massachusetts. Harvard University.

Notes

1 The HIST series refers to the multi-volume History of Indian

Science and Technology books. Refer http://www.indianscience.org.
The Indian Mind Sciences initiative is another example of work
pursued by Infinity Foundation.

2 See Friedman, The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first

Century, 2005.

3 As an example, popular writers like Devdutt Pattanaik (author of

more than fifty books in the ‘mythology’ genre) produce content to
feed this market.

Infinity Foundation has critiqued his work: Demolishing Devdutt

Pattanaik Point by Point in Detail https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=vtkMFLuOa3M

4 See Lannoy, 1971:166.

5 See Nath, Purāṇas and Acculturation, 2001.

6 See Eck, Banaras: City of Light, 1982:69.

7 According to Skanda Purāṇa (II.8.6.81-84), by bathing in the place

where Sarayu and Ghaghra meet, the pilgrim receives pu ṇ ya
(merit) equivalent to a thousand Aśvamedha yajña.

8 For example, the Liṅga Purāṇa (I.77.8-25) refers to different styles

of temple architecture.

9 For example, in the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa (XIX.10), drinking liquor is

not disapproved of, and meat and liquor are mentioned as
acceptable offerings to Bhagavan Dattātreya.

10 As quoted in Lamb, 1975:442-43.

11 As quoted in Bhattacharjee, 1981:199-200.

12 There is synergy between Sanskrit and Prakrit. A tinge of Prakrit

added to Sanskrit brought Sanskrit closer to the language of the
home, while a judicious Sanskritization made Prakrit into a language
of a higher cultural status. Both processes were simultaneous and
worked at conscious, as wel as subconscious, levels. As an example
of this symbiosis, one may point to various Sanskrit texts in medieval
India which were instruction manuals for spoken or conversational
Sanskrit by the general public.

13 See Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, 1950:79.

14 See Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, 1950:169.

15 There can certainly be abusive practices in pul marketing; the

mere fact that the buyer takes the initiative does not preclude
unethical conduct on the part of the sel er. Likewise, not al push
marketing is unethical but can easily be co-opted by the aggressive
ego.
16 See Lamb, ‘Indian Influence in Ancient South-East Asia’ in A
Cultural History of India, 1975.

17 Richard Lannoy points out that Indians were structuralists several

thousand years before Claude Lévi-Strauss lost al sense of time and
became total y absorbed in tracing the labyrinthine geological strata
of the Cévennes and long before structuralist physics was developed
with the aid of non-numerical, computerised pattern-recognition.
Lannoy, 1971:280.

18 See Eliot, 1964:118-19. Kearns explains that Eliot’s use of

‘shantih shantih shantih’ to end The Waste Land showed his deep
appreciation of the sound and breath effects involved, and that the
closest Christian equivalent, ‘the peace that passeth understanding’,
would be a feeble translation. Yet Eliot omits aum at the end. This
was the final threshold dividing Indic and Western tradition which
Eliot did not want to cross. Kearns, 1987:228-29.

19 See Total y Unofficial: Rahael Lemkin and the Genocide

Convention of The Making History Series. Ed. by Adam Strom et al.,
2007:20.

20

https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/atrocity-

crimes/Doc.1_Convention%20on%20the%20Prevention%20and%20
Punishm

ent%20of%20the%20Crime%20of%20Genocide.pdf. Accessed on 8
August

2020.

21 Having equal vision, samadarśana, should not be misunderstood

as samavartana or treating everything or everybody equal y.
Samadarśana means to see one Reality beneath the variety but
consider the variety and multiplicity for action. Kṛṣṇa says that a wise
person has samadarśana and sees a brāhmaṇa, a cow, an elephant,
a dog and an outcaste equal y ( Bhagavad Gīta 5.18). But the wise
person does not treat them equal y. He would not treat a brāhmaṇa
and a dog in the same manner.

22 See Malhotra, Being Different, 2011.

23 Article in the volume published by the Ramakrishna Mission to

commemorate the 150th anniversary of Vivekananda’s birth gives an
overview of his major influences that became digested over time.
Malhotra, Rajiv, ‘Vivekananda’s Ideas and the Two Revolutions in
Western Thought’, in Vivekananda as the Turning Point: The Rise of
a New Spiritual Wave. Ed. Swami Shuddhidananda, 2013:559-583.

24 The opposite, i.e., the pursuit of artificial and synthetic unities

promoted by modern Western science, the theories of liberalism and
progress emanating from Western thought are leading us to
planetary scale implosion. It suffices to point out that the modern
annihilation of nature is proof that such unities have basis in
adharma.

25 See Kak, 2002:151.

26 Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtra (I.48-51). Such

enlightenment/understanding is saturated with harmony, order and
righteousness. Whatever one has learned or heard from external
sources is outside of the consciousness, but this special realization
is of a different category. This spontaneous self-awareness
completely transmutes the entire being and there is total change. Al
other habits and tendencies are overcome by it. When even this
special realization

(with the seed of fragmentation stil present in it) gets transcended,

everything is transcended, and the seeker has, as it were, come ful
circle. The Reality realizes itself, without the need for the separate
individual even in his subtlest state. This indeed is the enlightenment
in which there is no seed at al for the manifestation of duality.

27 Pure, ecstatic contemplation of phonetic sounds reverberating on

the ether in the sacred chant is comparable to the contemplation of
geometrical forms and mathematical laws by the Pythagoreans.
“Only the Pythagorean master can hear the music of the spheres:
only the perfect Hindu sage can hear the primordial sound – nada.
One system exalted numbers, and the other, words.”

Lannoy, 1971:276.

28 An example of such a study was reported in the article titled

‘Physiological patterns during practice of the Transcendental
Meditation technique compared with patterns while reading Sanskrit
and a modern language’, published by the Psychology Dept.,
Maharishi University of Management, Fairfield, Iowa. It claims: ‘This
study tested the prediction that reading Vedic Sanskrit texts without
knowledge of their meaning produces a distinct physiological state.

We measured EEG, breath rate, heart rate, and skin conductance

during: (1) 15-min Transcendental Meditation (TM) practice; (2) 15-
min reading verses of the Bhagavad Gītā in Sanskrit; and (3) 15-min
reading the same verses translated in German, Spanish, or French.
The two reading conditions were randomly counterbalanced, and
subjects fil ed out experience forms between each block to reduce
carry-over effects. Skin conductance levels significantly decreased
during both reading Sanskrit and TM practice, and increased slightly
during reading a modern language. Alpha power and coherence
were significantly higher when reading Sanskrit and during TM
practice, compared to reading modern languages. Similar
physiological patterns when reading Sanskrit and during practice of
the TM technique suggests that the state gained during TM practice
may be integrated with active mental processes by reading Sanskrit’.
Travis, et al., 2001.
29 Also see Anjali Jaipuria, ‘Mantric Poetry’, presented at National
Seminar on Philosophy of Indian Poetics & Value-Oriented
Education, 24-26 January 2003, Sriperumbudur, India.

30 In texts such as Śṛṅgāra Prakāśa of Bhoja (Chapter 7) and

Durghaṭavṛitti of Śaraṇadeva, the authors declare that intonation has
an important role to play in revealing the intention of the speaker,
and it helps in the interpretation of texts in the right manner. Bhoja
has given several divisions and subdivisions of intonation and their
importance. In Śṛṅgāra Prakāśa, each category of intonation has
been il ustrated with examples from Sanskrit literature.

31 See Sri Aurobindo, 1999:11-12.

32 For example, the word ushas in the Veda-s has both ‘light’ and
‘darkness’ as its meanings. The experience of light is not complete
without the experience

of darkness, and so the word meaning ‘light’ also expresses the

sense of

‘darkness’.

33 See Rajiv Malhotra, 2011:231.

34 The correct method is prescribed by the Vedāṅga, cal ed śikṣā,

which covers enunciation (uchāraṇa), tone (svara), duration (mātra),
pitch (balam), evenness (samam) and compounding (santānam).
These rules, designed to ensure clear, lucid and effective
pronunciation of mantra-s, require that the sounds be properly
audible and not mumbled or overemphasized; nor should they be
uttered in a casual manner or in a staccato fashion, nor delivered too
fast or too slow or with a shaking of the head. The sounds should
have been oral y learnt from a teacher and should be oral y chanted
with concentration and understanding and never read from a written
script.
35 In his Mahābhāṣya (1.1.1), Patañjali gives a beautiful example to
il ustrate this point. Indra kil ed Triśira, the son of Tvaṣṭā. This
enraged Tvaṣṭā, who, to avenge his son’s death, conducted a
sacrifice to bring into life a powerful being that could kil Indra. He had
recited repeatedly ‘indraśatrurvardhasva’, meaning ‘may the kil er of
Indra grow stronger’. But unfortunately, Tvaṣṭā

recited the mantra with the wrong accentuation. As a result, the word
indraśatru, meaning ‘the kil er of Indra’ ( indrasya śatruḥ) gave the
sense ‘he whose kil er is Indra’ ( indrahyasya śatruḥ) and ultimately
the being that came out of the sacrificial urn was kil ed by Indra.
Tvaṣṭā could not get the desired result, and al his efforts proved
futile because he accented incorrectly.

