Chapter 4: Public Policy Making

Process
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, students will be able to explain on public
policy making process which includes:

Agenda setting
Policy formulation
Policy implementation
Policy evaluation
Policy change
Policy termination
 THE PUBLIC POLICY MAKING PROCESS
Dye (1992) explained the public policy making process occurred within the
political system.
1.1) Identification of Policy Problems
This is a process of identification of policy problems through public demands
for government action.

In a democratic countries, public opinions will influence the government policy.

In this regards, the public opinions was seen as very important and has
significant roles in a government.

Thus, democratic representatives (Members of Parliament/Policy Makers)

should serve the interest of the people but not necessarily conform to their will
in deciding the question of public policy.
 In identifying the policy problems and issues, two opinions need to taken into
consideration: a) Public opinions and b) Elite opinion (Dye, 1992)
But there are arguments:
✓ There are little evidence that support public opinion has a significant influence over
public policy. It was said that public policy shapes the public opinion more often than
opinion shapes the policy.

✓ Elite opinions/preferences are more likely to be in accord withy public policy than
mass preferences (public opinions). This is because the elite (government officials) are
regarded as well educated, they act more rationally and they have more understanding
in determining public policy
According to Anderson (2015), problems is often defined as a political process
whose outcome will help determine appropriate solutions.

In addition, a policy problem can be defined as a condition or situation that

produces needs or dissatisfaction among people and for which relief or redress by
governmental action is sought (Anderson, 2015)
 Other than that, social problems can be a political problems if it meets three (3)
criteria:

✓ The issue must receive attention from a large number of people .

✓ A sizeable number of the population must demand action.
✓ The government must be able to tackle it. (Knill and Tosun, 2012)
*Thus, it also can be considered as a policy problems in which a public policy is needed
to tackle on the matters

1.2) Agenda Setting

This is a process of focusing the attention of mass media and public officials on
specific public problems deciding what will be decided.

According to Dye (1992), the stage of agenda setting is the most important stage
of the policy making process. In this stage, it is about defining the problems of
society and suggesting the alternative solutions.
 It is about “who decides and what will be decided?”
At this stage, government need to identify the policy issue (as a problem to be
tackled)

There are two agenda types related to agenda settings as defined by Cobb and
Elder’s (1983):
a) Systemic Agenda
✓ Refer to all societal problems that demand public attention and which form the
discussion agenda
✓ Most items on it are general and still lack a precise definition
✓ Exist for all levels of the political system: national, state and local

There are two agenda types related to agenda settings as defined by Cobb and
Elder’s (1983):
b) Institutional Agenda
✓ Contains a set of problems that are up for serious consideration by decision makers
✓ It is the action agenda which is more specific and concrete than the systemic
agenda ✓ Issues in institutional agenda are hardly recognised by the general public
as it requires a detailed, technical knowledge about the already existing public
policy

✓ Apart from at the national, state and local level, the institutional agenda also
appears in legislative, executive, administrative and at judicial branches

Agenda setting can occur in two ways:

i. Bottom-up manner
✓ Societal actors and the media seek to convince policy makers to take up a certain
issue

ii. Top-down manner

✓ The decision makers publisize their planned legislative activities.

Derived from Knill and Tosun (2012)

 Actors in agenda setting:
✓ Elected public official and judges
✓ Bureaucracy
✓ Mass Media
✓ Interest Groups
✓ International Organisations

THE PUBLIC POLICY MAKING PROCESS

It is about the formulation of policy proposals through the initiation and
development of policy proposals by policy planning organisations, interest groups,
government bureaucracies and the presidents and congress (Dye, 1992)

Process of formulating (drafting) / developing acceptable courses of action /

options for the selected policy agenda.

It is the development of policy alternatives for dealing with problems on the public
agenda
Anderson (2015) refers policy formulation as the involvement of developing
pertinent and acceptable proposed course of action (often called alternatives,
proposal, or options) for dealing with public problems.

Policy formulation does not always culminate in a law, executive order or

administrative rule

Policy formulation involves two main elements / activities namely

 Policy formulators need to consider several factors in producing a successful policy:
i. Is the policy proposal technically sound?
ii. Are the budgetary costs of the proposal reasonable/acceptable
iii. Is the proposal politically acceptable iv. If the proposal becomes law, will it be acceptable to
the public?

(Anderson, 2015)

Two groups of actors involved in policy formulation stage

Analyist (policy analyist) / administrators
Decision maker (policy maker)

The Policy Actors in Policy Formulation are further specified by Anderson, (2015) and Dye
(1992)
✓ Governmental agencies/bureaucracies
✓ Presidential organisations (in the case of USA)
✓ ✓
Legislators Interest groups
✓ Various commissions
✓ Various think-tanks
 LIST OF POLICY MAKERS
1. Malaysia
-Individual (PM)
-Selected Few (Cabinet, Committee / Councils) Examples: National Economic Action
Council)
Ahmad Atory Husain (2000) & INTAN publications

