Policy Making Process

Public Policy creation is a process which involves following steps.

1. Identification of problem and demand for government action:

Government in political system is meant to care for all the aspects concerning the life of the
individuals. Any issue is obligatory on the part of the government to do maximum for its
inhabitants. The problems amounting to tension, anxiety and disturbance to the people and for
which they want such measures from the government in the shape of policy can be broadly known
as policy problems.

However, only those issues on which people want some action in the form of policy are considered
policy problems. Here are sometimes private problem takes the form of public problem. There are
three types of problem such as Distributive, Redustributive and Regulatory. Public oponion is the
beliefs and attitude of people on an issue. It may becomes problem.

2. Formulation of policy proposal of various parties ( legislative groups, Courts, Executive and
Bureaucracy, think tank, interest groups):

The policy issues and problems which would find place on the policy agenda are known as policy
proposals on which the action would be taken for translating the same into public policies meant
to attain some goals or to accomplish some tasks. However, it does not necessarily mean that
whatever the proposals are, all are going to be converted into policies .

The policy proposal influences by-Legislature (committees, integral part, power, exercise by
Legislature regarding policy formulation/making. Legislature is policy making institution. It
discuss and debate policy issue and problem. It linked between the government and and
public/citizens.Executive and Bureaucracy dominate on policy and forward policy proposal due to
its power, it has information and sources, it has fiscal resources. Courts settle policy issues,
basically, through judicial review. Think tanks /academician contributes on policy through
research. Interest groups , the representatives from concern problems raises their voices.

3. Selection and enactment of policy ( policy legalization):

The problems translated into public policy, policy is selection of best option from various options.
There are various governmental actors and agencies involved, of cource, non governmental actors
and encies are also in the picture though cmparatively less significantly. However, there are key
three organs those occupy a prominent place in the policy selection. These are Legislature,
Executive and Bureaucracy.

4. Evaluation of policy

Before implementation the Evaluation occurred. Is it problem solving, is it ethical, is it practical

etc.

• The process as described is made simple and linear approach.

 • However, in reality, it is more complex. And requires multi-disciplinary approach

Who are involved?

• Policy formulation involves multiple actors in the process

• It is again complex process.

Policy Process: Abstract

• Policy process aims at determining what process and means are used and tries to explain
the roles and influences of stakeholders with the policy process enhancing public
participation and consultation

• Solution to the problem may be identified.

Policy Process with Rational decision-making process

• Development of Public administration

– Scientific management approach ( efficiency and economy F. Taylor, 2011)

– Legal institutional approach ( L D White and Willoughby)

– Socio-psychological approach

– Administration as decision making approach ( H. Simon)

Steps of Policy Process

1. Intelligence gathering ( data and potential problems and opportunities identified,
collected and analyzed

2 identifying problems

3 Assessing the consequences of all options

4 Relating consequences to values ( with all decisions and policies , there will be a set of values
which will be more relevant economic feasibility or environmental protection). Performance will be
expressed on the basis of these values

5. Choosing the preferred option

Patton . C and Sawicki.D (1986) Basic Methods of P Analysis

and Planning
Patton and et.al. summarize the policy making process as follows:
1.Defining the problem by analysing the data and information gathered

2.Identifying the decision and criteria that will be important in solving the problem ( take into
consideration all revant factors)

3 A list of possible alternatives must be generated

4. A critical analysis and evaluation of each criteria brought through the strength and
weakness table of each alternative. ( SWOT Exercise) and undertake comparative analysis.

5.the decision makers examine these alternatives in order to prepare priority in decision-making.

6 Decision makers evaluate each alternative against the criteria to select the preferred
alternative

7.Thus, the policy is brought through.