Erroneous intonation or accentuation, then, can bring harmful results

or no result at al .

36 See Ramaswamy, Nicolas and Banerjee, 2007 , for details on this

example and the controversy surrounding it.

37 See Sul ivan, 1994:377-401.

38 Epistemological y, there are many theories in Indian philosophy

which emphasize the contextual nature of subject–object
relationships. One sophisticated theory is propounded in the
Vijñaptimātratā philosophy of the Yogācāra school of Buddhism,
according to which al erroneous cognitions are said to arise in the
form of bifurcation of subject and object ( grāhyagrāhaka-vikalpa) in
what is more fundamental y a non-dual experience (
advayavijñaptimātratā) in which duality discrimination ( dvaya-
vikalpa) is introduced as an inveterate tendency to dichotomize. The
general Buddhist theory of ‘dependent arising’ ( pratītyasamutpāda)
also emphasizes the mutual y dependent nature of the subject-object
( nāma-rūpa) relation.

39 The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (5.2) provides an il ustration of this

interdependence of subjective and objective context. The DA DA DA
sound of three-part thunder is Lord Prajāpati speaking three times to
three entirely different kinds of listeners: the devatā-s, given to
pleasure, hear the first syl able, which to them means damyatā
(control). The asura-s, given to cruelty, hear dayādhvam (be
compassionate). Humans, prone to greed, hear

datta (give to others). Thus, the same utterance is heard entirely

differently, depending on the change Prajāpati wishes to bring about
in each listener.

These three da-s comprise a model conversation policy, an intense

desire to preserve the equilibrium, and a subsistence ethic designed
not to upset the social ecology. This institutional framework is rooted
in the exchange of services and social reciprocity cal ed the ‘jajmāni’
system wherein the law of karma operates as the ethical correlative.
See Lannoy, 1971:194-95.

40 janmādyasya yataḥ ( Brahma Sūtra-s 1.1.2).

41 For example, the Taittirīya Upaniṣad defines Brahman as satyam

jñānam anantam Brahma (2.1.1): satyam (not subject to any kind of
modification), jñānam (possessing infinite, eternal knowledge) and
anantam (not conditioned by space, time or any object).

42 vadanti tat tattva-vidas tattvaṁ yaj jñānam advayam brahmeti

paramātmeti bhagavān iti śabdyate ( Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 1.2.11).

43 acintyāḥ khalu ye bhāvā na tāṁs tarkeṇa yojayet ( Mahābhārata,

Bhīṣma Parva 5.12).

44 Yāska says in Nirukta (3.15) that the word ātman is derived from
the root at meaning constant motion or the root ap standing for
permeation or pervasion.

The second derivation signifies that ātmā permeates or pervades the

body.
45 See for example, Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 5.10.

46 yāvat sañjāyate kiñcit sattvaṁ sthāvara-jaṅgamam kṣetra-

kṣetrajña-sanyogāt tad viddhi bharatarṣabha ( Bhagavad Gītā
13.27).

47 na jāyate mṛiyate vā kadācin ( Bhagavad Gītā 2.20).

48 Brahma Sūtra (2.3.43) very clearly states that jīvātmā is an aṃśa

or a part of Paramātmā. Similarly, Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa says in the
Bhagavad Gītā that the jīvātmā-s in this material world are a part of
Bhagavān – mamaivānśo jīva-loke jīva-bhūtaḥ sanātanaḥ (
Bhagavad Gītā 15.7).

49 The functions of avidya-māya, again, are two-fold and further

classified as āvaraṇa Śakti and vikṣepa Śakti according to the two
functions. Āvaraṇa Śakti conceals the true nature of a jīva and
makes them forget that they are an eternal y self-conscious dāsa of
Bhagavān and total y dependent on Him.

Vikṣepa Śakti, on the other hand, bewilders a jīva by creating

distortion in the form of limited empirical consciousness of the
material body and also by projecting the material sense objects.

50 ajñānenāvṛitaṁ jñānaṁ tena muhyanti jantavaḥ ( Bhagavad Gītā

5.15).

51 daivī hyeṣā guṇa-mayī mama māyā duratyayā mām eva ye

prapadyante māyām etāṁ taranti te ( Bhagavad Gītā 7.14).

52 yogasthaḥ kuru karmāṇi saṅgaṁ tyaktvā dhanañjaya siddhy-

asiddhyoḥ samo bhūtvā samatvaṁ yoga ucyate ( Bhagavad Gītā
2.48).

53 According to Amarakośa, a thesaurus in Sanskrit written by

Amarasiṁha, the terms mukti, mōkṣa, apavarga and nirvāṇa are
among the synonyms given for the word kaivalya, thus indicating the
general sense of liberation denoted by the word.

54 Acharya Śrīla Jīva Gosvāmi of the Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava

Sampradāya has given the meaning of kaivalya as prīti or prema.
Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam gives vedanta-sāra or the essence of Vedanta
and its prayojana or purpose is to help a bonded jīva to attain
kaivalya (sarva-vedānta-sāraṁ hi śrī-bhāgavatam iṣyate ( Śrīmad-
Bhāgavatam 12.13.15). This text too defines kaivalya as priti with
Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa.

55 This is reflected in the invocatory verse of the Īśopaniṣad:

Pūrṇam adah, pūrṇam idam, pūrṇāt pūrṇam udachyate Pūrṇasya
pūrṇam ādāya pūrṇam evāvaśiṣyate.

56 See for further references: Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa says in the

Bhagavad Gītā, that He is the sacred syl able Om among al the
Vedic mantra-s [praṇavaḥ

sarva-vedeṣu ( Bhagavad Gītā 7.8)]. Again, Patañjali says in the

Yoga Sūtra-s that Īśvara is the referent of the sacred syl able Om
[tasya vācakaḥ praṇavaḥ

( Yoga Sūtra-s 1.27)]. Similarly, Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad says that

through meditation on Om, one can experience God (1.14) and
Taittirīya Upaniṣad says that Om is Brahman and everything in this
world (1.8.1). Al these il ustrations from the Hindu śāstra-s imply that
Om is the sound form of Supreme Reality and expresses the totality
of al cosmos. Chāndogya Upaniṣad says that just as leaves are held
together by a stalk, so is al speech held together by Om (2.23.3).

57 Oṁ ityekākṣaraṁ brahma vyāharan mām anusmaran yaḥ prayāti

tyajan dehaṁ sa yāti paramāṁ gatim ( Bhagavad Gītā 8.13).

58 See Commentary on śloka 19 of Vijñāna Bhairava. Refer to

Sudhendu Kumar Das, 1934:76-77.
59 This word is derived from the root mṛś which means ‘to feel’,
‘discriminate’,

‘understand’, ‘examine’ or ‘reflect’.

60 See Mark Dyczkowski, 1989:69.

61 In Śrīvaiṣṇava Sampradāya, Śakti acts as the mediatrix between

jīva-s and Bhagavān and intercedes on behalf of humanity with
Bhagavān.

62 In Sanskrit Vyākaraṇa the roots or stems, from which various

words are produced by adding suffixes and prefixes, are cal ed
prakṛti.

63 This is one of the four kinds of pralaya described in the Purāṇa - s

and is cal ed Prakṛita Pralaya. The others are Naimittika Pralaya
when Bhagavān Brahmā

sleeps, Ātyantika Pralaya and Nitya Pralaya.

64 In the Mīmāṃsā Sūtra-s of Jaimini, the two terms prakṛti and

vikṛiti are used very frequently. The paradigmatic original sacrifice is
cal ed prakṛti. Prakṛti are sacrifices whose processes are related in
ful in the Veda-s. Thus, prakṛti-s are model sacrifices or archetypes
from which innumerable modified sacrifices are derived. These
modified or derived sacrifices are cal ed vikṛiti- s. Refer English
translation of Mīmāṃsā Sūtra-s by M.L. Sandal, the sūtra-s IX.3.1,
III.3.23, I.1.10, XII.2.20.

In Ayurveda texts prakṛti means ‘the normal healthy condition of an

individual’

and vikṛiti means ‘an abnormal state of il ness or disease’.

In phonetics or śikṣā the sound that remains unchanged in euphonic

combination during recitation is cal ed prakṛti whereas the altered
sound is cal ed vikṛiti.

65 See Sarva-bhūtāni kaunteya prakṛtim yānti māṁikām Kalpa-

kṣaye punastāni kalpādau visṛjāmyaham (9.7), prakṛtiṁ svām
avaṣṭabhya visṛjāmi punaḥ

punaḥ bhuta-grāmamimaṁ kṛtsnam avaśaṁ pkṛter vaśāt ( Bhagavad

Gītā 9.8), sadṛiśam cheṣṭate svasyāḥ prakṛiter jñānavān api prakṛtiṁ
yānti bhūtāni nigrahaḥ kiṁ kariṣyati ( Bhagavad Gītā 3.33).

