ATPL (A)

Review Worksheets

050 METEOROLOGY

BY KDMN
2020
I/ THE ATMOSPHERE
01 COMPOSITION, EXTENSION, AND VERTICAL DIVISION

• Earth closest to the sun during winter (1st of January)

23°26’ • Coriolis force -> deflection to right in northern Hemisphere
cancer
• Atmosphere: dry air, 78%N2, 21% O2, 1% of rare gases (0.9%
of Argon) -> constant concentration. CO2, H2O (25 % of
capricorne atmosphere mass) varying with altitude.
• 50 % of atmosphere mass within the first 5km.

a) INTERNATION STANDARD ATMOSPHERE ISA:

➔ T= 15°C at MSL, -2°C/1000ft.
➔ Tropopause: 11-12km (36090ft) / -56,5 °C up to 20km.
➔ P= 1013 HPa.
➔ Humidity 0%.

b) DEFINITIONS:
➔ Greenhouse effect: traps sun radiation thanks to CO2, H2O, and methane.

➔ Ozone layer: “solar cream” against UV (from 15km to 45km).

➔ Aerosol: dust, sand, volcanic ashes within the atmosphere -> enables changing of state of
water thanks to condensation nuclei.

c) LAYERS:
02 AIR TEMPERATURE
a) THERMAL EXCHANGES:
Atmosphere absorbs 90 % of Earth radiation.
Atmosphere is warming thanks to condensation
and convection

Convection (vertical) Advection = horizontal

movement with wind.
The wind ↑ TSFC – T4ft.
Water has higher specific
heat= thermal capacity than Conduction
land -> we need more energy
to heat water than land. 51% of solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth -> Earth
radiation.
Capacity of reflexion = albedo = 31% for the Earth.

• Lat 40° is the balance latitude -> rear pole has deficit in solar radiation, equator has surplus of solar
radiation.
• Latent heat represents the energy necessary to supply the change of state, it is the most important
phenomenon for redistribution of energy.
b) INVERSION: temperature inversion: temperature increases with altitude -> low level turbulence.
1. RADIATION INVERSION = NOCTURAL INVERSION: clear sky, earth radiation are spread in the
atmosphere, the ground becomes colder than the air layer.
2. SUBSIDENCE INVERSION: Subsidence of air layer (old high-pressure system), piling up ->
compression -> T°C ↑
3. FRONTAL INVERSION: occurs when a warmer layer goes over a colder one.
warmer
4. VALLEY INVERSION:
colder

c) DIURNAL VARIATION ΔT:

➔ Tmin=30 min after sunrise, Tmax= 2h after the sun into meridian plan (“zenith”). Insolation is
max at local noon. ΔT max over large land.
➔ ΔT depends on: ->Nature of ground (++ dry ground, -- at sea), -> humidity (++ dry air), -> height
of the sun (++ in summer), -> latitude (++ at low latitude), clouds (++ with clear sky).
➔ Change of state:
03 ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE
• 1013.25 HPa = 760 mmHG = 29.92 inHg.
• Pressure is divided by 10 every 15km
• On chart, isobar is a line of same QFF.
LEVEL OF PRESSURE FL APPROX. ALT (m) VARIATION IN ALT OF 1
HPA HPa
m ft
1013 0 0 8 27
850 050 1500 10
700 100 3000 11
500 180 5500 15 50
300 300 9100 22
250 340 10400 26
200 390 11900 32
120 450

Terrain below sea level Terrain above sea level

Atmosphere cooler than QFF < QNH QFF < QNH
standard atmosphere

• On chart, a V-shape area = trough = elongated area of Low Pressure (LP).

• Isohypse = line of same true altitude of a pressure level = same geopotential.
• Reducing distance between isobar: T°C ↓, P↑.
II/ THE WIND
01 DEFINITION & MEASUREMENT
• Wind is a horizontal displacement with respect to the ground, measured at 10m above ground.
• Synoptic wind: Geo North, METAR/TAF/SPECI, average wind during 10min.
• Aeronautical wind: Magn North, ATIS/TOWER, average wind during 2 min.
02 CAUSES OF WIND
a) PRESSURE FORCE FP:
➔ Horizontal gradient: LP to HP -> intensity, speed. Geostrophic wind Vg:
➔ Pressure force: HP to HP: movement. ➔ Straight movement,
constant velocity
➔ Coriolis force in equilibrium
b) CORIOLIS FORCE FC: with Pressure force
➔ Deviates direction of wind. ➔ Stronger near the equator
➔ Normal and proportional to the speed. ➔ Varies inversely with
Coriolis Force
➔ Depends on Latitude.
Gradient
➔ Deviate to the right into the North. Hemis. wind