Dye.Thomos R. (2007). Understanding Public Policy ( 12

edition)
Dye suggests following five steps as process of policy making:

1. Defining the problem

2 Determine the evaluation criteria

3 Identifying alternative policies

4 Evaluating alternative policies

5 Select the preferred policy.

Cycle of Public Policy Formulation I

 Initiation Technical
1 evaluation2

Government Consultati
Approval 5 on 3

Refineme
nt4

Debate
Bill in
and
Legislat
Discussi
ure 6
on7

Revisin
g and Enactm
Updati ent8
ng 10
Implem
entatio
n9
Activities and Actors or Components
Activity Actors

Initiation Administrative/ Think Tank

Technical evaluation Technical group

Consultation Stakeholders/Pressure groups,Press/ Public op

Refinement Administration

Government Approval Decision by the cabinet

Bill submitted in the legislature Government/ Administration

Debate and discussion Legislature

Enactment Legislature

Implementation Administration

Revising and updating Administration/ Technical group

Consultation Stakeholders/ others

The process thus continues to improve the policy

Policy Problems
There are several problems in a given environment, Those that move people to action become policy
problem.

A problem can be formally defined as a condition or situation that produces a human need, depriration
or dissatisfaction self identified or identified by others, for which relief is sought.

Policy problems are unrealised needs, values or oppurtunities for improvement that may be pursued
through public action.
Problem definition is related to, but different from agenda setting. Problem definition is concerned with
the organisation of set of facts, beliefs and perceptions-how people think about circumstances.

Problem definition is the central component of policy making process. The problem may not be
understood in the same manner by it policy makers, issue stakeholders and the public.

Problems are not given. They are cosntructed by human beings in their attempt to make sense of
complex and troubling situations. Developing appropriate solutions to policy problems depend upon the
way a problem is defined.

Hence, perceptions structuring the scope, urgency, severity and origin of a problem may vary and this
can have effect on the range of prefered alternative soultions.

Different human perspectives result in differing aknowledgement of the existence of the problem. There
is the posibility of multiple problem definition.

FEATURES

1. Interdepence of Policy problems

 Are interdependant
 Problems pertaining to one area usually affect problems in other areas. E.g. health,
education and employment.
 System of interdependent problems requires a holistic approach.
 System of interdependent problems cannot generally be solved by an analytical approach
that seperates problems into component parts.

2. subjectivity of policy problems

 The possibility of problems being objective, for instance, air pollution in-terms of levels of
gases particles on the atmosphere does exist but this particular data can also be differently
interpreted to repsent the problem.
 The external conditions that contribute to a problem are selectively defined, explained and
evaluated.
 Result of judgement on environment (subjective, human judgement)

3. social construction of problems

People decide what is or is not a problem by the way they react to things. Human beings create or
construct problems whicy they give a particular meaning to potentally trublesome conditions. They are
constructed by human beings in their attempt to make sence of complex and troubling situation.

Problems are ambigious situations that can be viewed in different ways by different people. They are
sujective interpretations. It is the process of calling attention to a troubling condition, not the condition
itself that makes something a problem.
Once a potential problems is notices, it must be interpreted as brothersome e.g drinking and acting out
of control. Some consider it quite normal, others consider it crime or mental illness. Each of these
constructs a different type of problem out of this ambigious situation. Each carries corresponding claims
regarding causes and solutions.

The degree to which a social problem is perceived as problematic as well as the kind of problem it is
understood to be, is a function of social interaction. Social problems are not immediately obvious/clear
but need to be interpreted and presented to us. Some problems can receive a disproportionate publci
outrage contributing to their social construction as public problems.

In mirdern era, contests over difining the meaning of problems have been increasingly shpaed by the
influences of interest groups scholar, media, think-tanks etc.

Advocacy groups have always attempted to further their interpretation of problems through public
discourse (prolbems arise when advocacy groups advance claims that generate public concern).

Similar conditions do not necessarily produce similar problems because it is the collective defination of
the condition as 'troublesome' that construct a problem.
Problems can be considered as 'interpretations'- there is need to consider a range of interpretations
before pursuing a course of action.

Policy problems emerge as a result of judegment of human beings about the desirability of changing
some situation. They are the product of subjective human judgements.

The basic idea is to focus on the ways in which individuals and groups participate in their construction of
perceived reality. (Social constructed reality in produced by peole creating on their own
interpreatations). Social construction of the problme is linked to the existing structure/circumstances-
political, social and ideological.

