Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Informatics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolinf

Management and rehabilitation of peatlands: The role of water chemistry,

hydrology, policy, and emerging monitoring methods to ensure informed
decision making
S. Monteverde a, M.G. Healy a, *, D. O'Leary b, E. Daly b, O. Callery b
a
Civil Engineering and Ryan Institute, College of Science and Engineering, National University of Ireland, Galway, Galway, Ireland
b
Earth and Ocean Sciences and Ryan Institute, College of Science and Engineering, National University of Ireland, Galway, Galway, Ireland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: As the world's most abundant source of terrestrial carbon, peatlands provide numerous ecosystem services,
Ecosystem services including habitat biodiversity and freshwater quality. Land and water management practices in relation to
Peatlands management peatlands, for either exploitation or rehabilitation, are complicated by several factors: spatial diversity in
Restoration policy
geochemistry; laborious survey methods that may be subject to confounding factors; regional and irregular
Geochemistry
Water quality
climate variations; a lack of generalizability regarding appropriate strategies; and, in some countries, by non-
Remote sensing implementation of water quality assessment policies for pollution control and land use. Such factors raise un­
certainty in the effectiveness of restoration and rehabilitation strategies, while modern peatland management
looks to develop land use schemes that offer minimal risk to the environment. The aims of this paper were to (1)
investigate the disparate factors influencing peatland management which confound appropriate interventions for
enhanced water quality (2) examine how non-implementation of national policies for water pollution control
may result in adverse environmental impacts, and (3) propose an innovative peatland management methodology
for a detailed and robust land analysis with water quality being the primary consideration. The paper suggests
that optical, radar, and radiometric remote sensing methods may be used to identify management zones within a
peatland, that may require variable management strategies during restoration. Satellite remote sensing and Earth
observation methodologies are well documented; hence, the prospect and properties of a less documented
airborne electromagnetic approach may present an opportunity for improved management of peatlands.

1. Introduction of these natural environments over the last 10,000 years has occurred at
an average rate of 0.5 to 1 mm yr− 1 (Renou-Wilson et al., 2011a). Such a
Peatlands are considered to be environments sensitive to anthropo­ slow growth rate offers a major concern when trying to assess the
genic pressures since the initiated departure from their peak processing effectiveness of peatland management; to determine not only the success
of resources for biofuel and agriculture. Although peat-covered land­ of a conservation strategy but also to develop measures that may induce
scapes extend across much of the globe, they account for only a small peat formation.
percentage of the Earth's land area (Xu et al., 2018). Prior treatment of The goal of peatland restoration is to demonstrate efficiencies using
peat soil, before the emergence of rehabilitation and restoration, and the the environmental protection schemes that are expected to restore
conditions placed on it have since created the need for new knowledge wetland environments to their appropriate functioning capacity in na­
on land and water management practices to help promote proper deci­ ture (Kareksela et al., 2015). Rehabilitation efforts usually consist of an
sion making for sustaining peatlands. Their protection is paramount, as artificial manipulation on a natural peatland process to cause a change
they have been proven to act as a channel in the natural carbon cycle in either water level or vegetation; the success of which is usually
(Rixen et al., 2016) and serve as a vital asset towards carbon dioxide difficult to claim if a peatland has suffered catastrophic damage (Tan
conveyance from air to earth material. Created by the buildup of et al., 2021). A common practice in rehabilitation involves raising the
partially decayed plant material and under wet conditions, development peatland water table through the construction of dams and drainage

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mark.healy@nuigalway.ie (M.G. Healy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2022.101638
Received 3 December 2021; Received in revised form 28 March 2022; Accepted 28 March 2022
Available online 31 March 2022
1574-9541/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

blocks at surface outlets (Buschmann et al., 2020). Construction mea­ This review seeks to explore the unknown factors that may
sures effectively create a high soil water content and decrease oxygen conceivably influence peatland management practices; particularly
availability for microorganisms, limiting and altering the respiration those that refer to the rain-fed bogs of the northern hemisphere. Most of
process that occurs in peat-forming vegetation, enabling peat formation the current successes of restoration on raised bog sites have lacked
(Husen et al., 2014). When large-scale changes are made to peatlands generalizability (Renou-Wilson et al., 2019); therefore, certain questions
(drainage, peatland afforestation, and turf harvesting), climate change that pertain to raised bog activities have remained loosely answered.
and airborne and water pollution become a major consideration. The Questions such as: How does peatland drainage and use affect hydrology
typical activities carried out on fens and raised bogs have invoked and water quality at field and catchment scale? Which peatland areas
questions regarding the roles of peatlands and how they play into global should be protected from drainage and intensive land use, and which
equilibria. The often scrutinized areas of peatland health consider how areas can be used with limited environmental impacts? And finally, how
peat removal, draining, and drain blocking, which is believed to have a can land and water management be combined in a sustainable way to
positive impact, can potentially introduce pollution into fresh water limit the impacts of threats to water for human consumption and other
resources and alter the global greenhouse gas (GHG) budget (Abdalla environmental impacts?
et al., 2016). For example, raising water levels can create the anoxic Therefore, the aim of this review is to address the current policies
environments that promote anaerobic respiration in the absence of ox­ that are active in the realm of wetland conservation and to assess novel
ygen (Zhu et al., 2018). This condition in the risen water table then has techniques for developing peatland management methods. The tech­
the potential to introduce gaseous methane, which is a much more niques for identifying critical areas requiring improved management, in
powerful GHG than atmospheric carbon on a 100-year timescale (IPCC, theory, can offer further understanding of the mechanisms that control
2021). Likewise, the anoxia engineered within a once-drained peatland nutrient pathways and retention across a watershed, allowing for
can introduce reactive phosphorus (P) in the soil (Van De Riet et al., knowledge to be gained in the role of nutrients for sustaining environ­
2013) and intensify the presence of ammonium (NH4+) in the uppermost mental structure and function.
layers of peat (Lundin et al., 2017). Ammonium behavior is often well
synchronized with the nitrification process, and the ways in which P 2. Methodology
movement corresponds to changes in water quality parameters usually
indicate some effect of soil structure on geochemical properties (Mor­ The manuscript is divided into three parts: the interaction between
ison et al., 2018). Phosphorus movement and mobilization are also peatland chemistry and water quality parameters with water table
strongly associated with peatland microbial activity and vegetation type changes, policies relating to the restoration of peatlands, and remote
and abundances (Luo et al., 2021). sensing methods for analyzing and mapping the characteristics of
Peatland activities on exhausted lands, whether practices consider peatlands that are important for hydrology. In a systematic review, in­
environmental sustainability or energy and economic yield, have raised formation from published literature in the last 30 years was collated to
concern on land use and the pressures on water quality that they may answer the research questions: how does peatland management prac­
present. Traditional approaches to monitoring diffuse pollution have tices affect water quality and hydrology, and which are most effective?
relied primarily on walkover survey methods (Reaney et al., 2019), and How has international policy affected management? How can emerging
in recent years there has been a focus on laboratory and desk-based technologies be used to identify, characterize and assist in the man­
research methods. The challenge with standard monitoring methods to agement of peatlands?
date has been creating a reliable method to account for temporal and To answer these questions, a comprehensive systematic literature
spatial changes in catchment-scale hydrology (Saarimaa et al., 2019; review on the following databases was performed: Scopus, ScienceDir­
Shore et al., 2014). Modern remote sensing techniques seek to investi­ ect, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and the Multidisciplinary Digital
gate the relationship between diffuse nutrient concentrations and loads Publishing Institute (MDPI). Keywords in the literature search included:
and a catchment's hydrological controls (Shore et al., 2014). ammonium, phosphorus, leachate, land management, nutrient pollu­
Long-term alterations in the water table significantly influence tion, remote sensing, and restoration and rehabilitation. Regional limi­
peatland function, and peatland hydrological properties, such as soil- tations were not applied in this paper, although only papers and policy
water retention characteristics, are crucial for raised bog self- documents published in the English language are included. A method­
maintenance (Liu et al., 2022). The rehabilitation work performed on ology flowchart is illustrated in Fig. 1.
peatlands, based on hydrology, is ineffectually documented and there is After the initial search results were compiled, the reference list was
an increasing focus on the restoration of hydrological processes of further reduced to include only original research papers or policy doc­
degraded raised bogs, which involves blocking vast drainage networks uments focusing on one of the three aspects of this paper. The reasons for
and outlets (Menberu et al., 2016). In order for a raised bog to reach an exclusion of papers were if they lacked scientific rigor or if they were
optimal growth rate it must be annually water logged (Renou-Wilson unrelated to the search criteria. In the case of research articles, and
et al., 2019). It is accepted that by inundating a peatland to an appro­ particularly in relation to the reporting of the impacts of management
priate level, degradation becomes minimized through recreating the practices on water quality, only papers that reported long-term, robust
hydrological conditions of the healthy peatland's preferred state (Men­ scientific data before and after interventions, were included in this re­
beru et al., 2016). In any case, excessive runoff is almost always immi­ view. As a result of these criteria, 145 papers were selected of which over
nent, given the changes in a peatland's ability to store water at a specific 50% were published in the last five years. A schematic of the content of
time step. Where runoff occurs in degraded peatlands, there can often be the following sections, which focus on the three areas identified above,
a threat of contaminant transport through the bog, especially if fertil­ is shown in Fig. 2.
izers containing nitrogen (N) and P have been applied within the rele­
vant catchment (Koskinen et al., 2017). Industrial peat extraction also 3. Interactions between peatland chemistry, water quality and
increases the likelihood of pollution influx into neighboring watersheds, water table
ergo results in negative effects on downstream water resources. Con­
structed wetlands have been used as viable options to alleviate the Peat formation is a perennial occurrence involving an incomplete
negative impacts and have displayed good N and P retention capacity decomposition of perished vegetation that is perpetuated while being
(Karjalainen et al., 2016). Frequent water table analysis has served as a subjected to waterlogged conditions. Essentially, poor drainage char­
good alternative when assessing water and contaminant retention abil­ acteristics in the long term result in peatland formation (Treat et al.,
ity of a restored site (Menberu et al., 2016); however, soil character­ 2019). When masses of peat-forming vegetation are fully saturated, an
ization of site-specific locations may provide a new proxy. absence of oxygen inhibits the full decay of plant matter through an