➔ Coriolis = zero at the equator.

c) CENTRIFUGAL FORCE FE:

➔ Toward the exterior: outside the trajectory

➔ High Pressure system: Gradient wind > Geostrophic wind

➔ Low Pressure system: Gradient wind < Geostrophic wind

d) FRICTION FORCE:
➔ Wind vector makes the angle α with isobar at the surface: α = 10 ° over sea, α = 30° over
ground, α = 20° at night at surface, clockwise in the north Hemisphere, counter-clockwise in
the Southern. α ↓ when altitude ↑
➔ Magnitude of real surface wind = 70% of geostrophic wind at sea = 50% of geostrophic wind
over land.
➔ Wind wears in and above the friction layer, friction ↑ when speed ↓

α Vg

• LP system Gradient wind < Geostrophic wind < HP system Gradient wind.
• Strongest wind at surface in the transition zone between 2 air masses.
• Error in geostrophic/gradient wind calculation -> isallobar effect due to rapid change of pressure.
 e) CONVERGENCE/DIVERGENCE:

High altitude

LP Convergence caused by friction forces HP

III/ GENERAL GLOBAL CIRCULATION

IV/ LOCAL WIND

01 ANABATIC & KATABATIC WIND
ANABATIC WIND Day Increasing along slope 6-8kt 100-200m thickness

KATABATIC WIND Night Decreasing along slope 6-8kt 50-100m thickness

02 MOUNTAIN & VALLET WIND

10-15kt 5-10kt
1000ft 3000ft thickness 500ft – 1000ft thickness
From mid-morning to afternoon From night to early morning
➔ Fog, stratus toward the land ➔ Evaporation fog above sea
V/ MOUNTAIN WAVES
• Condition on the air mass: sufficiently stable, speed of 20-30 kt, normal to the mountain range or within
30°
Orographic/Mountain waves

Rotor

• Amplitude depends on the speed, relief, and stability of the air masses.
VI/ TURBULENCES
01 CATEGORIES
TURBULENCE SYMBOL G-LOAD OTHER
Light NO < 0.5g

Moderate 0.5< <1 Able to control all the time, occupant

feel restrained, difficult walking.
Moderate change of altitude.
Severe >1 Sudden change of altitude/attitude,
uncontrollable, extremely restrained by
belt. Tossed object.
Extreme -2< <5

02 TYPES
a) FRONTAL: created by change of direction & speed of wind between 2 air masses.

b) CONVECTION: thermal column, cumulus, vertical speed >1m/s, during early afternoon

c) FRICTION/MECHANICAL: depends on roughness of surface, displacement of air > 20kt, near

ground, link with free atmosphere, conditions: strong wind, rough terrain, steep lapse rate.
d) OROGRAPHIC: rapid air flow >20kt, slope <40°: windward, low turbulence, steeper flow: leeward
-> downdraft up to 5-10m/s.
e) CLEAR AIR CAT: no convection (no clouds), link with jet stream, trough (LOW), ridge (HIGH), near
tropopause, area with strongly curved, closely packed isohypse, most severe: curved jet stream
near deep trough.
VII/ JET STREAM
01 DEFINITION
• Wind speed > 60 kt, on chart only jet stream with > 80kt are showed, jet is not straight.
• Like a tube, speed is most important in the core, 100 x wider than thicker.

T°C - Bellow the core:

T°C + CAT
• When flying to the lower T°C -> crosswind
from the left
• When flying to the warmer T°C -> crosswind
from the right
T°C + Core dimension:
T°C -
• Length : 1000NM
North pole Equator
• Width: 150 NM

Downwind sight (the wind goes « toward” the sheet) • Vertical extend: 1800ft

JET LATITUDE SPEED DIRECTION ALTITUDE

SUMMER WINTER SUMMER WINTER
ARTIC - 60° (US) Eastbound (W FL200-300
-> E),
Westerly
POLAR (US) 60° 35° Fastest in Japan W-> E SUMMER
60-80 kt 120-150 kt FL400
WINTER
FL300
SUBTROPICAL 35° 20° March < 60kt 120-150kt W->E FL400
EQUATORIAL July to August 5-20° 60-90 kt E->W (only in FL450
From longitude 120°E -> moderate to the Northern
10°W strong Hemisphere)

• Occluded front crossed by a Jet.