66 Another meaning denoted by the word prakṛti in the Bhagavad

Gītā (4.6) is the Māyā or Śakti of Bhagavān. This is not the material
māyā which is extrinsic to His inner personality but His intrinsic Śakti.
Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa says that although He is the unborn lord of al
beings, He comes into being by His own Māyā or intrinsic Śakti.
Again, Bhagavān (7.4) says that earth, water, fire, air, space, mind,
intel ect and ego are the eight components of His lower insentient
eight-fold prakṛti. In the next śloka Bhagavān says that besides this
eight-fold insentient lower prakṛti, He has another higher sentient
prakṛti in the form of various jīva-s. It is very clear that prakṛti carries
very profound technical meanings which cannot even remotely be
suggested by the English word ‘nature’.

67 āsamantāt kāśte iti ākāśaḥ.

68 For example, in Sāṅkhya philosophy two kinds of ākāśa are

described by Ācārya Vijñānabhikṣu, namely kāraṇa ākāśa and kārya
ākāśa. Kāraṇa ākāśa is undifferentiated tamas and very subtle. It is
kāraṇa ākāśa which evolves into kārya ākāśa. Kārya ākāśa is the
one which has the quality of sound.

69 See Bhāgavata Purāṇa (3.26.34).

70 The modern notion of space is closer to the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika

concept of dik, which is a separate substance in this system and
different from ākāśa. Dik is regarded as the cause of the notion of
distance. However, many schools of Indian philosophy like Sāṅkhya,
Viśiṣṭādvaita do not recognize dik and ākāśa as separate entities. In
Dvaita Vedanta two types of ākāśa are postulated, namely
avyākṛtākāśa and bhūtākāśa. Bhūtākāśa posseses the property of
dark color and is perceptible just like the space. Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika
also regard ākāśa as a substratum of movement and consider its
postulation as a necessity for explaining the motion of objects.

71 In Agni sūkta, Agni devatā is cal ed purohita which means ‘the

one who is first to bring welfare to living beings’. Agni miḷe purohitam
(1.1).

72 In Vedanta, and more specifical y in Vaiṣṇava schools of Vedanta,

reality has three levels (forms) of existence: ādhidaivika (divine),
ādhyātmika (spiritual) and ādhibhautika (material). The same
Sanskrit word is used to denote al three forms. For example, kāla
(time) has material form in Sun, planets and stars which we use to
measure time and also a divine form.

Similar logic applies to the word Sūrya which is not just the physical
Sun but also a Deva and similarly for the names of various rivers.

73 See Sri Aurobindo, 1998:65-66.

74 Nyāya texts mention three kinds of Tejas/Agni or fire (i.e., Śarīra

Tejas, Indriya Tejas and Viṣaya Tejas) with further divisions in these
types. The Nyāya-Śrī

Śaṅkara Miśra classifies fire into four kinds depending on whether its
color and/or hot touch are manifested or not. Sun’s rays manifest
both color and touch, in hot oil only touch is manifested, in eyes both
are unmanifest while in a shiny metal like gold only color is manifest.

75 aham vaiśvānaro bhūtvā prāṇinām deham āśritah prāṇāpāna

samāyuktah pacāmy annam caturvidham ( Bhagavad Gītā 15.14).

76 In Yajur Veda, Vāyu is described as the swiftest devatā.

Yajur Veda Taittirīya Saṃhitā (2.1.1) says

Vāyurvai kṣepiṣṭhā devatā

Vāyu is cal ed the messenger of devatā-s because of his swiftness.

77 According to the Puruṣasūkta of the Rig Veda (10.90), Vāyu is

said to be born from the prāṇa of the Supreme cosmic being cal ed
Puruṣa. Also see Śatapata Brāhmaṇa 8.4.1.26.

78 The Śiva Purāṇa 7.1.4.5 says that Vāyu devatā sustains the
bodies of al living beings with the help of his own functionaries, like
prāṇa.

79 This is reflected in a hymn of Rig Veda (5.78.7-8) where Vāyu

devatā or Vāta is invoked for good childbirth.

80 Śabda pramāṇa is free of defects such as: bhrama (delusion),

pramāda (carelessness), vipralipsā (cheating) and kāraṇapāṭava
(inaccuracy of the senses).

81 In the Mahābhāṣya, Patañjali describes Śabda with the fol owing

epithets: nitya (eternal), kūṭastha (subtle), avicali (motionless),
avikāri (without modification), anupajana (without origin) and
anapāya (indestructible).

82 Pronounced sounds or written alphabets at the phenomenal level

only manifest or reveal an already-existent Śabda. When the sound
of a Śabda is no longer heard after it is spoken, it is only the
destruction of the vaikhari level but Śabda at subtler levels always
exist non-perceived. Śabda can be articulate (expressed through
language) or inarticulate (produced from an instrument, chirping of
birds, a baby gurgling, etc.). The essence of Śabda does not lie in its
sonority and is seen from the fact that Śabda can be expressed in
written form or through gestures.
83 In Sāṅkhya metaphysics, Śabda is one of the five tanmātra-s
from which the concrete element ākāśa evolves.

84 In a hymn from the Rig Veda (10.125) Vāk identifies Herself with
everything in the universe and according to a śloka from the Maitrī
Upaniṣad (6.22), there are two types of Brahman: Śabdabrahman
and Parabrahman. One who gets to know the Śabdabrahman also
reaches Parabrahman. Śabdabrahman is also cal ed Parā Vāk. The
Brahma Sūtra-s also say that the world originates from Śabda.

85 Anādinidhanam Brahma Shabdatattvam yadaksharam| Vivartate

arthabhāvena prakrīyā jagato yatah || ( Vākyapadīya 1.1)

86 The grammarian Pāṇini defines indriya in his work Aṣṭādhyāyī as

the liṅga (sign) by which we can infer the existence of a jīvātmā (i.e.,
wherever there is an indriya, there is also Indra or ātmā). Indrasya
jīvasya liṅgam indriyam (V.2.93). See V.2.93 in English translation of
Aṣṭādhyāyī by Srisa Chandra Vasu.

87 See Yukti-Dīpikā on Sāṅkhya Kārikā 28 and Sāṅkhya Tattva

Kaumudi on Sāṅkhya Kārikā 26. Similarly, according to Advaita
Vedanta, indriya-s evolve from sāttvika portion of sūkṣma bhūta-s or
tanmātra-s. Tanmātra-s are not gross matter but kind of subtle matter
from which physical matter evolves.

88 According to Western science, sense-organs are identical with

their locations in the body, whereas in the Indian tradition, the organs
are only the seats or physiological locations of indriya-s and not the
indriya-s themselves. Caraka Saṃhitā (Ayurvedic text) very clearly
states that the eyes, ears, nostrils, tongue and skin are the five
locations ( adhiṣṭhāna) of indriya-s. Al darśana-s agree that indriya-s
are different from golaka-s.

The indriya of vision (cakṣus) is not the eyebal or the pupil of the
eye. The pupil or the eyebal is the seat of vision but cakṣus is subtler
and of the nature of tejas. Cakṣus, as an indriya, is one but golaka-s
or eyes are two in number and hence, they are different. The Indriya
of vision is cured when medicines are applied to eye golaka-s
because the treatment of adhiṣ ṭ hāna (golaka) also purifies the
subtle indriya (ādheya). Suśruta in Suśruta Saṃhitā says,
śirasindriyaṇi meaning that the indriya-s are located in the head
area, the brain. Manas, which is also an indriya in the Indian
tradition, is located in the heart.

According to Nyāya philosophers, al indriya-s have different

magnitudes ( ākṛiti) which may or may not coincide with the
magnitude of their seats in physical body (i.e., sense-organs). Thus,
indriya-s for tactile, gustatory and olfactory perceptions, cal ed tvak,
rasanā and ghṛāṇa in Sanskrit respectively, are co-extensive with
their seats and have the magnitude of their sites.

Cakṣus, though, located in the pupil, is co-extensive with the field of

vision and śrotra, concerned with auditory perception, is al pervading
like ākaśa.

89 ‘atīndrayāṇi indriyāṇi ’

90 In that case there would be no difference between indriya -s and

sense organs. It would be absurd to regard indriya-s of vision and
hearing as prāpyākāri if they were products of concrete matter and
identical with eyes or ears. We do not see our eyes or ears moving
out of our body to the objects before us in order to see or hear them.
Thus, modern science explains the phenomena of vision and hearing
from purely an objective angle.

91 In the Indian theory of perception, indriya-s reach out to distant

objects in the form of vṛitti - s and it is vṛitti-s that connect indriya-s
with their objects. Vṛitti-s are a modification of the antaḥakaraṇa,
which due to the preponderance of

the sattva guṇa, expand and emerge out of the gates of indriya-s
and transform them into the form of the object of perception, thus
establishing a relation between the inner psychical and the outer
physical world. The presence and mediation of vṛitti in the operation
of perceptual cognition is not just confined to ocular perception but is
a necessary condition for al other kinds of perceptual cognitions. It
should be noted that external objects are not regarded as completely
unreal. Vṛitti-s require external physical objects in order to assume
their form. However, perceptual cognition of each person also has a
unique subjective side to it. This means that the external world
perceived by a person has commonalities that are perceived by al
other persons, but at the same time it is not completely identical to
the perception of other persons.