2
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

Literature search on: Databases searched:

- Peatland chemistry, water Scopus, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar,
quality parameters, and Web of Science, Muldisciplinary Digital
peatland management Publishing Instute (MDPI)
- Policy for peatland
restoraon Keywords used:
- Remote sensing methods Ammonium, phosphorus, leachate, land
management, nutrient polluon, remote
sensing, restoraon and rehabilitaon

Refining of selected literature Inclusion of most recent papers in the

topic, or the retenon of
papers/legislaon that underpin more
recent works

Informaon extracon

Fig. 1. Methodology flowchart.

increase in vegetation productivity. When the peat is drained of its nutrients to groundwater level fluctuations and found that natural
freshwater reserves, oxygen is reintroduced and the decay process re­ drainage was accompanied by significant increases in both PO43− and
starts towards a complete reduction of plant remains (Overbeek et al., NH4+ concentrations within high groundwater samples. Heightened
2020). subsurface temperatures during the dry season are significant simply
Acidity and mineralized water variation are two of many parameters because warmer soil suggests drier soil (Griffiths et al., 2019; Munir
that differ across peatland types (Yang et al., 2021). The chemical et al., 2017). Water table drawdown is often related to such soil tem­
content of a peatland's groundwater and its discharge express local perature increases and the expectation is that the imposed circumstance
geochemistry and hydrological developments, with raised bogs tending should achieve greater productivity in the decomposition of OM, due to
to be more acidic and fens more alkaline (Griffiths et al., 2019). How­ the enhanced aeration (Tuukkanen et al., 2017). Although ambiguous
ever, peat accumulation rates are dependent on the supply and cycle of with respect to the exact forms N and P, Griffiths et al. (2019) further
limiting nutrients, N and P (Morison et al., 2018). Microbial behavior identified total nitrogen (TN) and TP behavior increasing with peat
and anaerobic respiration cause a release of N and P from organic matter depth across several studied sites. Depending on peatland type (miner­
(OM) during decomposition (Andersen et al., 2013). Soil N forms a otrophic versus ombrotrophic) N-containing species may enter a fen
feedback mechanism with microbial biomasses in the peat as microbes peatland via ground water interaction and upwelling (Hill et al., 2016),
utilize N and limiting P from soil and decomposition products, yet P and depending on the head level near the surface, oscillating oxic/a­
cycling is more challenging to document as it is known to vary much less noxic environments at a groundwater interface can determine the
than N which can be associated by weight with peat depth and degree of speciation of N (Charlet et al., 2013; Tfaily et al., 2018).
composition (Morison et al., 2018; Tfaily et al., 2014). Barring any Total P and its proportion of bioavailable PO43− , along with soil total
correlations with water table elevation and temperature, soil P is much inorganic N (TIN), constrain peat forming vegetation together with soil
more elusive as the primary limiting nutrient in freshwater resources temperature and water table positioning (Munir et al., 2017). Active
(Griffiths et al., 2019). Measures of total phosphorus (TP), in nature, drainage and peat extraction alter pore water chemistry and reduce
characterize a consequence of underlying fragmentation leaching from nutrient immobilization. With an already complex nature of water
reduced parent material to cycle through soil bodies and pore water, and quality evolution, anthropogenic activity resulting in erosion and sub­
recent studies support the standing claim that a strong correlation exists sidence has impacted the fate of transients and the deposition of nutri­
between TP, water table elevation, and temperature (Griffiths et al., ents within peatlands (Tuukkanen et al., 2017).
2019; Munir et al., 2017; Živković et al., 2017).
Increased concentrations of orthophosphate (PO43− ) are usually 4. Policies relating to the restoration of peatlands
anticipated at hollow and lawn locations (Macrae et al., 2013) due to an
inherent nearness to surface pools and a variable water table height 4.1. The Ramsar convention
(Moore et al., 2013). With respect to peatland microform, Wood et al.
(2016) quantified extractable PO43− and N cycling from five different The United Nations (UN) 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
peatlands and described them based on abundances in the topography. serves as the overarching motivation in peatland management for
Using multiple linear regression, an upper limit of 18 μg g− 1 PO43− in member states. Under Sustainable Development Goal six (SDG-6) for
hummocks and 48 μg g− 1 PO43− in hollows showed a distinct influence of clean water and sanitation, protection of water-related ecosystems and
water on concentrations; quantified spatial N cycling yielded fewer addressing water pollution are most relevant in terms of peatland
significant results. Sapek et al. (2009) assessed the response of inorganic degradation (Lele, 2017). To promote engagement between partners on

3
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

Monitoring methods Peatland chemistry and hydrology

- Remote sensing used to delineate catchment

hydrology, plant community structure and - Peatland’s groundwater and discharge
Current situation

spatial boundaries over time. are a function of local geochemistry and

- Use of passive optical sensors, such as hydrology.
synthetic aperture radar (SAR), can pierce - Oscillating water table determines
cloud cover, but are limited by wavelength.
- LiDAR commonly used to detail peatland
nitrogen speciation.
topography -Anthropogenic activity impacts fate of
- Airborne geophysical surveys are becoming nutrients within peatlands
more prevalent for national to site scale
peatland extent/property mapping.

- Spectroscopic optical imaging inhibited by

cloud cover. - Peatland management impacts are
- SAR accuracy confounded by canopy, confounded by variable functions of
Challenges

vegetation, and pore water. ecosystems

- Use of radiometric data for identifying - Geochemical variability makes
peatland geochemical behaviour is adaptation of universal management
questionable. practice difficult.
- This is a lack of standard mapping practices
internationally for peatlands.

Policy

- UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development dictates peatland management.

Current situation

- Ramsar Convention provides communication platform to reconcile imbalances in natural resources,

water services, and environment.
- No strict mandate on countries to comply with best management practices.
- The International Peatland Society established to promote the exchange of practical management
methods, including after-use plans.

- Peatland conservation policy faces challenges, and may be inhibited by lack of government support,
resources, and conflicts of interest. Policy also tends to be quite general and does not set quantifiable
Challenges

standards for water quality.

- Some Ramsar member states have yet to fully comply with plans for control and management.
- Implementation of policy on peatland management, informed by reliable remote sensing monitoring
methods and empirical chemistry and hydrology measurements, may be inhibited by the complex
chemistry in peatlands that is often geographically specific and lack of standard mapping practices.

Fig. 2. Current situation and future challenges of the three focus areas of this paper: monitoring methods, peatland chemistry and hydrology, and policy.

a national level, the Ramsar Convention, established nearly fifty years (Barchiesi et al., 2018).
ago, now provides a platform of communication that is necessary for The Ramsar convention defines environmental flow as a water ade­
reconciling the imbalances between natural resources, water services, quacy in wetland discharge, stemming from properly functioning
and the environment (Everard and Mcinnes, 2018). Over the last several catchments that are capable of satisfying ecosystem services and bene­
decades, the attention brought on wetland ecosystem services, which fits, while sustaining themselves in the environment (Barchiesi et al.,
includes peatlands and mires, has promoted measures that seek to 2018). A wetland's effects will propagate on to receiving water bodies
benefit wildlife habitats for threatened species, as well as reduce net and many of the endorsed treatments for ecosystems intend to limit
emissions in a global GHG budget (Huth et al., 2022). All relevant degradation and biodiversity loss, while assisting water quality demands
countries are encouraged to adopt conservation policies; however, there through the same preventions. A system for decision making within the
is no strict requirement or enforceable mandate placed on governments Ramsar Convention assesses values based on ecosystem effects, such as
to ensure that they comply (Moomaw et al., 2018). As it currently water resource provision, maintenance of options, regulation of hazards
stands, there is concern that intergovernmental efforts will not meet and extreme events, and ecosystem processes (Kumar et al., 2017).
SDG-6 by 2030 (Ortigara et al., 2018). Policies attempt to meet the needs Effective management would align the values of these services with the
of all reliant communities, yet their full application can be inhibited by a best options for policy instrumentation and help bridge the knowledge
lack of stakeholder support, resources, and conflicts of interest gaps in land use and environmental flow balance. It is a goal to inform