• Found on the significant weather chart SIGWX.
• The jet core is north of surface system.
• They are Ci (Cirrus) cloud band on equatorial side of the Jet stream.
• Polar front jet
Jet

300-450 NM

50-200 NM
VIII/ THERMODYNAMICS
01 GENERAL
• water represents 0-5% of the atmosphere. 0 g/m3 near the poles, 25g/m3 near the equator.
• Dew point temperature is the temperature at which it is necessary to cool the parcel of moist air,
maintaining constant pressure so that it saturates.
02 DEFINITION
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑚𝑣
a) MIXING RATIO r: 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
= 𝑚𝑎

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥

b) SATURATION MIXING RATIO rw: rw = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉
= 𝑚𝑎
. It depends on
temperature and pressure.
➔ P=cst, if T°C ↑, rw ↑

➔ T°C=cst, if P ↓, rw ↑

➔ A saturated air cannot get more water

➔ After saturation of a mass of air -> rain…
c) DALTON’s LAW:

➔ The pressure of a mixture gas is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the components
of the mixture.
➔ PTOTAL= Pdry air + Pwater vapour = Pdry air + e, e is called vapour tension.

➔ If we had “water” inside a mass, e ↑.

e
Liquid

Vapour

T°C
Dew point

➔ If T°C ↑ -> ew ↑ -> rw ↑ -> U ↓, U = humidity.

➔ LOWER troposphere -> max water vapour, condensation easier.

➔ MID troposphere -> less water vapour, clouds with less water.
➔ HIGH troposphere -> very less water vapour (Ci, Cs, Cc clouds).
➔ A parcel of air is defined by T°C, P and dew point, a particle of air by T°C and P.
d) HUMIDITY U: U(%) = 100 x e/ew = 100 x r/rw.
➔ U is inversely proportional to the temperature !
➔ The height of lifting condensation level depends on T°C and dew point.
➔ U is lowest between Lat 30°-40° N at July.
➔ If U=100%, more water vapour at equator than the poles.
 e) SUPERCOOLING, FREEZING RAIN FZRA:
➔ Liquid water at -15°C < T°C < 0°C.
➔ Ceases under action of sudden shock.
03 CHANGE OF STATE

04 ADIABATIC PROCESS
• For a particle :
➔ DRY ADIABATIC LAPS RATE DALR: -1°C/100m or -3°C/1000ft.
➔ SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPS RATE SALR: -0.6°C/100m or 1.8°C/1000ft.

Example: If at 500 ft T°C=20°C and at 2500ft

T°C=15°C, we have an external environment
laps rate of -2.5°C/1000ft .
➔ the parcel of mass is conditionally
instable

• Cloud base (ft) = (T°Csurface – Dew point) x 400.

• SALR ≠ DALR because of release of latent heat.
• The Foehn effect: as a parcel of air arrives normally to a mountain range, the parcel is lifted up on the
windward side, clouds are forms, leading to rain. Then the air passes over the mountain chain, to the leeward
side leading to a warm and dry air.

Cold and Warm and dry air

wet air
IX/ CLOUDS & FOG
01 CLOUDS
a) SATURATION PROCESSES:
1. COOLING:

➔ Condensation by isobaric cooling: low layer, advection (can form cloud & fog) & radiation,
saturation due to “ground cooling” which cools the air close to the ground.
➔ Condensation by adiabatic cooling: rising motion (turbulence, orographic movement…), most
frequent process, formation of NS & AS clouds.
2. HUMIDIFICATION: water comes from evaporation, leading with coastal fog, evaporation
fog, St, Sc clouds.
3. MIXING: average temperature between 2 air masses of 2°C difference.

b) TYPES OF CLOUDS:
1. STRATIFIED CLOUDS: Stability, smooth flight, low ceiling & low visibility.

2. CUMULUS FORM: Instability, convective clouds

 42 500ft
Cumulonimbus Cb:
Cirrus Ci: Cirrostratus Cs:
• ++ RA/SN/ sleet hail, TS, max
• Stable, white • HALO, arrival of
height 20km
filament, NO RA, stable warm sector,
HIGH narrow band, fibrous ice crystal
hair like
➔ Capillatus Cb:
Cirrocumulus Cc:
• Anvil, plume, vast, mass of
• Arrival of unstable warm sector, blanket hair, virgo, hail, TS
20 000ft
Altocumulus Ac : Cumulus Cu :
• pebble, cylindric form, never • Top limited by temperature inversion,
touch the ground, blanket cold moist air over war surface, well
defined, NO RA, instability, air rises
rapidly during formation
➔ Ac-Castellanus: Nimbostratus Ns:
➔ Cu mediocris:
• turrets form, thickness • In warm sector,
• -- RA/SH/SN, thickness > 1500
>1500m, arranged in line, RA/SN, grey/dark, reach
MID VIRGA (SH does not touch the ➔ Tower Cumulus TCU: the ground, blocks out
ground), instability. the sun, FZRA
• ++ RA/SH/SN/sleet hail, stage before
➔ Ac-Lenticularis: Cb, Tcloud> Tambient , cauliflower
• Mountain, NO RA, stable, ➔ Cu Humilis:
never touch the ground,
pebble/cylindric, moderate • fair weather cumulus, uneven heating
turbulence instable atmosphere