92 Bhagavad Gītā indriyāṇi daśaikaṁ ca (13.6) clearly says that

there are eleven indriya-s and similarly the Veda-s and Upaniṣad-s,
along with most darśana-s.

Only the schools of Nyāya and Prabhākara Mīmāṃsā-s regard six

indriya-s as they do not believe in karmendriya-s. Bhagavad Gītā
also at one instance (15.7) takes the count of indriya-s to be six.
However, none of them says that indriya-s are five in number like the
sense-organs.

93 The five buddhīndriya-s are cakṣu, śrotra, ghṛāṇa, rasanā and

tvak responsible respectively for ocular, auditory, olfactory, gustatory
and tactual perception. Similarly, the five karmendriya-s are cal ed
vāk, pāṇi, pāda, pāyu and upasthā – responsible respectively for:
vocalization, gripping, movement of the body, excretion and
reproduction. Manas is cal ed antarīndriya and is responsible for the
perception of pleasure, pain, desire, feeling. Manas is unique in the
sense that it can apprehend not just what is in the present, like other
indriya-s, but also what was in the past and what wil be in the future.

94 Certain interpretations of Christianity believe in Purgatory as a

place where souls get tormented to make them eligible to proceed to
heaven permanently.

95 Yāna, again, does not just mean a spacecraft. It also means a

spiritual vehicle through which one can reach a spiritual realm. Some
of these yāna-s are actual y conscious beings.

96 The word loka is explained as lokyate anena iti lokaḥ, which

translates to ‘that by which everything is observed or perceived is
loka’ and so the word refers to the witness subjective human
consciousness; alternatively, it can mean lokyate iti lokaḥ, or ‘that
which is perceived is lokaḥ’.

97 In Kashmir Shaivism there are concepts of kalā and bhuvana- s/

loka-s or states of being. One hundred and eighteen different
bhuvana-s/loka-s or worlds are described (with different
combinations of tattva-s) varying from most concrete level of
manifestation to the subtlest, and yogī-s can experience these
bhuvana-s in samādhi. This physical world which we see around is
just one bhuvana. Different sādhana-s lead a spiritual aspirant to
different bhuvana-s (e.g., karma-yoga leads to a bhuvana named
Kṛita).

These bhuvana-s are discussed in Tantrasāra and Tantrāloka by

Ācārya Śrī

Abhinavagupta.

98 Again, Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa says te taṁ bhuktvā svarga-lokaṁ

viśālaṁ kṣīṇe puṇye martya-lokaṁ viśanti ( Bhagavad Gītā 9.21)
which means that after a person has exhausted the stock of merits
by enjoying pleasures in svarga they are sent back to the mortal
world.

99 There is a famous incident narrated in Rāmāyaṇa where king

Triśanku was made to enter svarga in his physical body by Mahaṛṣi
Viśvāmitra through his ascetic power. Mahaṛṣi Viśvāmitra even
created a new paral el svarga for the king when Indra deva refused
to let him stay in the original svarga. There are also those such as
Mucukunḍa, Kha ṭ avāṅga, and Arjuna who travel ed to svarga to
help Indra. Similarly, king Nahuṣa took the post of Indra for some
time.
100 Jīvatma-s acquire a subtle body in naraka cal ed the yātnā
śarīra through which they cleanse their pāpa.

101 Surprisingly, the word demon is derived from the Greek word
daímōn which meant ‘a benevolent spirit or god’. Perhaps the influx
of Christianity changed the meaning to a negative sense.

102 There is an interesting story narrated in the Chāndogya

Upaniṣad (8.7-12) concerning Indra and the king of asura-s Virocana
describing the difference in nature of asura-s and devatā-s.

103 The etymology of the word asura is explained as asuṣu ramate

iti asuraḥ. The word is also derived from the verbal root as which
means to throw something; and vitality. Asura means ‘one who is
with vitality’ or ‘a mighty one’ or ‘one capable enough to throw down
his opponent’. This is the reason that in Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad
(V.2.3) when Bhagavān Brahmā instructs the asura-s by the letter
da, He tel s them to show dayā (mercy) towards the weak. For Deva-
s, the letter da meant damana or ‘self-restraint in enjoying pleasures’

and for humans it meant dāna or ‘charity’.

The word asu means an animal life or a sensuous life devoid of

spiritual pursuit. Thus, one who takes pleasure only in enjoying the
material pleasures of life is cal ed an asura. In the sixteenth chapter
of the Bhagavad Gītā, Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa says that there are two
types of created beings in this world with opposite types of prakṛti or
innate characteristics: āsurika and daivika. He then elucidates the
attributes of a person who behaves like a deva and also of a person
who is an asura. He says for the asura-s: dambho darpo abhimānaś
ca krodhaḥ pāruṣyam eva ca ajñānaṁ cābhijātasya pārtha
sampadam āsurīm ( Bhagavad Gītā 16.4) which means that
hypocrisy, arrogance, pride, anger, rudeness and ignorance are the
qualities of an asurika person. Thus, somebody who is addicted to
sensual pleasures and enjoys hurting and exploiting others is cal ed
an asura. Thus, one way of understanding the meaning of asura is in
terms of innate features of a person.

104 In fact, Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa says daityānam prahlādoh asmi (

Bhagavad Gītā

10.30). which means that “.. among the daitya-s, I am Prahlāda”.

105 See Sūrya Siddhānta Chapter 1, verses 2-7. English translation

by Ebenezer Burgess, edited by Phanindralal Gangooly, 1935.

106 Yajña is a process of transformation of the concrete into subtle

through the medium of agni. It can also be considered as symbolic of
a daivika process of withdrawing the consciousness inwards and
away from the concrete towards the realization of true subtle self,
which is ātmā. Contrary to this, the āsurika process or an anti-yajña
would be to externalize consciousness and direct it towards the
enjoyment of material objects. Movements which promote a
hedonistic lifestyle are examples of anti-yajña.

107 For example, Devdutt Pattanaik contends that Bhagavān Śrī

Kṛṣṇa was not a good father because his son Sāmba committed
many improper acts which ultimately led to the downfal of his own
Yādava clan. (See: Children of the Great,

August

2015,

in

the

Economic

Times
http://devdutt.com/articles/applied-mythology/leadership/children-of-
the-

great.html) However, this is furthest from the truth. According to

Bhāg avata Purāṇa (10.61.1), Kṛṣṇa’s sons were like Him in
character. Nārada personal y witnessed Kṛṣṇa taking care of His
children (10.69.23, 32, 33). Description of Kṛṣṇa teaching moral
values to His sons, including Sāmba, is found in the sixty-fourth
chapter of tenth canto. As far as Sāmba’s misbehavior is concerned,
it is clear from the description found in the first chapter of eleventh
canto of Bhāgavata Purāṇa that it happened by the wil of Kṛṣṇa
Himself. He wanted his family to be annihilated before He left the
earth. Thus, He made Sāmba act in a disrespectful manner towards
the sages who cursed the Yadu dynasty. The sages also understood
it to be wil of Kṛṣṇa, otherwise they would not have dared to curse.

108 There is some difference of opinion regarding the number of

tattva-s in sūkṣma śarīra. According to Pañcadaśī (1.23) and
Vedānta-paribhā sā, sūkṣma śarīra has seventeen tattva-s as listed
here. However, according to Sāṅkhya Tattvakaumudi (Kārika 40)
written by Vācaspati Miśra, sūkṣma śarīra has eighteen constituents:
buddhi (Mahān), ahaṅkāra, eleven indriya -s and five tanmātra-s.
See Hindi translation of Sāṅkhya Tattvakaumudi of Rama Shankar
Bhattacharya, 1976: 250.

109 According to Advaita Vedanta, sūkṣma śarīra consists of three

sheaths or kośa-s cal ed the prāṇamaya kośa, manomaya kośa and
vijñānamaya kośa.

110 4.2.11 – Asyaiva copapattereṣa ūṣmā.

111 See Mana eva manuṣyānām kāraṇam bandhe mokshayoh (

Amritabindu Upaniṣad 2nd śloka).

And rāga-dveṣa-viyuktais tu viṣayān indriyaiścaraṇ

ātma-vaśyair-vidheyātmā prasādam adhigachchhati ( Bhagavad Gītā
2.64).

112 See The Concept of Mind by the British philosopher Gilbert Ryle.

113 The modified condition of the buddhi wherein it makes the

choice is technical y cal ed adhyavsāya in Sāṅkhya psychology. See
23rd kārikā in the text of Sāṅkhya kārikā.