4
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

management and reveal to stakeholders how ecosystems can be priori­ table (Clarke and Rieley, 2010). Mandatory policy is perceived as an
tized while maintaining a concern for socio-economic return. effective instrument for attaining sustainability results, but the policies
The 2002 Guidelines for management planning of Ramsar sites and often lack acceptance.
other wetlands (Ramsar, 2002) called for the implementation of a uni­
form approach to peatland restoration management. It had been viewed 4.3. Links between peatland management, policy and water quality
as impossible to measure the total extent of these land features in all of
their complex chemical aspects; the focuses on wetland health consid­ Limited research fails to convey how peatland conservation mea­
ered point measurement data of key parameters such as nutrient con­ sures are chosen at the national level and how they are effectively in­
centrations (Ramsar, 2002). The agreement still stressed the importance tegrated during policy operation (Salomaa et al., 2018). However,
of implementing guidelines and urged governments to evaluate policies regardless of national policies and their acceptance, independent studies
and to advance strategies (Ramsar, 2002). Consistent recall of the notion of peatland management and the effects of restoration are ongoing.
on the wise use of wetlands, which emphasizes active management of Table 1 shows water quality changes of key nutrient species produced in
these lands, has been upheld in the addendums of resolutions to date peatland after-use strategies.
(Ramsar, 2015b), i.e., in resolutions XIII.17, XII.12, and VIII.17 (Everard Considering the three management methods described, the fre­
and Mcinnes, 2018; Ramsar, 2006; Ramsar, 2015a). quency of sample collection in the rewetted/flooded scenarios ranged
Beyond the influence of Ramsar, regional mechanisms such as the from one week after treatment, in Beltman et al. (2014), to more seldom
European Union (EU) also act to motivate states into compliance with and annual sample collection regimes (Lundin et al., 2017; Menberu
environmental flow policy (EC, 2000). A 2006 EU directive (EC, 2006) et al., 2017). Menberu et al. (2017) reported that water level fluctuation
mandated that member states establish threshold values for ground­ impacted pore water quality, especially in the time period immediately
water substances, e.g., ammonium. Since transposition of EU law is the after management implementation. Lundin et al. (2017) investigated the
responsibility of its members, threshold values vary from state to state effect of long-term inundation and contrarily demonstrated the success
(EC, 2006). In 2012, Ramsar member states adopted Resolution XI.8 of rewetting; notably in decreasing ratios of PO43− -P to TP and inorganic
Annex 2 (Rev. COP13) through which they agreed on the importance of N to organic N, that began to stabilize with time. The temporal scale of
incorporating aspects of nutrient quantification in peatland assessments each study accounted for hydroclimate variability by considering
(Ramsar, 2012). nutrient dynamics and biogeochemical behavior over the years moni­
tored (Gu et al., 2017). Discrepancy between the reported conclusions is
4.2. Challenges facing implementation of policy a result of inherent variability. Drought duration prior to rewetting,
intermittent water level fluxes, topography, and the magnitude of hy­
As of 2021, some Ramsar member states still had not fully adopted drologic instabilities can trigger or inhibit nutrient release (Blackwell
national plans for pollution control and management, or policies on et al., 2013; Brödlin et al., 2019; Gu et al., 2017); prolonged drought
wastewater management and water quality as they relate to environ­ followed by heavy rainfall activated N loss and release in Wang et al.
mental flow. Implementation of policy on peatland quality and envi­ (2016). Even P mineralization can vary based on the spatial occurrence
ronmental flows, at the international and national level, face challenges of microenvironment varieties within catchments, and depending on the
and it is evidenced that the existing strategies do not always address the chemistry of soils, increases of dissolved iron hydroxides through con­
quantitative issues of water quality, restoration, and management in stant waterlogging (Gu et al., 2017; Jeanneau et al., 2014; Pant, 2020).
detail (Reed et al., 2014). Regional bodies and international treaties Biogeochemical N turnover, however, differs from P transformations
communicate the intentions of the party with only general guidelines to (Macek et al., 2020) through processes of: (1) plant and organic N
approaches and therefore, it is difficult to determine acceptable stan­ mineralization to NH4+ (Hinckley et al., 2019) (2) anaerobic NH4+
dards for water quality; for instance, standards regarding nutrient load oxidation under redox conditions; optimized growth of a functional
and leachate. Policy makers must decide to enact either accurate data group by soil exposure to the atmosphere (Kim et al., 2017) (3) nitrifi­
measuring protocols or opt for cheaper and faster alternatives with less cation, the conversion of intermediate NH4+ to NO3− , governed by
accurate results (Reed et al., 2014). Through analysis of the financial oxidation-reduction (Jiang et al., 2015) (4) NO3− conversion to NH4+
aspects to peatland management, Reed et al. (2014) emphasized that occurring under anoxia and in environments with NO3− limited bed
there are a number of ways by which peatland changes influence eco­ material (Zhao et al., 2019), and (5) denitrification (Taghizadeh-Toosi
systems service allocation. They suggested the use of a method whereby et al., 2020).
values are supplemented from other similar ecosystems when water In riparian wetlands, the mineralization of N follows the processes of
quality data are lacking. its respective cycle (Reverey et al., 2016). Anoxia and the repressed
Another intergovernmental organization with the intent of redox environment in peatland rewetting can prevent nitrification,
advancing scientific knowledge on peat, the International Peatland So­ which in turn leads to a depletion of available NO3− via the pending
ciety (IPS), was established to promote an exchange of practical man­ denitrification process (Hinckley et al., 2019). By this mechanism,
agement methods (Joosten and Clarke, 2002). In 2008, this particular nitrification cessation is a direct consequence of rewetting management
IOP sought to facilitate responsible peatland management with steps to and promotes the risk of introducing NH4+ in surface waters (Nieminen
foster the creation of a global peatland strategy in the “wise use of et al., 2020). The peatland observed in Beltman et al. (2014) displayed a
peatlands” (Clarke and Rieley, 2010). The IPS stresses the importance of threefold increase in NH4+ following rewetting (Table 1). Although in­
after-use plans, identifying the entities that will be accountable for the creases were detected, the data were derived from samples collected
operation of specified after-use, implementation of the most current approximately one week after flooding and were likely the result of a
technical knowledge of peatland functions and services to inform the rapid nutrient surge (Dinh et al., 2018; Sola et al., 2018). The high
after-use management practice, and consistent survey analysis of pro­ frequency of N evolution has implications for the management of N flux
grams in a timely manner to improve procedures if the objectives are not and is a crucial factor of consideration in peatland restoration (Kasak
realized (Clarke and Rieley, 2010; Gaudig and Tanneberger, 2019; Graf et al., 2021).
and Rochefort, 2016). Salomaa et al. (2018) describe criticisms and Peatlands can potentially act as critical source areas (CSAs), loca­
road-blocks to policy instruments at national levels due to disagree­ tions within a watershed where areas generating pollution overlap hy­
ments regarding landowner rights and the requirements of conservation. drologically sensitive areas (Ghebremichael et al., 2013), as they possess
Precise arrangement of after-use is likely to be settled by landowners or the capacity to chemically restructure accumulated nutrients (Gu et al.,
relevant stakeholders in consultation with a specific authority; ar­ 2017). The attribution of land management practices and their critique
rangements typically incorporate an artificial rise in the peatland's water are often masked by the details of catchments and the variable functions

5
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

of ecosystems (Nieminen et al., 2020; Purre and Ilomets, 2018; Schulte

Changes in mean concentrations (mg/L) of total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), ortho-phosphorus (PO43-), ammonium (NH4+) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from several European catchments after various

et al., 2019). Prior to their most recent work on P speciation within

Renou-Wilson and Farrell

peatlands, Negassa et al. (2019) addressed a deficiency in modern

Koskinen et al. (2017)

Menberu et al. (2017)
Beltman et al. (2014)

Stimson et al. (2017)

experimental data that links spatial variability of biogeochemical

Lundin et al. (2017)

Fenner et al. (2011)

properties to peatland phenomena, under pristine and degraded condi­
tions; specifically, regarding the influence of rewetting impacts on P
Reference

evolution. In an added effort to rectify the notion, Negassa et al. (2020)

(2007)
conveyed the importance of considering soil P species and abundance
with peatland class, temporal conditions associated with drainage and
rewetting, and land use within catchments in order to better isolate

~250
biodiversity and anthropogenic nutrient impacts, caused via manage­
DOC

320
management interventions to restore them; measured annually in porewater studies (except for NH4+ concentrations in Beltman et al., 2014), and biweekly in Stimson et al. (2017).

ment. Most of a catchment's diffuse pollution originates from a small

portion of the total area. CSAs are the locations from where major
NH4+

0.193
0.443

~2.5
0.59
0.97

amounts of the total pollution disperse into the landscape (Hepp et al.,
2022). Regarding agricultural practices, CSA concerns encompass N, P,
<0.15
<0.10
<0.25

and sediment (Giri et al., 2016). Primary CSA concerns involving wet­
0.101
0.012
PO43−

~0.7

3.01
233

lands have always included sediment and P, but there is very little in­
After intervention

formation in the literature reporting influences of anthropogenic

0.104
0.021
0.206

pressure on N cycling and N runoff (Giri et al., 2016). The spatial di­
~1
TP

P applied at 25 kg ha− 1 in 1999 and again in 2002. Sampling period from 1999 to 2004. “After intervention” value is the maximum recorded in 2000.
versity of geochemical processes presents complication (Gu et al., 2017)
and for survey analysis, it is important to establish efforts from informed
2.38
1.51
2.38

~12

Values reported are maxima for a control (“before intervention” in the categorization rubric of this table) and rewetted bog (“after fertilization”).
TN

peatland ecosystem and hydrologic relationships (Schulte et al., 2019).

5. Current and emerging survey methods of peatlands

DOC

~90
~50

In 2019, the UN Environment Assembly implemented policy (Reso­

lution 16) calling on the UN Environmental Program (UNEP), in
NH4+

0.173
0.133
0.82
0.82

~0

collaboration with the Ramsar Convention and member states, to

establish a global inventory of peatlands; ergo, to record the wide use of
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05

specific interventions, mitigation, and planning for peatland mainte­

0.095
0.009

0.014
PO43−

~0
~1
Concentration (mg/L)

nance and land use (UNEP, 2019). The UN Environment Assembly of the
Before intervention

UNEP cites Ramsar Resolution XIII.13 as a main framework for inter­

~0.25
0.034
0.016
0.150

pretation and technical guidance (UNEP, 2019) on the value of satellite

TP

remote sensing and how techniques, along with geophysical survey

Utrecht catchment had a history of fertilization treatment (95 kg P ha− 1 y− 1 and 250 kg N ha− 1 y− 1).

methods, can inform restoration planning. Through remote sensing, it is

~2.6
2.58
1.58
2.29
TN

recommended that practitioners determine peatland dimensions and

site locations that could benefit from restoration works. The recom­
Ammonium ion concentrations measured approximately one week after restoration/flooding.

mendations further state that if it is possible, the parameters of peat

Mean annual rainfall

quality and the potential influences that it may have on the environment
after restoration should be considered (Ramsar, 2018).
513–656

5.1. Current survey methods

(mm)

800
800

620

875

Data taken from the largest catchment in the Stimson et al. (2017) study.