Altostratus As: ➔ Cu calvus:

• Frosted glass, cloudy layer, • Chantilly like

sheet, or layer of started
fibrous

6 500ft

Stratus St : Strato cumulus Sc :

LOW • Uniform base & appearance, • Pebble, slabs, NO RA, clear of ground
Drizzle DZ, from earth radiation
during night in moderate wind
02 FOG – MIST – HAZE
a) FOG: FG , Visibility < 1000m, U = 100%,
Liquid water -28°C < T < 0°C, T > 0°C
• Process: cooling & humidification
Liquid + icing water -40°C < T < 0°C
Ice Crystal -58°C < T < -40 °C • Freezing fog: supercooled water droplets
• Shallow fog: < 2m above ground, < 10m above sea

TYPES OF FOG CONDITIONS PROCESS DISSIPATION

RADIATION FG Clear night, wind 2-6kt, Isobaric cooling by earth Warming up, wind,
high humidity, High radiation, deepest fog change of air masses, if
pressure system, 30min after Sunrise, wind speed ≥ 13 kt ->
autumn thickness 500ft, lifting of fog into stratus.
ADVECTION FG Wind < 15kt, (Tair mass – Arrival of warm sector No wind, just the
TGND) ++, cold seasons which cools down the passage of the warm
ground, horizontal sector, change of air
displacement, thickness masses.
500-800m
Type:
• Coastal fog: over land in winter, over sea in summer (over the coldest)
• Sea fog: thermal contrast between different oceanic currents
• Steam fog: cold air over warm sea current, < 500ft, cold air mass, NO wind,
can appear suddenly by day or night.
EVAPORATION FG Increase in water vapour Wind, warming up
by evaporation of
ground, water bodies,
thickness < 50m
FRONTAL FG In front of a warm front, Normal band where Passage of warm front
day & night frontal surface meets
the ground, rain falls
from warm to cold air
OROGRAPHIC FG High relative humidity, Change in wind
day & night
Type:
• Slope fog: adiabatic cooling

• Valley fog: Temperature inversion

b) MIST: BR, , 1000m ≤ visibility < 5000m, 60 % < U < 100%.

c) DRY HAZE: HZ, visibility ≤ 5000m, U<60%, visibility reduction caused by lithometeor (dust, sand,
pollution).
d) MEASUREMENT OF VISIBILITY: by transmissometer, visibility reported if < 1500m.
e) ON CHART AND METAR/TAF:
➔ CAVOK: NO clouds below 5000m above AAL or MSA, NO Cb, NO TCU, visibility > 10km, NO
significant weather (SH, TS, RA…).
 ➔ ISOL: individual CB or TCU isolated < 50%.
➔ OCNL: CB or TCU, 50-75%, well separated.
➔ FRQ: CB/TCU with little or NO separation > 75%.

X/ PRECIPITATION
01 PROCESSES
a) BERGERON-FINDEISEN = ICE CRYSTAL PROCESS:
➔ Transfer from supercooled water droplet onto ice crystal after evaporation, in the top of
clouds, T°C < 0 °C.
➔ Small size droplet, 16h to make 4 mm drops.
➔ In our latitude, temperate region, it is the predominant process.
➔ Mixed phase, sublimation.
b) COALESCENCE = COLLISION PROCESS:
➔ Crystal rises & falls, when one collides with droplets, the droplets freeze onto crystal, leading
to a bigger crystal etc …
➔ Part of clouds where T°C > 0°C
➔ Predominant in tropical region, in the mid latitude it produces drizzle or very light rain.
02 TYPES OF PRECIPITATIONS
TYPE ABBREVIATION CLOUDS OTHER
Drizzle DZ St 0.2 to 0.5 mm, mid latitude, clouds with only water
Rain RA Ns, As
Freezing rain FZRA Ns, As Indicated by ice pellet, ahead of warm front in
winter
Snow SN Ns, As
Snow in grain SG St, supercooled
fog
Ice pellet PL As, Ns, Cu < 5mm
Rain shower SHRA Cu, Cb, Ac
Snow Shower SHSN Cu, Cb, Ac
Fine hail GS Cu, Cb < 5mm
Hail GR Cb Irregular shape,
Hailstone: continental regions in mid-latitude
Large hailstone: associated with TS (thunderstorm)