2. USA
-President
-Government agencies Presidential organizations – presidential commissions, budget
committees  Legislators – members of Congress  Interest groups Anderson (2015)
2.1) Policy Legitimation
The policy legitimation is through political actions by parties,
interest groups, the president and congress (Dye, 1992)
 The relationship between the executive and legislature is central to understanding
the decision making at this stage. However, this relationship changes substantially
from one country to another (Knill and Tosun, 2012)
POLICY LEGITIMATION IN MALAYSIAN CONTEXT
At Cabinet level – executive process, it require support / consent / persuasion and
justifications
At Parliamentary – legislative process, it require numerical majority.
Prime Ministers decision making – announcement process, it require command and
support
EXECUTIVE PROCESS
✓ Once policy decision is made, the concerned Minister will prepare the policy
recommendation bill to submit to the Cabinet for approval

✓ At this stage - The Minister concerned is required to refer and discuss with the Jab Peguam
Negara (Attorney General Office), Treasury, and the relevant ministries

✓ Once the respective agencies approved, then the Attorney General Office will draft the bill
and submit to the Cabinet for approval (for adoption)
Cabinet meeting for policy approval:
Cabinet will consider policy recommendation base on the Guideline for
preparing the Cabinet Paper and Implementation of the Cabinet Decision to
justify relevant bill in order to adopt the preferred policy recommendation

The Cabinet members will consider the justifications / feedbacks from the
various relevant central agencies/councils to make decision – to agree /
disagree with them

Assuming Cabinet agreed, notice will be send to the Council of Parliament

Secretary for Legislative Process for adoption

LEGISLATIVE PROCESS
✓ Assuming the Secretary of Parliament Council has received the notification,
the draft of a bill will be printed and distributed to every Parliament members
to prepare for the reading processes in the Parliament
THE READING
PROCESS

THE READING
PROCESS &
ADOPTION
ANNOUNCEMENT PROCESS:(PM DECISION)
President / PM (Malaysia) may adopt a policy base on constitutional power granted
to him as head of state / government
In Malaysia, PM adopted a policy for the following justifications:
Nation building
Development (social, economy, defense)
Restructuring of wealth

POLICY IMPLEMENTATION
Policy implementation is the stage un the policy-making process where a policy is
put into effect by the responsible bureaucracies. It is a stage with a connection
between policy makers and policy addressees, mediated by the implementers.

Policy implementation involves the transformation of a policy output into policy

outcome. The attainment of the intended policy outcome is a necessary condition
for bringing about the desired policy impact. (Knill and Tosun, 2012)
The implementation or administration of the policy is what referred to as “what
happens after a bill becomes law”. It is the implementation of policy that
encompasses whatever is done to carry a law into affect, to apply it to the target
population and to achieve its goals. The study of policy implementation is
concerned with the agencies and officials involved, the procedures the follow and
the techniques (or tools) they employ, and the political support and opposition that
they encounter.
It focuses attention on the day-to-day operation of government (Anderson, 2015)

The implementation of policies will be done through organised bureaucracies,

public expenditures and the activities of executive agencies (Dye, 1992)

Policy implementation is primarily carried out by bureaucratic actors. These can be

ministries or autonomous agencies located at the central or the local level (Knill and
Tosun, 2012). Unlike Anderson (2015), he listed the policy implementor in the case
of USA are; the president, the legislature, the courts, pressure groups, and
community organisations.
 POLICY EVALUATION
The evaluation of policies will be carried out by the government agencies
themselves, outside consultants, the press and the public (Dye, 1992)

Policy evaluation is learning about the consequences of public policy

It is about “the assessment of the overall effectiveness of a national

program in meeting its objectives, or assessments of the relative
effectiveness of two or more programs in meeting common objectives”
(Dye, 1992)
Policy evaluation will focus on the “policy goals” and the “policy impacts”

The “policy goals” will consider the policy objectives/aims that they are
meant to achieve
 The “policy impacts” will consider the effects on real world conditions which
includes:
✓ Impacts on the target situation of group
✓ Impact on situations or groups other than the target (‘spillover effects”)
✓ Impact on future as well as immediate conditions
✓ Direct costs, in terms of resources devoted to the program
✓ Indirect costs, including loss of opportunities to do other things

All the benefits and costs both immediate and future must be measured in terms of
both symbolic and tangible effects

How the government agencies evaluate the effectiveness of their own programs? It
is through the followings:
✓ Hearing and reports
✓ ✓
Site visits Program measures
✓ Comparison with professional standards
✓ Evaluation of citizen complaints (Dye, 1992)
 POLICY CHANGE
Policy change means:
✓ The policy change in terms of the changing preferences and beliefs of the actors
involved
✓ Institutional change
✓ In policy change, it focuses more to policy expansion rather than policy reduction
(Knill and Tosun, 2012)
POLICY CHANGE
The evaluation and appraisal of a policy, dissatisfaction with its policy costs and
consequences and the development and expansion of political opposition may
produce variety of responses to it, including policy termination

Policies are only one set of targets for termination

With the policy termination, the agency involved in the policy implementation may
either abolished and the programs also may mean it was shifted elsewhere
(Anderson, 2015)
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, public policy process is important in designing a public
policy that suitable for the society. Each cycle of public policy making
process need to be fulfilled to ensure the public policy are
measurable, effective and efficient. The public policy will reflect the
government, thus it must be formulate by considering the whole
aspect that is necessary to be considered.

SUGGESTED TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Question 1: Elaborate on the cycle of public policy making
process (25 marks)