114 Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa makes a very important statement in the

Bhagavad Gītā,

“Oh Arjuna! When you work with buddhi you can be freed from the
bondage of karma”: buddhyā yukto yayā pārtha. Also see buddhir
buddhimatām asmi (Bhagavad Gita 7.10) and karma-bandhaṁ
prahāsyasi ( Bhagavad Gītā 2.39).

115 In the Purāṇa-s, one comes across a personality named

Citragupta. He is considered to be the secretary of Yamarāja, the
devatā of death. It is Citragupta who maintains a record of the
karma-s done by al the jīva-s in this world and provides it to
Yamarāja so that he can punish or reward them accordingly in the
interval between their deaths and rebirths. The word citra means ‘a
photo’ in Sanskrit and gupta means ‘secret’. Thus, Citragupta can be
regarded as the hidden camera of Yamarāja by which he keeps a
watch on the karma-s done by every individual. Similarly, citta can
also be regarded as the hidden camera which records al our
activities.

116 Yogaś citta vṛtti nirodhaḥ ( Yoga Sūtra 1.2).

tadā draṣṭuḥ svarūpe avasthānam ( Yoga Sūtra 1.3).

117 This superimposition of spiritual ‘I’ over material ahaṅkāra is also

cal ed hṛdaya- granthi or chit-jaḍa granthi in the Indian tradition.
118 sukha-saṅgena badhnāti jñāna-saṅgena cānagha ( Bhagavad
Gītā 14.6).

119 Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa says, aham sarvasya prabhavo mattaḥ

sarvaṁ

pravartate ( Bhagavad Gītā 10.8), which means, “I am the source of

everything, and everything proceeds from Me.”

120 See Ahastāni sahastānām apadāni catuṣpadām Phalgūni tatra

mahatāṁ jīvo jīvasya jīvanam ( Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 1.13.47). We
thank Dr. Korada Subrahmanyam for this additional line: Ahimsa is
defined as cessation of hostility by two natural y hostile entities, like
cat and rat, in one’s presence (अहस पतषय वरतग:- यगसम).

121 According to Suśruta Saṃhitā, prāṇa is not vital air, air or breath
but the energy that activates al these and other elements in the
body. See Introduction, Volume 2 of English translation by K.L.
Bhishagratna, 1911.

122 According to Chāndogya Upaniṣad (1.3.3) Yadvai prāṇiti sa

prāṇaḥ Which means that prāṇa is not ‘breath’ but ‘that which
breathes’. The Veda-s compare the body of a being to a house and
prāṇa to the central support on which the other minor supports such
as senses, mind and speech rest; see Aitareya Āraṇyaka 3.2.1.

123 According to Yoga Vaśiṣṭha (Book 5, Chapter 78, verse 14)

even the movement of thought in mind arises from prāṇa.

124 The number of total cakra-s are fourteen, but in our human body
six or seven are of prime importance. Beginning from the Mūlādhāra
cakra, there are seven cakra-s below and six above.

125 Tatra pratyayaika-tānatā dhyānam ( Yoga Sūtra 3.2).

126 Four kinds of sabīja samādhi are mentioned in the Yoga Sūtra-s
1.42, 1.43
and 1.44: savitarka, nirvitarka, savicāra and nirvicāra.

127 In the Yoga Sūtra, nirbīja samādhi is considered as the highest.

However, there is some difference of opinion on this among the
different sampradāya-s of Hinduism and according to the Vaiṣṇava
traditions it is sabīja samādhi which is considered as the highest.
According to the yoga of Kashmir Shaivism, there are two types of
samādhi: unmīlana and nimīlana. Unmīlana samādhi is a state of
citta in which even when the eyes are wide open, the external world
appears as Universal Consciousness.

128 See Yoga Sūtra-s 3.4.

129 Bhuvana jñānaṁ sūrye saṁyamāt ( Yoga Sūtra 3.26).

130 In the Gītā Bhagavān says that śāstra-s should be the authority
in determining what should be done ( kārya) and what should not be
done ( akārya). tasmāt śāstraṁ pramāṇaṁ te kārya-akārya
vyavasthitau. jñātvā śāstra-vidhānoktaṁ

karma kartum ihārhasi ( Bhagavad Gītā 16.24).

131 yogaḥ karmasu kauśalam ( Bhagavad Gītā 2.50).

132 In the Bhagavad Gītā, Bhagavān says to Arjuna that whatever

deeds he (Arjuna) performs, he should do them as an offering to
Him. yat karoṣi yad aśnāsi yaj juhoṣi dadāsi yat yat tapasyasi
kaunteya tat kuruṣva mad-arpaṇam ( Bhagavad Gītā 9.27).

133 In the Bhagavad Gītā, Bhagavān says that one should perform
one’s karma for the sake of duty and not become attached to the
fruits of those karma-s: karmaṇyevādhikāraste mā phaleṣu
kadācana ( Bhagavad Gītā 2.47).

134 prakṛteḥ kriyamāṇāni guṇaiḥ karmāṇi sarvaśaḥ ahaṅkāra-

vimūḍhātmā
kartāham iti manyate ( Bhagavad Gītā 3.27).

135 This distinction is found in Kashmir Shaivism as bauddha jñāna

and Pauruṣa jñāna. Similarly, in the Śaiva Siddhānta philosophy,
jñāna is three-fold, namely pāśa jñāna (knowledge of the material
objects), paśu jñāna (knowledge of the atma or self) and pati jñāna
(knowledge of Universal Consciousness or Bhagavān Śiva).

136 The six virtues are: control of the mind ( śama), control of the
senses ( dama), non-dependence on anything external ( uparati),
endurance of al worldly afflictions without lamenting ( titīkṣā),
conviction in the teachings of the śāstra-s ( śraddhā) and constant
establishment of buddhi in Brahman ( samādhāna); mumukṣatva
means ‘an intense desire for liberation’. See verses 20 to 28 of
Vivekacūḍāmaṇi.

137 Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa says in the Bhagavad Gītā, “Arjuna while
you speak words of knowledge like a pandit or a jñāni, you are
mourning for that which is not worthy of grief. This is contradictory
because the wise lament neither for the living nor for the dead”:
aśocyān-anvaśocas-tvaṁ prajñā-vādānśa ca bhāṣase gatāsūn-
agatāsūnśa-ca nānuśocanti paṇḍitāḥ ( Bhagavad Gītā 2.11).

138 According to Nighaṇṭu, which is a glossary of Vedic terms, the

words bhakti and sevā convey the same meaning. See Vaisnavism:
Its Philosophy,

Theology and Religious Discipline by S.M.S Chari, 2000:117. Also,

Śrutaprakāśikā, commentary on Rāmānuja Bhāṣya on VS 1-1-1
which says

‘sevā bhaktir upāsti iti naighaṇṭukaḥ’.

139 According to Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam (3.29.12-14) the

characteristics of bhakti-yoga are that it is beyond the three guṇa-s
of prakṛti and unadulterated by any material desires to the point that
a bhakta does not accept the five kinds of mokṣa if they are devoid
of bhakti. Also see Śrīla Rūpa Gosvāmī’s magnum opus Bhakti-
rasāmṛita-sindhu: Anyābhilāṣitā śūnyaṁ jñāna-karmādi anāvṛtam
ānūkūlyena Kṛṣṇa-anūśilanaṁ bhaktir uttamā ( Bhakti-rasāmṛta-
sindhu 1.1.11).

140 This seven-fold discipline comprises viveka (purification of the

body), vimoka (purification of the mind), abhyāsa (repeated
contemplation of Bhagavān), kriya (performance of five-fold duties to
sub-human species, fel ow beings, teachers, forefathers and gods),
kalyāṇa (truthfulness), non-violence, anavasāda (freedom from any
worry) and anuddharṣa (absence of exultation).

See Synthesis of Yoga by Kireet Joshi 2011:452 and Theistic

Vedanta by R.

Balasubramanian, 2003:iv.

141 This is the view of the Sāṅkhya, Mīmāṁsa and al the Vedanta
schools of Hindu philosophy. Only the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika school
regards Veda-s as created by Bhagavān. Thus, for them,
apauruṣeya means ‘not created by a human being, puruṣa’.

Many of the Tamil Vaiṣṇava saints cal ed Ālvār-s are traditional y

regarded to have been born much before the avatāra of Bhagavān
Śrī Kṛṣṇa but their compositions are fil ed with descriptions of
Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa’s Līlā-s.

142 In Purāṇa-s, the Veda-s are frequently presented as personified

beings residing in vaikuṇṭha along with Bhagavān. See, for example,
Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 10.87.12-13, 5.1.7.

143 It is important to note that it was by conscious choice that the

Veda-s were not written down. Hindus traditional y regard oral
transmission as the only appropriate vehicle for correctly learning the
Veda-s. The Mahābhārata (13.23.72) explicitly condemns the writing
down of the Veda-s. This is due to two reasons: firstly, the powerful
Vedic mantra-s are required to be reproduced accurately with not
just correct pronunciation but also correct intonation of sound for
effecting the desired results on an individual and the environment,
and preserving the sacred order of this universe. The auxiliary Vedic
disciplines or Vedāṅga-s like phonetics (śikṣā) and prosody
(chandas) are studied specifical y for this purpose. Secondly, the
exclusive oral transmission of the Veda-s acted as a safeguard
against their possible misuse and profanation through disclosure to
an unqualified person. The same Vedic text is memorized with
eleven different modes of recitation cal ed the pāṭha-s.

