Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter includes some related literature and studies of mangrove

crabs which are presented in the following paragraphs.

Economic value of mangrove crabs

The mud crab (Scylla Serrata) is a commercially important crustacean

aquatic species after tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon; Fabricius) in Bangladesh

which is locally called as ‘Kakra’, ‘ShillaKakra’, ‘Habbakankra’ (Jahan and Islam,

2016). In Bangladesh, mud crabs are abundant in the tidal rivers of Khulna,

Bagerhat, Satkhira, Cox’s Bazar as well as Chittagong (DoF, 2017). It is harvested

from the coastline of the Bay, in the creeks and canals of the brackish water

estuaries (Khan and Alam, 1992). Mud crab is being cultured in pen, cage or even

simultaneously in shrimp farms (Chakraborty et al., 2018). Therefore, shrimp

farmers are gradually shifting to crab farming since this species is less

susceptible to disease, easy to culture, more adaptable to climate change and

higher market price in comparison to shrimp (Salam et al., 2012).

Global Exportable Crustacean

(Molla et al., 2009). Crab farming played a crucial role in exporting crab in the

2018-2019 fiscal year, earning approximately $42.93 million (BBS, 2018).

Bangladesh has experienced an increasing trend in crabs’ export and emerging

source of foreign currency over the past five years through the development of
hatchery-produced mud crab (BBS, 2018; Shamsuzzaman et al. 2020).

Bangladesh recently exported 11,000 tons of crab to overseas markets such as

Malaysia, Singapore, China, Japan, Hong Kong, and South Korea (Ahamad,

2019).

The highly valued mud crab Scylla serrata (Forskål, 1775) (Portunidae) is

widely distributed throughout the Indo-West-Pacific (IWP) region (Keenan et

al., 1998), where it is closely associated with mangrove forests. S. serrata has a

substantial share in industrial and artisanal fisheries throughout its distribution,

and fishing effort and landings have drastically increased in the last decades

(Allan & Fielder, 2003; FAO, 2012).

The global catch rose from approx. 10,000 t in 1990 to 40,000 t in 2012, and

there was a concurrent increase in aquaculture production from approx. 4000 to

175,000 t (FAO, 2012). Despite efforts taken to establish sustainable aquaculture

of this species, indications of overfishing (Naylor et al., 2002; Ewel, 2008) have

led to the establishment of protected areas and fishery limitations in some

countries (Australia; Butcher et al., 2003).

Microplastic presence of mangrove crabs

In Peru, the mangrove crab Ucides occidentalis plays an important role in

this ecosystem, promoting the retention of nutrients, the reduction of organic

matter to increase nitrogen recycling in mangrove soils, and the oxygenation and
fertilization of muddy soil through the construction of its burrow (Nordhaus &

Wolff, 2007; Solano & Moreno, 2009; Zambrano & Meiners, 2018).

These crabs are considered ecosystem engineers, as they change the

availability of resources for associated organisms by modifying the physical

structure, transport conditions, and the chemistry of the substrate (Advíncula,

2017). As a commercially-exploited, edible species, its main wholesale centers are

in Tumbes (El Tumpis) and Zarumilla (Puerto 25 and El Bendito), with 2,204,585

kg (70.62%) landed each year compared to the black shell (34.3%), hollow shell

(3.82%), and striped shell (5.79%) (Ordinola et al., 2013). Through seafood,

humans can ingest 37 microplastics annually (Baechler et al., 2020). Although

humans can remove 90% of microplastics through feces, they may have an

adverse effect on human health (disturbance of the gut microbiome, transfer of

pollutant, and inflammatory responses) (Wright & Kelly, 2017).

Value Chain of Mangrove Crabs

The mangrove crab value chain is a tool for the sustainable management

of its fishery. However, several bottlenecks identified in the production chain

caused socioeconomic and environmental problems, such as the predominant

sale of live crabs, lack of regulation and inspection of the extractive activity, and

high mortality (40–60%) of crabs during transportation from the supplier

communities to the consumer market in Fortaleza, Ceará State. After diagnosis of

these bottlenecks, a capture, storage and transportation methodology that

successfully reduced the mortality rate to 0–5% and most likely the
environmental likely the environmental, social and economic impact of the

activity was developed. In fisheries, the value chain depends crucially on the use

of natural and environmental resources and it is used as a managerial tool in

order to reduce processing and distribution costs, improve product quality and

productivity, enabling the economic agents (driving force of the chain) to

evaluate the level of development of value-creating activities (production,

marketing, distribution, and support to the final consumers) (M. Rosales et al.,

2017).

Mangrove Crabs Marketing System

Since the mid70s, the crab marketing system has developed in Bangladesh

with a view to export mud crab to foreign markets. According to Export

Promotion Bureau (EPB), Export of mud crab from Bangladesh started in 1977

and the first consignment was worth $2,000 only. The export volume grew over

the years and Bangladesh shipped crabs worth $23.82 million in 2015-16 (EPB,

2017) [10]. The value chain of mud crab is composed of a series of intermediaries

like the crab catcher, farmer, depot, supplier, exporter and the consumer. In

southwest coastal belt of Bangladesh, 0.25-0.3 million people, mainly landless

poor collectors, crop farmers, traders and suppliers are directly or indirectly

dependent on the crab fishery (FRSS, 2017).