Application of remote sensing technology to peatland profiling is not

a recent concept (Worsfold et al., 1986). For roughly half a century,
Netherlands4

Nutrient measurements in runoff via peatland catchment drainage.

governmental agencies have been attempting to gain knowledge on the

Location

England
Sweden
Sweden
Finland

Finland
Ireland
Ireland

Ireland

extent of peatland dimensions and Ramsar has consistently emphasized

Wales

its SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound)

objectives (Barchiesi et al., 2018), putting forth significant effort to­
Porewater and groundwater nutrient measurements.

wards developing baseline inventories (Rebelo et al., 2008). When

Minerotrophic fens, pine and spruce

implemented, remote sensing can assist in the delineation of a catch­

ment's hydrology, identify plant community structure, and highlight
spatial boundaries (Harris and Bryant, 2009). Many remote sensing
methodologies currently look to reduce the need for specific ground-
Cutaway peatland7

based observations via a one-time calibration, while seeking increased

Forested peatland
Raised bog/fen

accuracy in detecting land use and land cover changes. There is also the
Peatland type

Blanket bog6
Fen meadow
Fen meadow
Fen meadow
Raised bog5
Raised bog

offered capability of monitoring sites under high temporal resolution,

with some satellites being able to provide data on regular time intervals
mires

of one to sixteen days (Lees et al., 2018). This consistent reoccurrence

allows for the monitoring of short term events, such as the seasonal
1

oscillation of a peatland's surface height, flooding, drying, and peatland

Rewetted / flooded

restoration over time (Tampuu et al., 2020).

application2
Management

Fertiliser
Table 1

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

6
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

5.2. Emerging survey methods kilometer, the predictions motivated by C-band SAR served as adequate
indicators of water level dynamics above thresholds and the method was
5.2.1. Satellite remote sensing viewed as having high potential for future investigations (Bechtold
Active remote sensing techniques emit their own energy source and et al., 2018).
passive systems detect radiation that is either reflected or emitted in
response to a natural source, i.e., the sun. As methodologies continue to 5.2.3. Combination of SAR and LiDAR data
improve, active and passive techniques are often combined to reduce the In a 2016 report on wetland vegetation mapping, passive and active
influence of limitations characterized in a single set of inputs (Bourgeau- data from optical sensors and SAR were linked with airborne laser
Chavez et al., 2018). Passive optical sensors, notably IKONOS, short- scanning via light detection and ranging (LiDAR) in the Danube Delta
wave infrared, and UV–Vis near infrared, are capable of providing up- (Niculescu et al., 2016). Modern LiDAR is a tool that has been devel­
to-date information for the purpose of soil mapping and providing oping over the last decade and is capable of returning three-dimensional
good resolution at multiple spatial scales (Escribano et al., 2017). digital representations of surfaces based on laser cycling and wavelength
However, the use of spectroscopic optical imaging for peatlands as a (Giarola, 2018). In cases of remote sensing where surface heights are
single metric presents limitations that are caused by cloud cover and an generalized from field measurements and interpolation, the application
inability to detect small scale height variation across a landscape's sur­ of LiDAR offers a direct measure of vertical surface components and
face, i.e., in the hummock and hollow microtopography (Anderson et al., allows for vertical diversity with ten centimeter accuracy along a Z axis
2010; Niculescu et al., 2016). Longer wavelength, active remote sensing (Niculescu et al., 2016). Although the results of this study did not
methodologies such as synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can pierce cloud confirm the greatest accuracy when integrating all three sensor types
cover and capture three-dimensional topographic variation. The created together, Niculescu et al. (2016) revealed efficient abilities to discern
microwave radiation and the backscatter detected by SAR sensors usu­ ecological complexes through combinations of optical and airborne
ally enable a capable methodology aimed at under-canopy observation, LiDAR data, and optical data paired with Satellite C-band RADARSAT
detecting inundation, and the classification of wet soils hidden by SAR, for vegetation classes that exist within the area observed. To
vegetation (Bourgeau-Chavez et al., 2018). However, a majority of these ascertain the health of a raised bog and the scope of a restoration pro­
benefits are heavily dictated by the appropriate wavelengths (Millard cedure on its hydrological system, surveys have often relied on an eco­
and Richardson, 2018). For agricultural monitoring of land cover tope typology, which is described by the smallest distinct living
change, SAR can be ideal due to the scatter of longer wavelengths which component within the scale of the landscape (Schouten et al., 2002). In a
are caused by easily discernible crop and large vegetation structures study similar to Niculescu et al. (2016), that involved vegetation dis­
(Mandal et al., 2019). In ecosystems where plant cover is generally tall, tinctions on an ombrotrophic bog, airborne LiDAR data and IKONOS
SAR detection and volume scattering, as described in Bechtold et al. optical image bands (Anderson et al., 2010) were combined in a mul­
(2018) whereby electromagnetic radiation transmits between media, tispectral and spatial approach. Anderson et al. (2010) were able to
would be dependent on canopy structure and vegetation wetness demonstrate that airborne LiDAR data can detail peatland topography
(Millard and Richardson, 2018). When monitoring a peatland, water and allude to eco-hydrological distinctions. The study effectively
level variation is significant over very short distances and this is evi­ enhanced the spatial characterization of a peatland's surface conditions
denced in the peatland microtopography (Millard and Richardson, and vegetation via the joining of airborne LiDAR data, with one-meter
2018). In addition, volume scattering can occur as EM radiation in­ spatial resolution and a twenty-five-centimeter vertical accuracy to
filtrates into surficial peat and this further extends to the properties of multispectral classifications of four-meter spatial resolution via
peat surfaces, texture, and roughness; therefore, not only is a backscatter IKONOS.
rebound related to the canopy and vegetation, it is also affected by pore
water content and the characteristics of the peat (Millard and Richard­ 5.2.4. Combination of modelling tools and LiDAR-based DEMs
son, 2018). Since the reproductive response observed in bog vegetation Like degraded peatlands, contemporary agriculture tends to alter
occurs over a multi-decadal time frame (Ratcliffe et al., 2018), an un­ natural nutrient behavior and introduces further complexity to the
disturbed peatland surface displays very limited temporal variation in source-pathway-receptor scheme associated with nonpoint source
contrast to an agricultural crop land (Millard and Richardson, 2018). pollution and hydrologically sensitive areas (Mockler et al., 2016).
Novelties regarding freely available, remotely sensed information have
5.2.2. Synthetic aperture radar (C-band) advanced environmental modelling approaches and led to more exact
For the purpose of monitoring water table depth, Bechtold et al. descriptions of CSAs at the landscape and catchment scale (Djodjic et al.,
(2018) explored the use of C-band backscatter data (information derived 2018). To capture and highlight agricultural nonpoint source pollution
from a specific microwave range of frequencies) available through the flows, studies often depend on the use of the Soil and Water Assessment
European Space Agency's ENVISAT satellite. Concurrently, Millard and Tool (SWAT) (Chen, 2019; Hua et al., 2019). This modelling tool is
Richardson (2018) had made brief reference to a capacity for quality frequently paired with Airborne LiDAR based Digital Elevation Models
spatial resolution (eight meters aggregated to one-hundred meters for (DEMs) in keeping with the current trend of using the highest resolution
improved classifications) that could be obtained by C-band backscatter, data available (Foulon et al., 2019). LiDAR-based DEMs are capable of
especially in relation to peatlands. Bechtold et al. (2018) applied an achieving consistent spatial accuracy of between one and two meters
advanced SAR technique and linked field observations of water table (Lee et al., 2019), whereas other sources, e.g., Advanced Spaceborne
depth to the backscatter that may only be detected in the top one to two Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer, CartoDEM, and Shuttle
centimeters of peat soils, using vertical-vertical polarization. The results Radar Topography, are less effective at providing high resolution im­
were considered useful for predicting some behavior of water fluctua­ agery for small spatial applications (Goyal et al., 2018). This is especially
tion beneath a peatland's groundwater interface, but due to limitations important in peatland mapping where small vegetated structures,
there was little consistency in the relationship between the study's hummocks, and hollows dominate the topography (Kalacska et al.,
measured water table heights and the backscatter response associated 2018). LiDAR continues to remain an effective component when incor­
with threshold depths (Bechtold et al., 2018). Across the observed sites, porating land elevation criteria, even though the technique only cap­
it was suggested that a depth range of half a meter to one and a half tures a static representation of the ground surface and its vegetation
meters below the surface presented a threshold where correlation be­ (Millard and Richardson, 2018). However, peatland biomass responds at
tween water level and backscatter was lost, and possibly explained by a slow enough rate (average rate of 0.5 to 1 mm yr− 1), even under
reduced capillary action (Bechtold et al., 2018). In spite of in­ optimal growing conditions (Renou-Wilson et al., 2011b), which allows
consistencies and ENVISAT SAR coarse spatial resolution of one remote sensing survey regimes on the scale of years to be suitable when