XI/ AIR MASSES – FRONTS

• Air mass = extensive body with temperature and humidity in horizontal uniform planes.
01 AIR MASSES
• Classified according T°C (origin) and humidity (paths used, travel). Warm air mass= mass cooled from
below.
a) CONTINENTAL: dry, through continent, cold, will not warm up, NO cloud. Polar continental
(coldest), from Siberian landmass.
b) MARITIME: humid, through sea, will warm up, cumuliform clouds, hot.
• 3 processes of cooling air mass:
➔ Cooling at the base = stagnant on cold ground = conduction, inversion -> instability ++.
➔ Advection over colder surface.
➔ Expansion.

• STABLE WARM AIR (winter & autumn)

WARM SECTOR

PRESSURE Rising Constant Modérato decrease

DEW POINT Falling Constant Progressive increase
WIND From the NW, turbulent From SW Strengthening from the S
VISIBILITY Good outside precipitation Poor medium

• UNSTABLE WARM AIR (summer & autumn)

PRESSURE Rising Low, variable Low
DEW POINT Falling Negative High, irregular
WIND From the NW, turbulent From SW, weak From the S, SW, weak
VISIBILITY Good outside precipitation Poor Good outside precipitation

02 FRONTS
a) DEFINITIONS: it is the ground trace of a frontal surface which is the transition between two air
masses.
➔ Frontogenesis is the formation of the front, frontolysis if the disappearance of it.

b) TYPES OF FRONTS:
Warm front Stationary front
Cold front Occluded front

➔ Cold front: backward, 300km length, 2% slope, 40km/h.

➔ Warm front: ahead, 6000km length, 1% slope, 25km/h.
c) OCCLUSION: when the angle of the warm sector closes -> the cold front overtakes the warm front.
1. COLD OCCLUSION:
 2. WARM OCCLUSION:

d) OTHERS:
• Speed of a warm front = 2/3 of the speed between isobars along the front.
• The low-level clouds in front of a warm front are caused by rain dragging & condensation.
• T°C arctic maritime air > T°C polar continental air
• Interval between polar frontal waves in Western Europe is 1-2 days.

XII/ PRESSURE SYSTEM

01 TYPES
a) THERMAL HIGH-PRESSURE SYSTEM, “COLD HP SYSTEM”:
i -
n Low-pressure system, low geopotential at high altitude
t
e
n
s HP system
i
t +
y

b) DYNAMIC HIGH-PRESSURE SYSTEM, “WARM HP SYSTEM”:

i
+
n
t HP system, high geopotential at high altitude
e
n
s
i HP system
t -
y

Convergency at high-altitude -> dynamic HP on ground, mechanical subsidence

NB: Subsidence, in a HP system causes dry air & temperature inversion. A ridge is a associated with
divergence & subsidence, clear sky, good weather.
In January, HP system are located in Azores, Siberia, South Pacific.
c) THERMAL LOW-PRESSURE SYSTEM:

Rising motion because of warm ground.

Over land in summer.
 d) DYNAMIC LOW-PRESSURE SYSTEM:
Mechanical lift.
Widen even more with altitude.
Divergence at high altitude -> dynamic pressure on the
ground.
A Trough is the extension of a LP zone, strong windshear,
convection, SHSN.

In January, a LP system is in Iceland, Greenland.

In Summer, LP over North Canada.
NB: Thermal pressure system is formed close to the ground whereas a dynamic one is formed in high altitude.
Thermal depression is deepest than a dynamic one.
e) PERMANENT ACTION CENTERS:
➔ Worked by couple : HP Azores + LP Iceland North Atlantic.

➔ Over continents, we will always have: winter thermic HP system & summer thermic LP system.

02 TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS TRS

a) DEFINITION:
➔ It refers to tropical cyclones, hurricanes. It is a strong, warm core LP depression.
➔ No TRS between 4°S – 4°N because Coriolis force is too weak.
➔ TRS are formed between 5°-15°, 2/3 of TRS between 0-180°E.
b) CONDITIONS:
➔ Hot water (26°C to 60m deep), very warm summer, low vertical shear of wind, high moisture,
small region (100-200km).
c) TYPES OF TROPICAL DEPRESSION:

Tropical Tropical Tropical Severe Tropical

< 34kt ≤ 47kt ≤63kt revolving storm
disturbance depression storm Tropical storm

d) CHARACTERISTICS:
➔ TRS eye: from surface to tropopause, 10-20NM, indicated by dense Ci clouds.
e) LOCATIONS:
XIII/ INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE ITCZ = DOLDRUMS
01 GENERAL
• Between FL 120-160, icing zone FL160-260, freezing altitude 15 000ft. Max Latitude 25°N/S
• Equatorial depression, it is the zone on convergence between trade winds of the Northern hemisphere and
the Southern hemisphere, leading to convergence -> rising motion -> clouds. The convergence is one
consequence of the difference location of the meteorological equator & geographical equator.

meteorological equator

geographical equator
Trade winds

ITCZ in summer

ITCZ in winter

• The track variation of the ITCZ is more important over continent than ocean.
• Dakar-Rio: ITCZ is located between 0-7° N.
• Associated weather: CBs, strong convergences.
• ITCZ is associated with the monsoons (= trans-equatorial trade-wind flows) over: Asian continent, Australia,
Africa (Harmattan in winter, monsoon in summer, 2 wet seasons in Kenya), Amazonia, Mexico.
• Horse Latitudes: dry & clear due to Azores HP system.
XIV/ CLIMATIC ZONES

65° Polar

Disturbed / cold temperate

40°
35° Warm/temperate, HP & hot in summer/rain fall --, LP in winter

Steppe/arid subtropical

20°
Savannah / tropical
10°

Equatorial

10°
Δ(yearly rainfall) ++ / wet & dry period
20°

35°
40°
Weather governed by travelling frontal
depression, chilly summer / mild winter
65°

T°C year < 10°c

LP system

Subtropical HP system

NE Trade wind

Australia: Weather
influenced by subtropical
SE Trade wind HP, with passage of fronts
in the adjacent zone if
westerly waves.
Subtropical HP system

LP system
• Flat pressure pattern: isobar are spaced & disorganized. In Summer, fine weather, possibility of TS in
afternoon.
• Cold drop: an extensive zone of cold air at high altitude, surrounded by relatively warm air. Associated with
bad weather, TS, lightning, ++RA. Direction and speed wind are difficult to forecast. A cold drop is identified
by isohypses. Between 16 000 ft and 30 000ft -> highest activity in afternoon.
• Roaring forties: 40°-50°S.
01 LOCAL WINDS
a) MISTRAL: b) TRAMONTANE:
➔ When depression over the gulf of Genoa ➔ LP system over Corsica
➔ In summer, 40 to 75 kt
c) AUTAN:
➔ SW of France, N of Spain
d) BORA:
➔ Cold wind, north if Italy, dry katabatic wind,
Violent gusts, over Adriatic sea
e) HARMATTAN:
➔ Hot, dry air, with dust, North-easterly wind in North Africa,
“Dust and poor visibility”.
f) SIRROCO: Algeria g) CHICHILI: Tunisia h) GHIBLI: Libya
Southerly
i) KHAMSIN: Egypt, warm wind
j) CHINOOK FOEHN WIND:
➔ Rise in T°, katabatic wind, on Rockies mountain.
k) PAMPERO:
➔ Between Argentina & Uruguay, marked an advanced cold air. Spring & summer.

tramontane
XV/ IN FLIGHT HAZARDS
01 ICING
• Any deposit of ice or snow on an a/c.
• Opaque or transparent / brittle or adherent.
• Parameters: T°C, amount of liquid water, size of drops. Worst icing effect at T= -15°C.
• Freezing Fog FZFG: fog with supercooled droplets.
a) PROCESS OF ICING:
➔ Sublimation: water vapour into ice, early in the morning, winter.
➔ Freezing of liquid water: classic transformation of water into ice by cooling.
➔ Cessation of supercooled state: most of the cases on a/c in flight.
b) ICING OF CARBURATOR:
➔ Depression in the carburator will cause a decrease in temperature of 15°c to 20°C.
➔ Icing possible from -5°C to 20°C, and more than 30°C under conditions (low power setting,
humidity).
c) ICING INTENSITY:
➔ Light : in stable cloud
➔ Moderate : in unstable cloud, need to change course and altitude is desirable.
➔ Severe : In Ac, Cu, Cb clouds, need to change course & altitude -> Divert.
d) TYPE OF ICING:
➔ Clear: slow freezing, large supercooled droplets, water droplets spread out extensively,
transparent, moderate to severe icing. Unstable clouds, as Ns (0 to 10°C), partly freeze on
impact
➔ Rime: freeze immediately, small supercooled droplets, opaque, brittle. Stratiform clouds, light
to moderate icing.
➔ Mixed ice: Rime & clear
➔ Hoar frost: sublimation, unclear air, from cold air into warmer moist air (as in a quick descent
or climbing through inversion, or a/c on the ground + inversion).
02 TURBULENCES
• Classified according to acceleration (see page 7-8).
• Avoidance:
➔ For convective turbulence: reduce speed, reach subsidence inversion
➔ For CAT: change level.