Each pā ṭ ha requires a complex grammatical and recitative

manipulation of the base text.

144 Scripture is derived from the Latin word scriptura which means
‘writing’. At the same time, the Vedic tradition, while focusing on oral
transmission, does not

preclude writing – Atharva Veda has references to words indicating

written text.

145 The Hindu śāstra-s recognize sāmanya dharma and āpad

dharma which deal, respectively, with normal and emergency
situations in a person’s life. During adverse circumstances, a person
is given more leeway to function by the śāstra-s and their dharma is
not violated by such acts of omission or commission in that period
which under normal circumstances would have been against the
dharma. Thus, abandonment of rigidity in the observance of certain
rules and regulations during adverse times is al owed in the śāstra-s.

This adjustable nature of Dharmaśāstra-s helps Hinduism to

regularly reinvent itself and stay abreast of modern times.

146 Smṛti-s, also included among the śāstra-s, are composed by the
enlightened ṛṣi-s on the basis of Vedic knowledge. Smṛti-s are
derived from the Veda-s and they elucidate dharmic principles in
various kinds of practical ways to help lead a constructive life based
on the Vedic dharma. Smṛti-s also al ow the freedom for their
reinterpretation according to the changing spirit of the times,
provided this does not lead to any contradiction with the Veda-s.

Dharmaśāstra-s such as Manusmṛti and Yajñavalkyasmṛti are pliant

enough for reinterpretation according to the changing context and
times. This reinterpretation, however, should be consistent with
certain eternal unchanging Vedic truths. Thus, the complete body of
Hindu śāstra-s, which includes the Śruti-s and the Smṛti-s, have this
built-in static-dynamic duality.

147 Original y Śruti (the Veda) was revealed to Brahmā at the dawn
of creation when He sat in meditation and performed tapas for a long
time. After intense meditation, Brahmā became receptive and
attuned to the eternal cosmic vibrations of the Śruti-s. He heard the
eternal Śabda of the Śruti-s within Himself in a spontaneous flash of
intuition without the aid of any external ears.

148 This sound is emitted by the anāhata cakra within the subtle
body of a person.

149 See: Itihāsa Purāṇaṁ ca pancamaṁ Veda uccyate ( Śrīmad-

Bhāgavatam 1.4.20); and Chāndogya Upaniṣad (7.1.2).

The Mahābhārata says in the ādi parva that one should understand
the import of the Veda-s with the aid of Itihāsa-s and the Purāṇa-s:
Itihāsa Purāṇābhyām Vedam samupabrmhayet ( Mahābhārata
1.1.204).

150 According to Viṣṇu Purāṇa (3.6.28-29), the fourteen are counted

as: four Veda-s, six Vedāṅga-s and also Mīmāṁsa, Nyāya, Purāṇa
and Dharmaśāstra-s. This list increases to eighteen if Āyurveda,
Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda and Arthaśāstra are also included.

151 In Hinduism, kalpa denotes a period of one cycle of cosmos

between creation and dissolution.
152 Manu in Hinduism is the first man and progenitor of al humanity
who also rules the earth at the beginning of each Manvantara. The
ten characteristics of Purāṇa-s given in the Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam
(12.7.9-10 and 2.10.1-2) are:

sarga, visarga, vṛtti, rakṣā, antara, vamśa, vamśānucarītaṁ,

saṁsthā, hetu and apāśrayaḥ.

153 See Yāska’s Nirukta, 2.10 and V.K. Rajavade, 1940:343.

154 See Śrī Tattva Sandarbha 12.2.

155 This discrepancy is explained by Kalpa-bheda or by difference in

the kalpa to which these similar stories belong. See Ramayana
Mīmāṁsa by Swami Sri Karpatri Maharaja, 2001:67 and 2001:49 for
quote by Śrī Gosvāmi Tulsidāsa who says in Śrī Rāmacaritamānas
Kalpabheda Haricarita Suhāe, bhānti aneka munisanha gāe (1.32.4)
which also clearly points to this fact.

156 It is believed in Hinduism that the same events are repeated in

every kalpa but with slight variations depending on the
predominance of a guṇa of prakṛti in that kalpa, which can make a
whole kalpa to be sāttvika, rājasika or tāmasika. These variations in
the narration of the same incident are due to the different kalpa-s to
which they correspond and not because the author of the Purāṇa-s
has concocted something on his own. See Tattva Sandarbha
Anuccheda 17.

157 Although Tantra-s and Āgama-s are used synonymously, Tantra-

s are broader in scope than Āgama-s. Tantra-s deal with as many as
twenty-five subjects whereas Āgama-s cover only seven. See
Manoranjan Basu, 1986:1.

Kul ūka Bhaṭṭa, the famous commentator on Manusmṛti, states that

Śruti-s are two-fold, namely, Vaidika and Tāntrika. He says in the
commentary on Manusmṛti 2.1: Śrutiśca dvividhā vaidikī tāntrikī ca
See Mānava-Dharma-Shastra by Vishvanath Narayan Mandlik,
1886:88.

158 See Encyclopaedia of Tantra Volume 1 by Sadhu Santideva,

1999:3-4. The word Tantra is made up of two roots tan and tra. The
root tra means

‘protection’ and so Tantra-s protect a person from various distresses.

159 The Kulārṇava Tantra discusses the four yuga-s and their
corresponding śastra-s: Śruti-s for Satyuga, Smṛti - s for Tretā Yuga,
Purāṇa-s for Dvāpara Yuga and Tantra-s for Kali Yuga. See
Synthesis of Yoga by Kireet Joshi, 2011:304. Also see The Great
Liberation ( Mahaānirvāṇa Tantra) by Arthur Avalon, 1953:11.

160 See Kamalakar Mishra, 1999:5.

161 In India, there have been two divergent ways of life prevalent
among people since the beginning of time. One is the way of worldly
involvement ( pravṛtti) fol owed by a householder ( gṛhasta) and
other is the way of renunciation ( nivṛtti) fol owed by a sannyāsī. The
Tantra-s integrate these two ways by incorporating the merits of both
and lead a person from pravritti towards nivṛtti.

162 There are also Saura and Gāṇapatya Tantra-s, as wel as Jain
and Buddhist Tantra-s.

163 The third chapter of the text Siddha-siddhānta paddhati by

Ācārya Gorakhnāth describes the presence of Brahmāṇḍa (universe)
in the pinḍa (body) in an elaborate manner.

164 See Arthur Avalon, 1960:14.

165 There are two major schools of Tantra cal ed vāmācāra (

kaulācāra) and dakṣiṇācāra. The five pañca-makāra-s (i.e., matsya,
madya, māṁsa, mudra and maithuna) of Tantra sādhana can be
interpreted literal y ( mukhya) or symbolical y ( gauṇa). The literal
interpretation (i.e., fish, alcohol, meat, gesture, and copulation) is fol
owed in the vāmācāra (left-hand school), whereas symbolic or
metaphorical interpretation (i.e., Iḍa and Piñgala nāḍi-s, nector,
control of speech, satsanga or good company and union between
Kundalini Śakti with Śiva), is fol owed in the dakṣiṇācāra (right-hand
school).

Adherents of the vāmācāra school are not hedonists but believe in

the dictum viṣam viṣasya auṣadham which means that poison is the
remedy of poison.

Sage Nārada tel s Vyāsa that an object that causes a disease can
also cure it if consumed in a prescribed manner ( Bhāgavata Purāṇa
1.5.33). Unfulfil ed or repressed desires which lie latent in the
unconscious mind of a person can lead to aberrations in their
behavior. Thus, adherents of vāmācāra school try to get rid of this
poison in the form of desires by resorting to their natural satisfaction
during sādhana which acts like a remedial poison. It should be noted
that casual enjoyment of these pañca-makāra-s in everyday life is
strictly prohibited even in the vāmācāra school and is considered a
sin. See Kulārṇava Tantra 2.123. Also 2.124 which states that an
ignorant person (paśu) should not even smel , see or touch wine.

The pañca-makāra sādhana in the vāmācāra school is always done

under the guidance of a qualified guru. Kulārṇava Tantra, an
authoritative work on pañca-makāra sādhana, expressly cautions
everyone against the use of it as an excuse to indulge in
unrestrained hedonism.

In vāmācāra sadhana, a woman is not regarded as an object of

enjoyment but as a manifestation of Śakti. In his magnum opus,
Tantraloka, Ācārya Abhinavagupta states that the Śakti of the whole
cosmos (Kuṇḍalinī Śakti) resides in the human body in the form of
Kāma Śakti (29.68). Therefore, vāmācāra school considers sex as
an important channel for reaching Bhagavān Śiva. The dakṣiṇācāra
school performs the same symbolical y as the actual physical use of
pañca-makāra-s is not absolutely essential.