7
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

accounting for natural landcover change. cannot detect hydrological connections without some form of supple­
mental inputs, e.g., a tracer solution (Holden, 2004). Characterization
5.2.5. Electromagnetic survey methods by EC, via electrical resistivity surveys, has also been explored in peat­
Remote sensing and Earth Observation are terms usually associated land assessments (Clément et al., 2020). The concept fueling this
with satellite borne methods; however, they can also refer to geophys­ particular avenue of research lies in the chargeability of peat. Peatland
ical methods which are becoming more common for large-scale sub­ conductance, or resistivity, in the partially decomposed organic matter
surface environmental investigations (Binley et al., 2015). Geophysical could allow for mapping by electrical properties (Márquez Molina et al.,
surveys enable vertical and lateral investigation into the subsurface to 2014). By this measure, nutrient species and independent ions cannot be
tens of meters and have been used for mapping peatlands in terms of directly quantified but relationships with chargeability can be drawn as
spatial extent and intra-peat variability (Minasny et al., 2019), whereas this has been performed in agricultural assessments of TN and mineral N
satellite remote sensing typically returns information from the top few (Fahmi et al., 2019). However, similar to the application of GPR, when
centimeters of a surface. Broadly speaking, geophysical surveys can be considering airborne EM and the physical diagnostic of EC, if peat
broken into airborne and ground surveys, where the former benefits substrate materials are highly conductive or if conductance is highly
from larger survey areas and the latter from an increased resolution. The variable over short distances (Parsekian, 2018) the signal interference
Electromagnetic (EM) method uses low frequency EM waves to map potential in the substrate could mask the desired detection. The methods
variation in the electrical conductivity of subsurface structures and re­ mentioned thus far, and similar methods of induced polarization and EM
lates to physical properties such as saturation, porosity, permeability, induction, are all variations of an EC metric (Mclachlan et al., 2017).
and mineral content (Carcione et al., 2003). To peatland hydro­
geological investigations, EM data offer the means to characterize a 5.2.7. Radiometric surveys
subsurface where passive and satellite methods may only provide sur­ Lastly, gamma ray spectrometry, or radiometric survey, relies on the
ficial information (Boaga, 2017). Airborne EM methods consisting of decay of potassium (40K), uranium (238U), and thorium (232Th) radio­
both frequency-domain and time-domain approaches, measure the nuclides which are characteristic elements of bedrock materials; and,
apparent electrical conductivity of the ground to depths ranging from a unlike the previous methodologies, signal detection takes the form of a
few to a few hundred meters, depending on the instrument selected and passive reading due to the radioactive decay of the associated elements
the ground conductivity (Paine and Minty, 2005). Apparent conduc­ that make up the top sixty centimeters of the subsurface, approximately
tivity serves as a descriptor for integrated soil properties such as bulk (Beamish, 2013). The incoherent scattering produced during radioactive
density, salinity, and moisture content (Paine, 2003). Boaga (2017) decay (Beamish, 2013) can undergo attenuation or, put another way, a
highlighted the development of the ground-based frequency domain loss of flux occurs as a portion of gamma scatter interacts with an
electromagnetic (FDEM) method and its use in hydrogeophysics. FDEM absorber medium, i.e., water. Soil can be described as a three-phase
has been shown to be a powerful tool for characterizing soil properties system with solid, liquid and gas being referred to as the parent mate­
through the use of a multifrequency system that collects information rial. Porewater and air are the phases and aspects of the parent material
from the soil at many simultaneous depths (Boaga, 2017). The approach that affect the radiometric attenuation in the soil. Depending on the
offers high spatial resolution and a depth of investigation from centi­ level of saturation, soil water content lends to a functioning increase in
meters to several decameters, depending on the instrumentation and the the attenuation of the gamma signal. Beamish (2013) highlighted the
properties of the ground. Silvestri et al. (Silvestri et al., 2019a; Silvestri theoretical depth of investigation in the majority of near-surface earth
et al., 2019b) employed the time domain EM (TDEM) survey method materials to be approximately sixty centimeters, depending on satura­
and the study served as the premier undertaking in the use of airborne tion. As peat is made up of organic material it acts solely as an attenuator
electromagnetics (AEM) for regional scale peat depth analysis. The as opposed to a source of the radioactive signal. The relatively low dry
TDEM survey results were combined with artificial neural network bulk density combined with high porosity and typically high saturation
(ANN) methodology to estimate peat thickness from 14 field samples give peat its unique significance within the realm of radiometric surveys.
where peat thickness was known. This network was then employed to Beamish (2013) demonstrated that intra-peat variability could be noted
estimate peat thickness and volume over a larger survey area. TDEM can within an airborne radiometric survey from Northern Ireland. This
be appropriate for peatland characterization due to its heightened variability was linked to either varying peat depth or peat saturation
sensitivity to shallow variations in subsurface properties (Silvestri et al., with ground truthing required to verify any results. The effect of satu­
2019b). The amount of field observations performed was regarded as a ration is clearly demonstrated when focused on peat.
primary limiter to the studies, as peat characterization could not be The ability to precisely distinguish boundaries has led to radiometric
performed extensively (Silvestri et al., 2019a). In Silvestri et al. (2019b), associations in the general mapping of peatlands. In Northwest Ger­
the AEM methodology was used to construct an accurate three- many, Siemon et al. (2020) most recently used radiometric detection
dimensional representation of a peatland, accounting for peat thick­ with helicopter-borne FDEM for mapping peat volume within a bog. The
ness across the entire ecosystem. Aside from the logistical adversities, e. German study sought to quantify thickness and extent, but it was noted
g., flight line spacing and cost, both studies highlighted limitations of the that the radiometric data could not be used solely. Due to the nature of
TDEM method. Limitations included difficulty with imaging the base of the radioactive decay and the parent material, and the attenuators, e.g.,
peat due to low electrical conductivity contrasts between organic matter degree of water saturation in the peat, the precise nature of the radio­
and bedrock, an inability to detect thin layers of both peat and clay, and active decay cannot be known through simple qualitative analysis
a low number of field samples for ground truthing (Silvestri et al., (Siemon et al., 2020). It is considered a must to combine radiometric
2019a; Silvestri et al., 2019b). However, it was noted that in the pres­ input with some other method for developing novel methodologies. As
ence of high electrical contrasts, this method would have an increased Siemon et al. (2020) have paired radiometric data with AEM, Gatis et al.
ability to detect peat thickness and may be more applicable in other (2019) have combined the data with airborne LiDAR. In the latter
situations. example, a digital surface model produced from the LiDAR, with one-
meter resolution, was aggregated to contain cell sizes of ten meters in
5.2.6. Ground penetrating radar order to better accommodate radiometric counts. The soil attenuation
Ground-based geophysical methods, such as ground penetrating information and the detected microrelief produced a spatial interpre­
radar (GPR) again, use low frequency EM waves with slightly higher tation that accounted for peat depth and offered a modelled scale that is
energies than those detected by EM methods to identify peatland stra­ considered to be effective enough for land management decisions (Gatis
tigraphy and thickness (Zajícová and Chuman, 2019). GPR is capable of et al., 2019). Airborne geophysical survey by radiometric detection and
detecting changes in the EC of water occupying void space; however, it its integration have also been previously used in conjunction with peat