03 WINDSHEAR
• Change of velocity &/or direction over short distance.
• Close to inversion and TS.
a) VERTICAL WINDSHEAR (kt/100ft):
➔ Vertical variation of speed in horizontal wind

b) HORIZONTAL WINDSHEAR (kt/NM):

➔ Horizontal variation of direction

c) UPDRAUGHT/DOWNDRAUGHT SHEAR (kt/100ft):

➔ Horizontal variation of the vertical wind component
• A wind gradient is a shear if difference in IAS >15kt & vertical speed > 500 ft/min.
• Avoidance:
If tailwind ↑: below, TAS↓ If Headwind ↓: below, TAS ↓
If tailwind ↓; above, TAS ↑ If tailwind ↑; above, TAS ↑
➔ In cruise: Reduction of speed
➔ Landing/Take-off:

04 SQUALL LINES
• Associated with Cb, TS.
• With secondary cold front or in front of active cold front.
05 TORNADO FC
• Diameter: 300 to 400 km. Speed of displacement 40 to 60 km/h, lifespan < 10min, max wind speed 200kt.
Over sea it is called waterspouts.
• WAT = West African Tornado = line squall caused by atmosphere waves.
06 THUNDERSTORMS TS
• Starts at first thunderclap & ends 10 min after last thunderclap.
• TS is the consequence of big earth radiation &/or a strong vertical clouds with high vertical motion ->
friction -> ionization -> electricity -> lightning.
• Associated weather: gust, heavy rain, decreasing visibility, hail. St Elmo’s fire: permanent electrical
discharge.
 • Avoid clouds by 10 NM minimum.
• Conditions: unstable + high moisture content.
a) TYPES OF TS:
1. AIR MASS TS: summer late afternoon/early evening, with flat pattern pressure system.
Stationary.
2. OROGRAPHIC TS: over mountain slope, by day and night, probability ↑ with temperature.
Stationary,
3. FRONTAL TS: on cold front but sometimes on warm front if really unstable, most difficult
to avoid. Moving.
4. TROUGH TS: on altitude, horizontal convergence, which is at its maximum on trough axis.

5. SUPERCELL STORM: the strongest TS, associated with microburst (50-100kt) or tornados.
Causes lot of damage. Trajectory according to 700HPa isobar = FL 100.
NB: Microburst -> a downdraft which causes a sudden expulsion of devastating horizontal winds on the
surface of the ground over a horizontal scope between 0.4 and 4 km, lasts less than 5 min.
Macroburst, when damage corridor is more than 4 km wide, lasts between 5 and 30 min.
b) 3 STAGES OF A TS:
1. FORMATION STAGE: upward movement, TCU, 5 to 6 km, 10-15 min duration.

2. MATURITY STAGE: begins when rain falls, upward/downward movements. 6-13km for
temperate region, 18-20km for tropical region. Rotors. 15 – 20 min duration. Microburst
3. DISSIPATING STAGE: stage reached when the anvil can be seen. Downward movement, no
water remaining. 30 min, up to 3h.
c) LIGHTNING: on a/c with composite -> crew may be blinded, lose hearing. Risk of perforation,
electronic damage…
07 HAZARDS IN MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
Lenticular clouds CAP clouds: harmless, downdraughts at 500ft/min
on the leeward side.
Rotor: low level phenomenon, most turbulent
Rotor, condition.
roll cloud

08 VISIBILITY REDUCING PHENOMENA

Blowing Snow High intensity Snow Drizzle High intensity Rain Low intensity Snow Low intensity Rain
BLSN +SN DZ +RA -SN -RA
(1-50m) (50-200m) (500-3000m) (< 1000m) (1000m) (3000-5000m)