166 The Bhagavad Gītā, Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa describes the various
qualities of the three guṇa-s: sattva, rajas and tamas: sattvāt
saṁjāyate jñānaṃ rajaso lobha eva ca pramādamohau tamaso
bhavatojñānam eva ca ( Bhagavad Gītā 14.17)

167 The Bhagavad Gītā (18.40) says that there is nothing in this
mundane world which is not made up of the three guṇa-s.

168 Yāska in his Nirukta (VI.36) derives the word guṇa from the root
gaṇa which means ‘to count’. Thus, in Sanskrit grammar a, e and o
are cal ed ‘guṇa -

vowels’. Patañjali, in his vyākaraṇa text Mahābhāṣya, mentions

different meanings of the word guṇa , including ‘strand’, ‘secondary’
or ‘subordinate refinement and property of a thing’. See Kshitish
Chandra Chatterji, 2003:19.

169 The six forms of state policy are: peace, war, observance of
neutrality, marching, al iance and making peace with one and waging
war against

another.

170 Every ātmā has its store of accumulated good and bad karma-s
from previous lives, cal ed sañcita karma, waiting to be fructified.
The purpose of garbhādhāna saṁskāra is to prepare for the entry of
a suitable ātmā into the womb of a woman and realize the desire of a
couple for begetting a child with a particular set of good qualities. In
farming, before sowing begins, the field ( kṣetra) has to be prepared
at a proper time of the year by removing weeds, ploughing and the
seed has to be purified to ensure a good crop. Similarly,
garbhādhāna saṁskāra is done through the chanting of sacred
hymns so that they ensure the birth of a good child.
171 In Manusmṛti 2.26 it is mentioned that the performance of
saṁskāra-s sanctifies the body of a person and purifies him in the
life beyond.

172 They came in this peculiar form because Rāvaṇa, in his

arrogance, regarded human beings and other living species in this
mortal world as too weak to chal enge his authority in any manner
and he did not include them among the beings who could kil him
when he asked for a boon from Brahma Deva.

173 Hanumān was a disciple of Sūrya Devatā and gained knowledge

from him. In the Hanumān Cālisā section of the Rama-Carita-
Mānasa, Hanumān is eulogized in the very beginning as jñāna guṇa
sāgara which means ‘an ocean of knowledge and auspicious
qualities’. In the Kiṣkindhā kāṇḍa of Vālmiki Ramāyāṇa, on listening
to Hanumān’s eloquent speech in Sanskrit, Bhagavān Śri Rāma
says that only a person learned in the Veda-s and Vyākaraṇa can
speak in this fluent manner.

174 According to Hindu scriptures, Rāvaṇa had received a boon

from Bhagavān Brahma that he could not be kil ed by any devatā.
Rāvaṇa, in his arrogance, regarded human beings and other living
species in this mortal world as too weak to chal enge his authority in
any manner. He, thus, did not include them in his request for a boon.
The devatā-s took advantage of this and incarnated in the form of
vānara-s to fight against him along with Bhagavān Śrī Rāma.

Thus, according to Hindu scriptures, vānara-s were just the avatāra-

s of various devatā-s who disappeared after completing the mission
of eliminating Rāvaṇa.

175 In Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam, it is stated that among the devotees of

Viṣṇu, Śiva is a great Vaiṣṇava. Thus, He appeared in the form of
Hanumān to serve Bhagavān Śri Rāma.

176 Hanumān appears in the Vana Parva of the Mahābhārata and

meets Bhīma.
See: The Mahābhārata of Kṛṣṇa-Dvaipāyana Vyasa, Vol. 3 (Vana
Parva), pp.

310-319.

177 Western sociologists like Max Weber and Robert MacIver

consider civilization as concerned with human endeavors in the field
of science and technology, whereas culture is concerned with human
pursuits in the field of philosophy, arts and religion. Philosophy and
religion here refer to Western philosophy

and Christianity, respectively. Thus, there is no scope for culture to

represent any Indian Hindu concept.

178 See Integral Unity v/s Synthetic Unity, Being Different.

179 One of the popular Āgama-s is the Hayaśīrśa-pāñcarātra

Āgama. This text is cal ed the pratiṣṭātantra (1.1.28) and gives us the
process for construction and consecration of sacred images and the
offering of worship to the Vigraha.

180 It is believed that the naked philosophers whom the Greek king
Alexander met in India were none other than the Nāgā Sādhu-s. The
Greeks cal ed them Gymnosophists. See for reference pp. 1 of A
History of Dasnami Naga Sanyasis by Jadunath Sarkar.

181 See pp. 154 of A History of Dasnami Naga Sanyasis by

Jadunath Sarkar.

182 Śrī Val abhācārya, of the Puś ṭ i Sampradāya or Śuddhādvaita

school, cal s them Tanujā seva, Manujā seva and Vittajā seva. Of the
three, Manujā seva is the highest and the seva in its real form
whereas the other two types of seva are resorted to in the
preliminary stages to purify the mind.

183 This is the definition of seva provided by Śrī Val abhācārya in

the second śloka of his work, Siddhānta Muktāvali.
184 Etymological y, the word bhakti is derived from the root bhaj by
affixing it with ktin. The root bhaj is employed here in the sense of
seva and ktin is a pratyaya which further qualifies the nature of that
seva with the sentiment or emotion of love. Bhakti essential y means
seva offered to Bhagavān to express one’s emotional love towards
Him. There is a śloka cited by Jīva Gosvāmī in Bhakti Sandarbha
(Anuccheda 216), in Garuḍa Purāṇa (227.3) which says “Bhaj iti eṣa
vai dhātu sevāyam prakirtitaḥ, tasmāt sevā buddhaiḥ

proktāh sarvo sādhanam bhūyasī” (Pūrva Khaṇḍa 231.3).

185 Guru is cal ed karṇa-dhāram ( Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 11.20.17)

which means that he/she is captain of the boat which successful y
takes a person beyond the ocean of this material world.

186 In the Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam (11.17.27), Bhagavān explains that

guru is sarva devamaya (the personification of al the devatā-s). In
the Bhagavad Gītā, Bhagavān says that one should learn the
ultimate truth by approaching a guru with reverence, serving him and
then enquiring from him: tad viddhi praṇipātena paripraśnena sevayā
upadekṣyanti te jñānaṁ jñāninas tattva-darśinaḥ ( Bhagavad Gītā
4.34).

187 The importance of guru in the Hindu tradition can be appreciated

from the fact that the last instruction given to a student after the
completion of their education in the gurukula was Mātṛ Devo Bhavaḥ,
Pitṛ Devo Bhavaḥ, Atithi Devo Bhavaḥ, Guru Devo Bhavaḥ. Thus,
along with father and mother, the guru, too, is regarded as an
embodiment of deva-s.

In the Hindu tradition, the Gurustotram is normal y recited by a

person before beginning any instruction to gain the blessings of
one’s guru. The third verse from the Gurustotram says that the guru
dispels the darkness of ignorance by

opening our eyes to the light of spiritual wisdom: Ajñāna

timirāndhasya jñānānjana śalākayā cakṣur unmīlitaṁ yena tasmai
śrī-guruve namaḥ

188 Another example of such unflinching faith and devotion to one’s

guru can be found in the Śrī Vaiṣṇava Sampradāya. Madhurakavi
Ālvār is among the twelve Ālvār-s but he did not directly worship
Bhagavān but surrendered to his guru, or Ācārya Nammālvār, who is
also among the twelve Ālvār-s.

Madhurakavi Ālvār‘s bhakti was directed towards his guru

Nammālvār and he composed a hymn cal ed Kanninun Siruthāmbu
in praise of him. Kanninun Siruthāmbu is a part of 4000 hymns of
Divya Prabandham which are the foundation of the Śrī Vaiṣṇava or
Viśiṣ ṭādvaita Sampradāya. In this hymn, Madhurakavi Ālvār says in
the second Pāsuram or śloka that he is total y surrendered to
Nammālvār’s golden feet and that he knows of no other God than
Nammālvār who is fil ed with al the auspicious qualities.

189 Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa says that those who are sāttvika have their
śraddhā in the devatā-s, those who are rājasika have it directed
towards yakṣa-s and rākṣasa-s, while those who are tāmasika have
their śraddhā for bhūta-s and preta-s: yajante sāttvikā devān
yakṣarakṣāṁsi rājasāḥ pretān bhūtagaṇāñś cānye yajante tāmasā
janāḥ ( Bhagavad Gītā 17.4)

190 See Chāndogya Upaniṣad (7.19.1, 1.1.10), Rig Veda (9.113.2).

191 See Chāndogya Upaniṣad 1.1.5, which says that Rik is the
speech and Sāma is the prāṇa.

192 See Purusottama Bilimoria 2007:196.

193 See Bhāmaha in his text Kāvyālaṅkāra 1.9.

194 Rājaśekhara, in his work Kavyamīmāṁsa, is of the opinion that

śāstra-s are not only connected with kāvya but even form its basis.
He says that a person who believes that the two are unconnected is
like a fool who wants to have the knowledge of things lying in
darkness without lighting a lamp. See Pandit Kedarnath Sharma,
1965:6.