8
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

depth and soil organic carbon (SOC) data to spatially interpolate SOC ecosystems in river systems. In: Ramsar Policy Brief No. 4., Gland. Ramsar
Convention Secretariat, Switzerland.
throughout a peatland (Keaney et al., 2012).
Beamish, D., 2013. Gamma ray attenuation in the soils of Northern Ireland, with special
reference to peat. J. Environ. Radioact. 115, 13–27.
6. Conclusion Bechtold, M., Schlaffer, S., Tiemeyer, B., De Lannoy, G., 2018. Inferring water table
depth dynamics from ENVISAT-ASAR C-band backscatter over a range of peatlands
from deeply-drained to natural conditions. Remote Sens. 10, 536.
Discrepancies between state-level attitudes and international initia­ Beltman, B., Ven, P., Verhoeven, J., Sarneel, J., 2014. Phosphate release upon long- and
tives have historically dampened the efforts of an accepted global policy; short -term flooding of fen meadows depends on land use history and soil pH.
Wetlands 34, 989–1001.
one that is aimed at safeguarding environmental flow derived from
Binley, A., Hubbard, S.S., Huisman, J.A., Revil, A., Robinson, D.A., Singha, K., Slater, L.
peatland ecosystems. Regardless of destructive activities, national in­ D., 2015. The emergence of hydrogeophysics for improved understanding of
tricacies, and the posteriority of sustainable development goals placing subsurface processes over multiple scales. Water Resour. Res. 51, 3837–3866.
peatlands in states of distress, there is uncertainty regarding the effec­ Blackwell, M.S., Carswell, A.M., Bol, R., 2013. Variations in concentrations of N and P
forms in leachates from dried soils rewetted at different rates. Biol. Fertil. Soils 49,
tiveness of rehabilitation and restoration. To assess the benefits of 79–87.
management activities and to weigh those benefits against their poten­ Boaga, J., 2017. The use of FDEM in hydrogeophysics: a review. J. Appl. Geophys. 139,
tially hazardous impacts, there must be an informed methodology that 36–46.
Bourgeau-Chavez, L., Endres, S.L., Graham, J., Hribljan, J.A., Chimner, R., Lillieskov, E.,
can provide suitable hydrological and geochemical characterization at a Battaglia, M., 2018. Mapping peatlands in boreal and tropical ecoregions. In:
site scale. Such a methodology should serve a twofold purpose: offering Liang, S. (Ed.), Comprehensive Remote Sensing, 6. Elsevier, Oxford, UK, pp. 24–44.
data that may infer the health of a peatland ecosystem and data that can Brödlin, D., Kaiser, K., Hagedorn, F., 2019. Divergent patterns of carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus mobilization in Forest soils. Front. For. Glob. Change 2.
act as input for water quality and NPS pollution models. General ap­ Buschmann, C., Röder, N., Berglund, K., Berglund, Ö., Lærke, P.E., Maddison, M.,
plications of remote sensing give true results covering many soil pro­ Mander, Ü., Myllys, M., Osterburg, B., Van Den Akker, J.J.H., 2020. Perspectives on
cesses; however, their use for identifying peatland geochemical behavior agriculturally used drained peat soils: comparison of the socioeconomic and
ecological business environments of six European regions. Land Use Policy 90,
is questionable. High variation in subsurface water levels that occurs 104181.
over short distances within a peatland has long been a challenge for Carcione, J.M., Seriani, G., Gei, D., 2003. Acoustic and electromagnetic properties of
groundwater predictions, and this water level flux is suspected to have a soils saturated with salt water and NAPL. J. Appl. Geophys. 52, 177–191.
Charlet, L., Markelova, E., Parsons, C., Couture, R.-M., Madé, B., 2013. Redox oscillation
dramatic influence on the composition and chemical activity of stored
impact on natural and engineered biogeochemical systems: chemical resilience and
water. Exploration into the synergistic use of optical, radar, and radio­ implications for contaminant mobility. Proc. Earth Plan. Sci. 7, 135–138.
metric resolution will expand as a metric for assessing the relevant Chen, Y., 2019. Numerical simulation of the change law of agricultural non-point source
phenomena, whether they be natural or anthropogenic. These combined pollution based on improved SWAT model. In: Revista de la Facultad de Agronomia
de la Universidad del Zulia, p. 36.
techniques can provide detail from within the shallow subsurface and Clarke, D., Rieley, J., 2010. Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management.
may counteract the current limitations associated with existing EM International Peat Society Finland.
methods. Clément, R., Pärn, J., Maddison, M., Henine, H., Chaumont, C., Tournebize, J., Uri, V.,
Espenberg, M., Günther, T., Mander, Ü., 2020. Frequency-domain electromagnetic
induction for upscaling greenhouse gas fluxes in two hemiboreal drained peatland
forests. J. Appl. Geophys. 103944.
Declaration of Competing Interest
Dinh, M.-V., Guhr, A., Weig, A.R., Matzner, E., 2018. Drying and rewetting of forest
floors: dynamics of soluble phosphorus, microbial biomass-phosphorus, and the
None. composition of microbial communities. Biol. Fertil. Soils 54, 761–768.
Djodjic, F., Elmquist, H., Collentine, D., 2018. Targeting critical source areas for
phosphorus losses: evaluation with soil testing, farmers’ assessment and modelling.
Acknowledgements Ambio 47, 45–56.
EC, W.F., 2000. Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of
23 October 2000 establishing a framework for community action in the field of water
The authors would like to thank the European Commission and the
policy. Off. J. Eur. Communities 22, 2000.
Irish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (Project reference number EC, G., 2006. Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of
2019-W-MS-42) for funding the collaborative international consortium 12 December 2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and
deterioration. Off. J. Europ. Union, L 372, 19–31.
(WATERPEAT) financed under the Water JPI 2018 Joint Call of the
Escribano, P., Schmid, T., Chabrillat, S., Rodríguez-Caballero, E., García, M., 2017.
WaterWorks2017 ERA-NET Cofund. This project is funded under the Chapter 4 - Optical remote sensing for soil mapping and monitoring. In: Pereira, P.,
EPA Research Programme 2014-2020. The EPA Research Programme is Brevik, E.C., Muñoz-Rojas, M., Miller, B.A. (Eds.), Soil Mapping and Process
a Government of Ireland initiative funded by the Department of Com­ Modeling for Sustainable Land Use Management. Elsevier.
Everard, M., Mcinnes, R.J., 2018. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Resolution XIII. 17:
munications, Climate Action and Environment. It is administered by the Rapidly Assessing Wetland Ecosystem Services.
Environmental Protection Agency, which has the statutory function of Fahmi, A., Nurzakiah, S., Susilawati, A., 2019. The interaction of peat and sulphidic
co-ordinating and promoting environmental research. DISCLAIMER: material as substratum in wetland: ash content and electrical conductivity dynamic.
In: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. IOP Publishing,
Although every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the p. 012045.
material contained in this journal paper, complete accuracy cannot be Fenner, N., Williams, R., Toberman, H., Hughes, S., Reynolds, B., Freeman, C., 2011.
guaranteed. Neither the Environmental Protection Agency nor the au­ Decomposition 'hotspots' in a rewetted peatland: implications for water quality and
carbon cycling. Hydrobiologia 654, 51–66.
thors accept any responsibility whatsoever for loss or damage occa­ Foulon, E., Scarpari Spolidorio Junior, E., Rousseau, A.N., 2019. High Resolution Data
sioned or claimed to have been occasioned, in part or in full, as a for Semi-Distributed Hydrological Modeling: Is it Worth the Trouble? AGU Fall
consequence of any person acting or refraining from acting, as a result of Meeting Abstracts.
Gatis, N., Luscombe, D.J., Carless, D., Parry, L.E., Fyfe, R.M., Harrod, T.R., Brazier, R.E.,
a matter contained in this journal paper.
Anderson, K., 2019. Mapping upland peat depth using airborne radiometric and lidar
survey data. Geoderma 335, 78–87.
References Gaudig, G., Tanneberger, F., 2019. Peatland Science and Conservation: Contributions of
the Greifswald Mire Centre, Germany. Current Trends in Landscape Research.
Springer.
Abdalla, M., Hastings, A., Truu, J., Espenberg, M., Mander, Ü., Smith, P., 2016. Emissions
Ghebremichael, L.T., Veith, T.L., Hamlett, J.M., 2013. Integrated watershed-and farm-
of Methane from Northern Peatlands: A Review of Management Impacts and
scale modeling framework for targeting critical source areas while maintaining farm
Implications for Future Management Options.
economic viability. J. Environ. Manag. 114, 381–394.
Andersen, R., Wells, C., Macrae, M., Price, J., 2013. Nutrient mineralisation and
Giarola, V., 2018. Advanced LiDAR Systems. Design of a LiDAR Platform.
microbial functional diversity in a restored bog approach natural conditions 10 years
Giri, S., Qiu, Z., Prato, T., Luo, B., 2016. An integrated approach for targeting critical
post restoration. Soil Biol. Biochem. 64, 37–47.
source areas to control nonpoint source pollution in watersheds. Water Resour.
Anderson, K., Bennie, J., Milton, E., Hughes, P., Lindsay, R., Meade, R., 2010. Combining
Manag. 30, 5087–5100.
LiDAR and IKONOS data for eco-hydrological classification of an ombrotrophic
Goyal, M.K., Panchariya, V.K., Sharma, A., Singh, V., 2018. Comparative assessment of
peatland. J. Environ. Qual. 39, 260–273.
SWAT model performance in two distinct catchments under various DEM scenarios
Barchiesi, S., Davies, P.E., Kulindwa, K.A.A., Lei, G., Martinez Ríos Del Río, L., 2018.
Implementing environmental flows with benefits for society and different wetland