Distribution Channel of Mangrove Crabs

Crab farming is one of the most critical sectors of small-scale fisheries

industry. It played a crucial role in exporting crab in the 2018− 2019 fiscal year,
earning approximately $42.93 million (BBS, 2018). Bangladesh has experienced

an increase in crabs’ export as a source of foreign currency over the past five

years by developing hatchery-produced mud crab (BBS, 2018; Shamsuzzaman,

Mozumder, Mitu, & Bhyuian, 2020), recently exporting 11,000 tons of crab to

countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, China, Japan, Hong Kong, and South

Korea (Ahamad, 2019). In South-East Asia, Scylla serrata, known as mud crab is

considered as one of the most popular and proliferates due to suitable agro-

ecological conditions, high prices, and demand in international markets

(Chandra et al., 2012 pp. 7–10). Although fishers are the main actor in collecting

the crab from Sundarbans, they are a most marginalized community in this

region. Instead, the middlemen (locally called Farias or Aratdars) are the biggest

beneficiaries in the current value chain (Ferdoushi, Zhang, & Hasan, 2010). The

existing mud crab value chain is long and unstructured and crab fishers are

exploited by middleman and hardly receive any government support (Sanoara,

2018).

Trends in exploitation, development and management of artisanal mud crab

(Scylla serrata Forsskal 1775) fishery and small-scale culture

Mud crab (Scylla serrata) is a delicacy for subsistence consumption in

fisher communities and tourist hotels in the coast of Kenya while export demand

to markets in China and Japan is expanding and provides competitively higher

prices. Crab exploitation and degradation of the mangrove forests have increased

over the last decades therefore threatening the capture fishery. The preferred
market size crab has consistently decreased from more than 1 kg two decades

ago to the current size of 0.5 kg therefore posing both management and

livelihood threat to the critical ecosystem (mangrove) and coastal populations.

To meet the increased tourist and export demand and provide surplus for the

local community while conserving the critical crab ecosystem, small-scale

aquaculture has been initiated in the concept of silvofisheries. Initial culture

methods have targeted sub-adult crabs of 150–350 g for culture to market size

(>0.5 kg) in drive-in cages and pens (mud crab fattening).

These technologies attained survival of between 50 and 70% and a market

price of 5 dollars per kilogram. However, research is ongoing to assess viability

of stocking juvenile seed crabs directly in ponds as practiced in South East Asia

(SEA) as opposed to stocking of sub-adults in drive-in cages. In comparison with

other areas, crab capture fisheries in East Africa have limited management and

enforcement frameworks/capabilities within the wider regional fisheries

policies. Also there is limited understanding of wild mud crab resources and

suitable management options to avoid over-exploitation as observed in SEA. The

double-edged demand (wild market size capture and juvenile capture for

aquaculture) for mud crabs in addition to mangrove degradation are likely to

cause great challenges to stock exploitation and livelihoods of the coastal people

dependent on the resource. This review paper provides an inside onto the

tradition, trends and options for development of mud crab capture and culture in

Kenya.
Mud crab industry in the Philippines

Mud crab farming has long been established in the Philippines and the

country is the second top producer in the world. Except for Scylla

paramamosain, the three other species, S. serrata, S. tranquebarica and S.

olivacea are commonly found in the country, but S. serrata is the preferred

species for farming. Crab seeds for farming are mainly from the wild and in

recent years, a small percentage from the hatchery. Due to the apparent decline

of the wild crab stocks, provincial and municipal ordinances have been issued by

a number of Local Government Units (LGUs) along with the Bureau of Fisheries

and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) to conserve and manage the remaining resources.

From the hatchery, megalopa or crab instars are grown in net cages installed in

the nursery pond.

Mud crab farming engages mostly in long-term grow-out culture of

juvenile crabs to market size for 3-5 months, short-term fattening of lean crabs for

15-45 days, and recently, soft-shell crab production. Polyculture of juvenile crabs

to market size with one to three other commodities in earthen brackish water

ponds is usually practiced. Mud crabs for soft-shell crab production are mainly

from the wild, while SEAFDEC/AQD demonstrates the use of hatchery-

produced juvenile mud crabs as seedstock. Refinement is continuously being

done to improve the economic viability of producing crabs, although basic

technologies have been developed for all phases of culture (hatchery, nursery,

grow-out, fattening and soft-shell crab production). The major issues facing the
industry are the lack of seedstock, difficulty of zoea 5 to molt to megalopa stage,

cannibalism particularly at the nursery phase, species identification at the

juvenile stage, use of fish as aquafeed, diseases, effects of climate change and

quality of crabs at postharvest. In 2012, the Philippine Council for Agriculture,

Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD) of the

Department of Science and Technology (DOST) started funding projects under

the National Mud Crab Science and Technology Program (NMCSTP) to address

these issues. The major aim of the Program was to improve the production,

profitability and sustainability of crab farming. SEAFDEC/AQD leads in

capacity building with focus on the sustainability of the mud crab industry.

Various collaborations and research studies on mud crab culture enabled

SEAFDEC/AQD to package mud crab technologies, conduct local and

international training courses and on-site technology demonstrations, and

publish extension manuals and scientific publications since the mid1990s.

Research and Development activities have

been translated into improved production. With the recent developments and

refinements of technologies, it is expected that the Philippines will increase its

production by 25-50% in the next 5 years. (Q. Emilia, 2017)