In the eighth chapter of Kavyamīmāṁsa, Rājaśekhara mentions the

sources of themes of a kāvya. The sixteen sources listed by him are
Śruti-s, Smṛti-s, Itihasa-s, Purāṇa-s, Pramāṇa-vidya (science of
logic, interpretation and valid knowledge), samayavidya (systems of
philosophy), Arthaśāstra and Nāṭyaśāstra. See Pandit Kedarnath
Sharma, 1965:87-9. Rājaśekhara regards Śruti-s as equivalent to the
divine cow which is milked to the capacity of their intel igence by a
seer, philosopher and kavi.

195 See, for example, Kāvyādarśa 1.10 and Vṛtti on Ācārya

Ānandavardhana’s Dhvanyāloka 1.1 which says ‘Śabdārtha Śarīram
Tāvatkāvyam’. See Dr.

Ramsagar Tripathi, 1987:30, for the second reference.

196 See Kāvya-prakāśa 1-2 of Ācārya Mammaṭa; English translation

by A.B.

Gajendragadkar, 1959:2.

197 See Krishna Chaitanya, 1965:276.

198 See Rewaprasad Dwivedi. 1936:95-97.

199 See Nāṭyaśāstra chapter 1 sloka-s 109 to 115 and Kāvyādarśa

1.3b

‘vācāmeva prasādena lokayātrā pravartate’.

200 Krīḍanīyakamicchhāmo dṛśyaṁ śravyaṁ ca yadbhavet (

Nāṭyaśāstra 1.11).

201 dharmāviruddho bhūteṣu kāmo asmi bharatarṣabha ( Bhagavad

Gītā 7.11)
202 Wendy Doniger translates kāma as ‘erotic heat’ and ‘lust’ at
several places, including the Index. See Chapters 7 and 8 of her
book, The Hindus: An Alternative History.

203 For a counter view from the tradition, see Uj vala-nīlamaṇi of Śrī
Rūpa Gosvāmī 3.26 and 3.27 (English translation by HH Bhanu
Swami, 2014:126-127). Also see Potter, 2015:34.

204 See Nāṭyaśāstra 7.1-3

205 The first bhāva is śānta-bhāva found among the jñāna yogī-s
and it is characterized by detachment and indifference towards
everything in this material world. The second bhāva is that of being a
dāsa of Bhagavān and is cal ed dāsya-bhāva. This is exemplified by
the behavior of Hanumān towards Bhagavān Śrī Rāma. The third is
sakhya-bhāva shown by the cowherd friends and Arjuna towards
Bhagavān Śrī Kṛṣṇa. The fourth is the vātsalya-bhāva, manifested in
the parental feelings of Yaśodā and Nanda Mahārāja for Bhagavān
Śrī Kṛṣṇa. Final y, there is the madhura-bhāva, which has two
expressions in the form of a wife and a lover. The first expression of
madhura-bhāva is displayed by Devi Rukmiṇī for Bhagavān Śrī
Kṛṣṇa and second by the gopī-s.

206 Bharata Muni in his Nāṭyaśāstra provides the fol owing definition
for the origin of rasa: vibhāva-anubhāva-vyabhicāri-
saṁyogādrasaniṣpattiḥ ( Nāṭyaśāstra 6.32).

207 The eight sthāyi bhāva-s mentioned by Bharata Muni are: rati
(love), hasaḥ

(mirth), śokaḥ (sorrow), kṛodaḥ (anger), utsāḥ (excitement), bhayam

(fear), jugupsā (disgust) and vismayaḥ (wonder). It is not said that
the sthāyi bhāva-s are restricted to these eight only.

208 See K.C. Pandey, 1950:7.

209 See the sloka 2.7.1 of the Taittirīya Upaniṣad: “Raso vai saḥ
Rasaṁ hi evāyaṁ labdhvānandī bhavati”.

210 According to Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam there are ten kinds of līlā:

sarga, visarga, sthāna, pośaṇa, uti, manvantara, īśānukathā,
nirodha, mukti and āśraya.

211 bhajate tādṛśīḥ krīḍa yāḥ śrutvā tat-paro bhavet ( Śrīmad-

Bhāgavatam 10.33.36)

212 īśvaraḥ paramaḥ Kṛṣṇaḥ, saccidānanda vigrahaḥ (

Brahmasaṃhitā 5.1)

213 In Taittirīya Upaniṣad there is an entire section cal ed Ānandaval

i which deals with the gradation in ānanda experienced by different
beings of this universe such as the ānanda of gandharva-s, pitṛ-s,
devata-s up to Brahmā by increasing the ānanda one hundred times
at each higher level (see 2.8.1 in Taittirīya Upaniṣad). Beyond al
these different kinds of ānanda is Brahmānanda which the Upani ṣad
says is inexpressible in words [ yato vāco

nivartante aprāpye manasā saha ( Taittirīya Upaniṣad, Brahmānanda

Val i, 2.4.1)]. Beyond even Brahmānanda is Bhaktyānanda which
Taittirīya Upaniṣad describes in a verse where Bhagavān is cal ed
Rasa tattva and a bhakta who realizes or attains Bhagavān
experiences bhaktyānanda [ Raso vai saḥ. Rasaṁ hyevāyaṁ
labdhvānandi bhavati. ( Taittirīya Upaniṣad, Brahmānanda Val i,
2.7.1)].
Document Outline
Praise for Sanskrit Non-Translatables
Half-Title Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Foreword by Nityananda Misra
Preface by Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji
Preface by Rajiv Malhotra
Introduction
Diversity of Civilizations
Threat of Western Universalism
Sanskrit and World Culture
Sanskriti, the Dharma Civilization
Sanskrit Unites the Great Tradition and Little Traditions
Sanskriti and Pan-Asian Civilization
Sanskrit, Modernity and Post-modernity
The Importance of Protecting Sanskrit
1. The Case For Sanskrit Non-Translatables
The Kurukshetra Today
Digestion and Destruction
The Problem of Sameness
Poison Pills
Regaining the Adhikara
2. The Theory of Sanskrit Non-Translatables
Rationale for Sanskrit Non-Translatables
Direct Experiences and Traditions
Unity of Sound–Meaning–Object
Mantra
Discovery of Sanskrit
Sanskrit and Pluralism
Multiple Experiences of the Same Root Sound
Synonyms Are Not Redundant
 Sanskrit and Contexts
The Cognizing Self is Part of the Context
Mysticism and the Outer World
Sanskrit and Dharma
Fifty-Four Sanskrit Non-Translatables
3. Metaphysics
Saguna/Nirguna is not Qualified/Quality-less
Atma is not Soul
Maya is not Illusion
Jiva is not Soul
Kaivalya is not Salvation
Hinduism is not Monotheism/Polytheism
Om is not Amen
Summary of Metaphysics Non-Translatables
4. Cosmic Tattva-s
Shakti is not Energy
Prakriti is not Nature
Akasha is not Space
Agni is not Fire
Vayu is not Air
Shabda is not Word
Indriya is not Sense-Organ
Summary of Cosmic Tattva Non-Translatables
5. Vedic Cosmos
Loka is not Planet
Svarga is not Heaven and Naraka is not Hell
Asura is not Demon
Devata-s are not Gods or Angels
Summary of Vedic Cosmos Non-Translatables
6. Vedic Psychology
Sukshma Sharira is not Astral Body
Manas is not Mind
Buddhi is not Intelligence
Chitta is not Unconscious Mind
Ahankara is not Ego
Summary of Vedic Psychology Non-Translatables
7. Yoga
Ahimsa is not Non-violence
Prana is not Breath
Chakra is not Energy Center
Dhyana is not Meditation
Samadhi is not Trance
Summary of Yoga Non-Translatables
8. Sadhana
Sadhana is not Spiritual Practice
Puja is not Ritual
Karma-yoga is not Path of Action
Jnana-yoga is not Path of Knowledge
Bhakti-yoga is not Path of Devotion
Summary of Sadhana Non-Translatables
9. Vedic Shastra
Shastra is not Scripture
Shruti is not ‘That which is Heard’
Itihasa/Purana is not History/Myth
Tantra is not Tantric Sex
Guna is not Quality or Mode
Summary of Vedic Shastra Non-Translatables
10. Hindu Dharma
Samskara is not Ritual or Ceremony
Hanuman is not Monkey God
Sanskriti is not Culture
Agama is not Ritual Text
Naga is not Naked
Dasa is not Slave
Seva is not Service
Guru is not Teacher
Shraddha is not Faith
Summary of Hindu Dharma Non-Translatables
11. Kavya
Kavya is not Poetics
Kama is not Lust
Bhava is not Mood
 Rasa is not Mellow or Taste
Prema is not Love
Leela is not Pastime
Ananda is not Bliss
Summary of Kavya Non-Translatables
Acknowledgments
Selected Bibliography
Notes