9
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

of varying resolution, sources and resampling methods. Water Resour. Manag. 32, Lundin, L., Nilsson, T., Jordan, S., Lode, E., Strömgren, M., 2017. Impacts of rewetting on
805–825. peat, hydrology and water chemical composition over 15 years in two finished peat
Graf, M.D., Rochefort, L., 2016. A conceptual framework for ecosystem restoration extraction areas in Sweden. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 25, 405–419.
applied to industrial peatlands. In: Bonn, S.A., Allott, T., Evans, M., Joosten, H., Luo, L., Ye, H., Zhang, D., Gu, J.D., Deng, O., 2021. The dynamics of phosphorus
Stoneman, R. (Eds.), Peatland Restoration and Ecosystem Services: Science, Policy fractions and the factors driving phosphorus cycle in Zoige plateau. Chemosphere
and Practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 192–212. 278, 130501.
Griffiths, N.A., Sebestyen, S.D., Oleheiser, K.C., 2019. Variation in peatland porewater Macek, C.L., Hale, R.L., Baxter, C.V., 2020. Dry wetlands: nutrient dynamics in
chemistry over time and space along a bog to fen gradient. Sci. Total Environ. 697, ephemeral constructed Stormwater wetlands. Environ. Manag. 65, 32–45.
134152. Macrae, M.L., Devito, K.J., Strack, M., Waddington, J.M., 2013. Effect of water table
Gu, S., Gruau, G., Dupas, R., Rumpel, C., Crème, A., Fovet, O., Gascuel-Odoux, C., drawdown on peatland nutrient dynamics: implications for climate change.
Jeanneau, L., Humbert, G., Petitjean, P., 2017. Release of dissolved phosphorus from Biogeochemistry 112, 661–676.
riparian wetlands: evidence for complex interactions among hydroclimate Mandal, D., Hosseini, M., Mcnairn, H., Kumar, V., Bhattacharya, A., Rao, Y.S.,
variability, topography and soil properties. Sci. Total Environ. 598, 421–431. Mitchell, S., Robertson, L.D., Davidson, A., Dabrowska-Zielinska, K., 2019. An
Harris, A., Bryant, R.G., 2009. A multi-scale remote sensing approach for monitoring investigation of inversion methodologies to retrieve the leaf area index of corn from
northern peatland hydrology: present possibilities and future challenges. J. Environ. C-band SAR data. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 82, 101893.
Manag. 90, 2178–2188. Márquez Molina, J.J., Sainato, C.M., Urricariet, A.S., Losinno, B.N., Heredia, O.S., 2014.
Hepp, G., Zoboli, O., Strenge, E., Zessner, M., 2022. Particulate phozzyLogic index for Bulk electrical conductivity as an indicator of spatial distribution of nitrogen and
policy makers - an index for a more accurate and transparent identification of critical phosphorous at feedlots. J. Appl. Geophys. 111, 156–172.
source areas. J. Environ. Manag. 307, 114514. Mclachlan, P., Chambers, J.E., Uhlemann, S.S., Binley, A., 2017. Geophysical
Hill, B.H., Jicha, T.M., Lehto, L.L.P., Elonen, C.M., Sebestyen, S.D., Kolka, R.K., 2016. characterisation of the groundwater–surface water interface. Adv. Water Resour.
Comparisons of soil nitrogen mass balances for an ombrotrophic bog and a 109, 302–319.
minerotrophic fen in northern Minnesota. Sci. Total Environ. 550, 880–892. Menberu, M.W., Tahvanainen, T., Marttila, H., Irannezhad, M., Ronkanen, A.K.,
Hinckley, B.R., Etheridge, J.R., Peralta, A.L., 2019. Wetland conditions differentially Penttinen, J., Kløve, B., 2016. Water-table-dependent hydrological changes
influence nitrogen processing within waterfowl impoundments. Wetlands. 40 (5), following peatland forestry drainage and restoration: analysis of restoration success.
1117–1131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-019-01246-8. Water Resour. Res. 52, 3742–3760.
Holden, J., 2004. Hydrological connectivity of soil pipes determined by ground- Menberu, M.W., Marttila, H., Tahvanainen, T., Kotiaho, J.S., Hokkanen, R., Kløve, B.,
penetrating radar tracer detection. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 29, 437–442. Ronkanen, A.K., 2017. Changes in pore water quality after peatland restoration:
Hua, L., Li, W., Zhai, L., Yen, H., Lei, Q., Liu, H., Ren, T., Xia, Y., Zhang, F., Fan, X., 2019. assessment of a large-scale, replicated before-after-control-impact study in Finland.
An innovative approach to identifying agricultural pollution sources and loads by Water Resour. Res. 53, 8327–8343.
using nutrient export coefficients in watershed modeling. J. Hydrol. 571, 322–331. Millard, K., Richardson, M., 2018. Quantifying the relative contributions of vegetation
Husen, E., Salma, S., Agus, F., 2014. Peat emission control by groundwater management and soil moisture conditions to polarimetric C-band SAR response in a temperate
and soil amendments: evidence from laboratory experiments. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. peatland. Remote Sens. Environ. 206, 123–138.
Glob. Chang. 19, 821–829. Minasny, B., Berglund, Ö., Connolly, J., Hedley, C., De Vries, F., Gimona, A., Kempen, B.,
Huth, V., Gunther, A., Bartel, A., Gutekunst, C., Heinze, S., Hofer, B., Jacobs, O., Kidd, D., Lilja, H., Malone, B., Mcbratney, A., Roudier, P., O’rourke, S., Rudiyanto
Koebsch, F., Rosinski, E., Tonn, C., Ullrich, K., Jurasinski, G., 2022. The climate Padarian, J., Poggio, L., Ten Caten, A., Thompson, D., Tuve, C., Widyatmanti, W.,
benefits of topsoil removal and Sphagnum introduction in raised bog restoration. 2019. Digital mapping of peatlands – A critical review. Earth Sci. Rev. 196, 102870.
Restor. Ecol. 30, e13490. Mockler, E.M., Deakin, J., Archbold, M., Daly, D., Bruen, M., 2016. Nutrient load
IPCC, 2021. AR6 Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. https://www.ipcc.ch apportionment to support the identification of appropriate water framework
/report/ar6/wg1/#FullReport. directive measures. Biol. Environ. Proc. Royal Irish Acad. 116B, 245–263.
Jeanneau, L., Jaffrézic, A., Pierson-Wickmann, A.-C., Gruau, G., Lambert, T., Moomaw, W.R., Chmura, G.L., Davies, G.T., Finlayson, C.M., Middleton, B.A., Natali, S.
Petitjean, P., 2014. Constraints on the sources and production mechanisms of M., Perry, J.E., Roulet, N., Sutton-Grier, A.E., 2018. Wetlands in a changing climate:
dissolved organic matter in soils from molecular biomarkers. Vadose Zone J. 13. science, policy and management. Wetlands 38, 183–205.
Jiang, X., Hou, X., Zhou, X., Xin, X., Wright, A., Jia, Z., 2015. pH regulates key players of Moore, P.A., Pypker, T.G., Waddington, J.M., 2013. Effect of long-term water table
nitrification in paddy soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 81, 9–16. manipulation on peatland evapotranspiration. Agric. For. Meteorol. 178-179,
Joosten, H., Clarke, D., 2002. Wise use of mires and peatlands. In: International Mire 106–119.
Conservation Group and International Peat Society, p. 304. Morison, M.Q., Macrae, M.L., Petrone, R.M., Fishback, L., 2018. Climate-induced
Kalacska, M., Arroyo-Mora, J.P., Soffer, R.J., Roulet, N.T., Moore, T.R., Humphreys, E., changes in nutrient transformations across landscape units in a thermokarst
Leblanc, G., Lucanus, O., Inamdar, D., 2018. Estimating peatland water table depth subarctic peatland. Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res. 50.
and net ecosystem exchange: A comparison between satellite and airborne imagery. Munir, T.M., Khadka, B., Xu, B., Strack, M., 2017. Mineral nitrogen and phosphorus pools
Remote Sens. 10, 687. affected by water table lowering and warming in a boreal forested peatland.
Kareksela, S., Haapalehto, T., Juutinen, R., Matilainen, R., Tahvanainen, T., Kotiaho, J.S., Ecohydrology 10, e1893.
2015. Fighting carbon loss of degraded peatlands by jump-starting ecosystem Negassa, W., Baum, C., Schlichting, A., Müller, J., Leinweber, P., Rezanezhad, F.,
functioning with ecological restoration. Sci. Total Environ. 537, 268–276. Moore, T., Zak, D., 2019. Small-scale spatial variability of soil chemical and
Karjalainen, S.M., Heikkinen, K., Ihme, R., Kløve, B., 2016. Long-term purification biochemical properties in a rewetted degraded peatland. Front. Environ. Sci. 7, 116.
efficiency of a wetland constructed to treat runoff from peat extraction. J. Environ. Negassa, W., Michalik, D., Klysubun, W., Leinweber, P., 2020. Phosphorus speciationn in
Sci. Health A 51, 393–402. long-term drained and rewetted peatlands in northern Germany. Soil Syst. 4, 11.
Kasak, K., Espenberg, M., Anthony, T.L., Tringe, S.G., Valach, A.C., Hemes, K.S., Niculescu, S., Lardeux, C., Grigoras, I., Hanganu, J., David, L., 2016. Synergy between
Silver, W.L., Mander, U., Kill, K., Mcnicol, G., Szutu, D., Verfaillie, J., Baldocchi, D. LiDAR, RADARSAT-2, and Spot-5 images for the detection and mapping of wetland
D., 2021. Restoring wetlands on intensive agricultural lands modifies nitrogen vegetation in the Danube Delta. IEEE J. Select. Top. Appl. Earth Observ. Rem. Sens.
cycling mirobial communities and reduces N2O production potentail. J. Environ. 9, 3651–3666.
Manag. 299, 113562. Nieminen, M., Sarkkola, S., Tolvanen, A., Tervahauta, A., Saarimaa, M., Sallantaus, T.,
Keaney, A., Mckinley, J., Ruffell, A., Robinson, M., Graham, C., Hodgson, J., Ture, M., 2020. Water quality management dilemma: increased nutrient, carbon, and heavy
2012. Ground-Truthing Airborne Geophysical Data for Carbon Stock Monitoring. metal exports from forestry-drained peatlands restored for use as wetland buffer
EAGE/GRSG Remote Sensing Workshop. areas. For. Ecol. Manag. 465, 118089.
Kim, H., Ogram, A., Bae, H.-S., 2017. Nitrification, anammox and denitrification along a Ortigara, A.R.C., Kay, M., Uhlenbrook, S., 2018. A review of the SDG 6 synthesis report
nutrient gradient in the Florida Everglades. Wetlands 37, 391–399. 2018 from an education, training, and research perspective. Water 10, 1353.
Koskinen, M., Tahvanainen, T., Sarkkola, S., Menberu, M.W., Laurén, A., Sallantaus, T., Overbeek, C.C., Harpenslager, S.F., Van Zuidam, J.P., Van Loon, E.E., Lamers, L.P.M.,
Marttila, H., Ronkanen, A.-K., Parviainen, M., Tolvanen, A., Koivusalo, H., Soons, M.B., Admiraal, W., Verhoeven, J.T.A., Smolders, A.J.P., Roelofs, J.G.M., Van
Nieminen, M., 2017. Restoration of nutrient-rich forestry-drained peatlands poses a Der Geest, H.G., 2020. Drivers of vegetation development, biomass production and
risk for high exports of dissolved organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Sci. the initiation of peat formation in a newly constructed wetland. Ecosystems 23,
Total Environ. 586, 858–869. 1019–1036. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-019-00454-x.
Kumar, R., Mcinnes, R., Everard, M., Gardner, R., Kulindwa, K., Wittmer, H., Infante Paine, J.G., 2003. Determining salinization extent, identifying salinity sources, and
Mata, D., 2017. Integrating Multiple Wetland Values into Decision-Making. Ramsar estimating chloride mass using surface, borehole, and airborne electromagnetic
Convention Secretariat, Gland. induction methods. Water Resour. Res. 39.
Lee, S., Yeo, I.Y., Lang, M.W., Mccarty, G.W., Sadeghi, A.M., Sharifi, A., Jin, H., Liu, Y., Paine, J.G., Minty, B.R., 2005. Airborne Hydrogeophysics. Springer, Hydrogeophysics.
2019. Improving the catchment scale wetland modeling using remotely sensed data. Pant, H.K., 2020. Estimation of internal loading of phosphorus in freshwater wetlands.
Environ. Model. Softw. 122, 104069. Curr. Poll. Rep. 6, 28–35.
Lees, K.J., Quaife, T., Artz, R.R.E., Khomik, M., Clark, J.M., 2018. Potential for using Parsekian, A.D., 2018. Inverse methods to improve accuracy of water content estimates
remote sensing to estimate carbon fluxes across northern peatlands – A review. Sci. from multi-offset GprParsekian: improved accuracy of water content from Gpr.
Total Environ. 615, 857–874. J. Environ. Eng. Geophys. 23, 349–361.
Lele, S., 2017. Sustainable development goal 6: watering down justice concerns. In: Purre, A.-H., Ilomets, M., 2018. Relationships between bryophyte production and
Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water, 4. substrate properties in restored milled peatlands. Restor. Ecol. 26, 858–864.
Liu, H., Rezanezhad, R., Lennartz, B., 2022. Impact of land management on available Ramsar, C., 2002. Wetlands: water, life, and culture. In: Report of 8th Meeting of the
water capacity and water storage of peatlands. Geoderma 406, 115521. Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran,
1971), Spain, pp. 18–26.
Ramsar, C., 2006. Resolutions VIII. 3, VIII. 17.