• Cloud, fog, spray, precipitation, pollution, dust, sand, and Volcanic Ashes (VA) reduce visibility.
• A tropical downpour reduces visibility by tens of meters.
09 INVERSIONS
• Inside an inversion (temperatures rises with altitude), a/c performances decrease (higher temperature,
less dense), visibility decreases.
XVI/ METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
01 OBSERVATION
a) WIND:
➔ From METAR, average wind of the last 10min, according to geographic North (because written
way)
➔ From CONTROL TOWER, average wind of the last 2 min, according to magnetic North (because
oral way).
➔ GUST: transmitted if it is equal to or exceeds 10 kt above the average wind speed (EX:
24015G25). Gust < 1min.
➔ SQUALL > 1 min, Δ(wind speed) > 16 kt.
➔ 1m/s = 2kt.
b) RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE RVR:
➔ Horizontal visibility measured in the landing or take-off direction of the runway in use.
➔ Reported if < 1500m, measured by transmissometer (2.5m above ground, 300m downstream
the runway, 120m from runway centre line).
c) METEOROLOGICAL VISIBILITY:
➔ The prevailing visibility value reached or exceeded in at least half the horizon circle or at least
half the area of the airport. By Human with marks/lights or machine.
d) VERTICAL VISIBILITY VV:
➔ Max vertical distance from which an ascending balloon is lost from view. VV// : VV not
measurable.
e) TEMPERATURE:
➔ By mercury or alcohol thermometer, 2m AGL.
➔ With a weather hut, we can get dry, wet, min, and max temperature.
f) HUMIDITY:
➔ By hygrometer or psychrometer or wet and dry thermometer, by comparing dry bulb & lowest
temperature to which the air is cooled by evaportation.
g) CLOUDS:
➔ The quantity is defined by the number of Okta which corresponds to one-eight of the surface
of the sky.
➔ FEW, 1 to 2 Oktas, “few” SCT, 3 to 4 Oktas, “scattered”
➔ BKN, 5 to 7 Oktas, “broken” OVC, 8 Oktas, “overcast”

h) SATELLITE OBSERVATION:
 ➔ Geostationary: 36 000km, give visible & infrared images, water vapour area. Cover vast
portion of the globe but not the poles.
➔ SUNSYNCHRONOUS = POLAR ORBITING: 800 – 900km, Visible & infrared high-resolution
images. Cover entire Earth in 24h, poles included. BUT each region is flown over twice a day.
NB:
Visible image: sky on space is black, by day only.
IR image: background of sky is white, day and night, cold part is white, (St clouds are grey, Ci clouds are
white).

i) WEATHER-RADAR OBSERVATIONS:
1. GROUND RADAR:

➔ Ice particles are less well detected than liquid, based on echo principle -> Clouds, fog, drizzle,
-RA, are not detected but embedded CB are well detected on weather chart.
2. ON-BOARD RADAR:

➔ Locates precipitation zones, detects SHRA, SHSN, SH hail, but heavy rain can hamper
information.
➔ “TILT” function is used to detect vertical extension of a cloud.
➔ “MAPPING” function is used to navigate with ground echoes.

The « U » shape, hook, finger… show

the location of TS, hail…

3. REPORTING:

➔ AIREP “Air Report”: data sent to meteo centre, routine.

➔ PIREP = Special AIREP: obligation by crew to report moderate turbulence, TS
(moderate/severe turbulence + icing), orographic waves, DS, VA, severe icing.
02 INFORMATION FOR FLIGHT PLANNING
a) METEOROLOGICAL AIRPORT REPORT METAR:
➔ Validate at time of observation, observation each 30 or 60 min, trend forecast of 2 hours.
➔ Information only, the QNH is rounded down. Direction given according to True North. “CNL”
means cancel.
DZ Drizzle PL Ice pellets BC Patches
RA Rain GR Hail BL Blowing
SN Snow GS Small hail TS Thunderstorm
SG Snow grains FG Fog PR Partial
BR Mist SA Sand MI Shallow
DU Widespread dust HZ Haze DR Drifting
FU Smoke VA Volcanic ashes SH Shower
PO Dust SQ Squall FZ Freezing
FC Funnel cloud SS Sandstrom DS Dust storm
VC Vicinity - Light + Heavy
BCMG Becoming NOSIG No significant TEMPO Temporary
change for the
next 2 hours
NSW No significant
weather

b) TERMINAL AERODROME FORECAST TAF:

➔ Forecast message for a validity of 6 h to 30 h.
c) SPECI:
➔ Aviation special weather report.
➔ Significant wind, visibility, ceiling, cloud, phenomena, changes.
d) SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL MESSAGES SIGMET:
➔ Report to all a/c a phenomenon considered to be dangerous.
e) AIRMAN METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION AIRMET:
➔ Modification of a GAMET
f) GENERAL AVIATION AREA FORECAST GAMET:
➔ Essential meteo info from surface to FL 100/150.
g) METEO REPORT/SPECIAL:
➔ Observation, ATIS.
h) VOLMET:
➔ VHF(regional)-HF(international) broadcast, gives METAR/SPECI/TREND/TAF/SIGMET.
Weather information for 10 airports.
i) AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION INFORMATION SERVICE ATIS:
➔ Broadcast on a VHF frequency, give information likeable to a METAR.