10
S. Monteverde et al. Ecological Informatics 69 (2022) 101638

RAMSAR, 2012. Resolution XI.8 Annex 2: Strategic Framework and Guidelines for the Silvestri, S., Christensen, C.W., Lysdahl, A.O.K., Anschütz, H., Pfaffhuber, A.A.,
Future Development of the List of Wetlands of International Importance of the Viezzoli, A., 2019a. Peatland volume mapping over resistive substrates with airborne
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971) – 2012 revision., Ramsar Convention. electromagnetic technology. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 6459–6468.
RAMSAR, 2015a. Call to action to ensure and protect the water requirements of wetlands Silvestri, S., Knight, R., Viezzoli, A., Richardson, C.J., Anshari, G.Z., Dewar, N.,
for the present and the future. In: Resolution XII.12, 12th Meeting of the Conference Flanagan, N., Comas, X., 2019b. Quantification of peat thickness and stored carbon
of the Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar). at the landscape scale in tropical peatlands: A comparison of airborne geophysics
Ramsar, S., 2015b. Resolution XII. In: 2 The 4th Strategic Plan 2016–2024. IUCN, Punta and an empirical topographic method. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 124, 3107–3123.
del Este (Uruguay). Sola, A.D., Marazzi, L., Flores, M.M., Kominoski, J.S., Gaiser, E.E., 2018. Short-term
RAMSAR, 2018. Resolution XIII.13, Restoration of degraded peatlands to mitigate and effects of drying-rewetting and long-term effects of nutrient loading on Periphyton
adapt to climate change and enhance biodiversity and disaster risk. In: “Wetlands for N: P stoichiometry. Water 10, 105.
a Sustainable Urban Future” Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 21–29 October 2018, Stimson, A.G., Allott, T.E.H., Boult, S., Evans, M.G., Pilkington, M., Holland, N., 2017.
13th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention Water quality impacts of bare peat revegetation with lime and fertiliser application.
on Wetlands. Appl. Geochem. 85, 97–105.
Ratcliffe, J., Payne, R.J., Sloan, T., Smith, B., Waldron, S., Mauquoy, D., Newton, A., Taghizadeh-Toosi, A., Clough, T., Petersen, S.O., Elsgaard, L., 2020. Nitrous oxide
Anderson, A., Henderson, A., Andersen, R., 2018. Holocene Carbon Accumulation in dynamics in agricultural peat soil in response to availability of nitrate, nitrite, and
the Peatlands of Northern Scotland. Iron sulfides. Geomicrobiol J. 37, 76–85.
Reaney, S.M., Mackay, E.B., Haygarth, P.M., Fisher, M., Molineux, A., Potts, M., Tampuu, T., Praks, J., Uiboupin, R., Kull, A., 2020. Long term interferometric temporal
Benskin, C.M.H., 2019. Identifying critical source areas using multiple methods for coherence and DInSAR phase in northern peatlands. Remote Sens. 12, 1566.
effective diffuse pollution mitigation. J. Environ. Manag. 250, 109366. Tan, Z.D., Lupascu, M., Wijedasa, L.S., 2021. Paludiculture as a sustainable land use
Rebelo, L.-M., Finlayson, M., Nagabhatla, N., 2008. Remote sensing and GIS for wetland alternative for torpical wetlands: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 753, 142111.
inventory, mapping and change analysis. J. Environ. Manag. 90, 2144–2153. Tfaily, M.M., Cooper, W.T., Kostka, J.E., Chanton, P.R., Schadt, C.W., Hanson, P.J.,
Reed, M., Bonn, A., Evans, C., Glenk, K., Hansjürgens, B., 2014. Assessing and valuing Iversen, C.M., Chanton, J.P., 2014. Organic matter transformation in the peat
peatland ecosystem services for sustainable management. Ecosyst. Serv. 9. column at Marcell experimental Forest: humification and vertical stratification.
Renou-Wilson, F., Farrell, E.P., 2007. Phosphorus in surface runoff and soil water J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 119, 661–675.
following fertilisation of afforested cutaway peatland. Boreal Environ. Res. 12, Tfaily, M.M., Wilson, R.M., Cooper, W.T., Kostka, J.E., Hanson, P., Chanton, J.P., 2018.
693–709. Vertical stratification of peat pore water dissolved organic matter composition in a
Renou-Wilson, F., Bolger, T., Bullock, C., Convery, F., Curry, J., Ward, S., Wilson, D., peat bog in northern Minnesota. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 123, 479–494.
Müller, C., 2011a. BOGLAND: sustainable management of peatlands in Ireland. Treat, C.C., Kleinen, T., Broothaerts, N., Dalton, A.S., Dommain, R., Douglas, T.A.,
STRIVE Rep. Ser. 181. Drexler, J.Z., Finkelstein, S.A., Grosse, G., Hope, G., 2019. Widespread global
Renou-Wilson, F., Ireland, Environmental Protection, A, University College, D, peatland establishment and persistence over the last 130,000 y. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
Programme, E. S, 2011b. BOGLAND: Sustainable Management of Peatlands in 116, 4822–4827.
Ireland. Johnstown Castle, Co. Environmental Protection Agency, Wexford. Tuukkanen, T., Marttila, H., Kløve, B., 2017. Predicting organic matter, nitrogen, and
Renou-Wilson, F., Moser, G., Fallon, D., Farrell, C.A., Müller, C., Wilson, D., 2019. phosphorus concentrations in runoff from peat extraction sites using partial least
Rewetting degraded peatlands for climate and biodiversity benefits: results from two squares regression. Water Resour. Res. 53, 5860–5876.
raised bogs. Ecol. Eng. 127, 547–560. UNEP, 2019. Resolution adopted by the United Nations environment Asssembly on 15
Reverey, F., Grossart, H.-P., Premke, K., Lischeid, G., 2016. Carbon and nutrient cycling March 2019 UNEP/EA.4/Res.16 United Nations Environment Assembly of the United
in kettle hole sediments depending on hydrological dynamics: a review. Nations Environment Programme Fourth Session, Nairobi.
Hydrobiologia 775, 1–20. Van De Riet, B.P., Hefting, M.M., Verhoeven, J.T.A., 2013. Rewetting drained peat
Rixen, T., Baum, A., Wit, F., Samiaji, J., 2016. Carbon leaching from tropical peat soils meadows: risks and benefits in terms of nutrient release and greenhouse gas
and consequences for carbon balances. Front. Earth Sci. 4. exchange. Water Air Soil Pollut. 224, 1440.
Saarimaa, M., Aapala, K., Tuominen, S., Karhu, J., Parkkari, M., Tolvanen, A., 2019. Wang, H., Richardson, C.J., Ho, M., Flanagan, N., 2016. Drained coastal peatlands: A
Predicting hotspots for threatened plant species in boreal peatlands. Biodivers. potential nitrogen source to marine ecosystems under prolonged drought and heavy
Conserv. 28, 1173–1204. storm events—A microcosm experiment. Sci. Total Environ. 566-567, 621–626.
Salomaa, A., Paloniemi, R., Ekroos, A., 2018. The case of conflicting Finnish peatland Wood, M.E., Macrae, M.L., Strack, M., Price, J.S., Osko, T.J., Petrone, R.M., 2016. Spatial
management–skewed representation of nature, participation and policy instruments. variation in nutrient dynamics among five different peatland types in the Alberta oil
J. Environ. Manag. 223, 694–702. sands region. Ecohydrology 9, 688–699.
Sapek, A., Sapek, B., Chrzanowski, S., Urbaniak, M., 2009. Nutrient mobilisation and Worsfold, R.D., Parashar, S.K., Perrott, T., 1986. Depth profiling of peat deposits with
losses related to the groundwater level in low peat soils. Internat. J. Environ. Pollut. impulse radar. Can. Geotech. J. 23, 142–154.
37 (4), 398–408. Xu, J., Morris, P.J., Liu, J., Holden, J., 2018. Peatmap: refining estimates of global
Schouten, M.G.C., Netherlands, S., Geological Survey Of, I, Ireland. Heritage, S, 2002. peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis. Catena 160, 134–140.
Conservation and Restoration of Raised Bogs: Geological, Hydrological and Yang, L., Jiang, M., Zou, Y., Qin, L., Chen, Y., 2021. Geographical distribution of iron
Ecological Studies. Dúchas -The Heritage Service of the Department of the redox cycling bacterial community in peatlands: distinct assesmble mechanism
Environment and Local Government, Dublin;Netherlands. across environmental gradient. Front. Microbiol. 12, 674411.
Schulte, M.L., Mclaughlin, D.L., Wurster, F.C., Balentine, K., Speiran, G.K., Aust, W.M., Zajícová, K., Chuman, T., 2019. Application of ground penetrating radar methods in soil
Stewart, R.D., Varner, J.M., Jones, C.N., 2019. Linking ecosystem function and studies: a review. Geoderma 343, 116–129.
hydrologic regime to inform restoration of a forested peatland. J. Environ. Manag. Zhao, C., Liu, S., Jiang, Z., Wu, Y., Cui, L., Huang, X., Macreadie, P.I., 2019. Nitrogen
233, 342–351. purification potential limited by nitrite reduction process in coastal eutrophic
Shore, M., Jordan, P., Mellander, P.E., Kelly-Quinn, M., Wall, D.P., Murphy, P.N.C., wetlands. Sci. Total Environ. 694, 133702.
Melland, A.R., 2014. Evaluating the critical source area concept of phosphorus loss Zhu, X., Song, C., Chen, W., Zhang, X., Tao, B., 2018. Effects of water regimes on
from soils to water-bodies in agricultural catchments. Sci. Total Environ. 490, methane emissions in peatland and Gley marsh. Vadose Zone J. 17, 180017.
405–415. Živković, T., Disney, K., Moore, T.R., 2017. Variations in nitrogen, phosphorus, and δ 15
Siemon, B., Ibs-Von Seht, M., Frank, S., 2020. Airborne electromagnetic and radiometric N in Sphagnum mosses along a climatic and atmospheric deposition gradient in
peat thickness mapping of a bog in Northwest Germany (Ahlen-Falkenberger moor). eastern Canada. Botany 95, 829–839.
Remote Sens. 12, 203.

11