With different values/cultural differences, the problems are likely to be constructed differently.

4. Dynamics of policy problems

 A given problem may have several alternative solutions and so do definitions.

 Problems and solutions are in constant flux (BAHAB)
 Solutions to problems become absolete even if problems do not.

Framework of Policy Definition (Anatomy of problem description)

1. Problem causation: description of the cause of a problem. (origin of a problem could be

defined as accidental, intentional, rhetoric, simple and complex)
2. Nature of the problem: (Crucila as it affects action/solutions) Problem attributes cover:
severity, incidence, novelty, crisis.
3. Characteritics of problem population: affected individuals and groups
 4. Ends- means orientation in defining problem
5. Nature of solution
Solution- governmental intervention plus enforcement with support from others.
Afforadeable or not.

Policy Issues
 Contending views of the nature of problems
 Dusagreenebt aviyt tge actyak ir oitebtuak cource of action.
 In a policy perspective, issues arise from 'contending' definitions of policy problems by different
groups.

Different stakeholders have/carry different assumptions about the problem situation or policy
environment.

Different formulation of policy problems affect the way policy issues are defined--- Addresing an
issues-_ how a problem defined.

Consensus on problems does not necessarily mean agreement on its causes, nature, scope or even
solutions. Differing conceptions of problems held by different groups result in what we usually call
'issue'.

'Issue' covers not only problems, but also opptrunuties and trends.

Issue difinition

 The process by which an issue (problem, opportunity or trend) baving been recognised as
such and palced in the policy agenda,
 Is perceived by various interested parties, further explored articulated and possibly
quantified and,
 In some cases given authoritative or at lease provisionally accepted in terms of causes,
competents and consequences.
 An issue is not an event.

But issue contains a series of related events.

 All social problems are not issues. Alcohol abuse for example can be seen as private misfortune,
not an issue. So issues are not objectively defined.
 An issue is a social problem, often conflictual that have received media coverage. But an issue
like child abuse has no conflict- there is no conflict as nobody is in favour of child abuse. This
issue is called boilence issue only one side of debate is legitimate. Similarly, it may not have
indespread media coverage. Conflict is wholly an issue even for violence issue.
Examples

Homelessness ----------------------Sleeping on the streets (Issue)

(Problem)

Ageing population----------------Extension of old age houses increase in old age security measures (Issues)

(Problem)

Climate change (Problem)--------------------------Industrial waste management control of environmental

degratation conservation of resources population grouth/migration control (Issue)

Classification
Distributive policy issues (Distribution of new resources),

Redistrinutive policy issues (Changing the distrinution of existing resources)

Regulatory Policy Issues (Reuglation and control of activities)

Constituent Policy Issues (Setting up or reorganisation of institutions)

 Major issues (encountered at the highest levels of government-federal, state, and local levels)
 Concerned with the question of agency's mission- the nature and purposes of governmental
organisation.
 Secondary issues (exist at the level of agency programmes-federal, state and local levels)
 Concerned with setting of programme priorities, definition of target groups and beneficiaries
e.g define poverty families.
 Functional issues (exist both at programme and project levels)
 Concerned with questions relating to budgeting, finance procurement
 Monor issues (at the level of specific projects)
 Concerned with staffing, imployee benefits, working hours, rules, standard operating
procedures, vacation times.

An adgeda is usually understood as a list of items that receive prirority for action.

Somposite of ieeuse and problems whcih are seriously considered and chosen by the government. Policy
agenda means items receiving active and serious consideration by important policy makers.

List of subjects or problems to which people inside and outside government are paying serious attention
at any given time.

An agenda is a collection of problems, understanding of courses, and solutions that come to the
attention of member of the public and their government officials.
An agenda may be concrete as a list of bill that are before a legislature, but it also includes a series of
beliefs about the existence and magnitute of problems and how they should be addressed by the
government, private sector, non profit organisations or through joint action by some or all of these
agencies.

Agenda setting, a crucial phase of policy making, is concerned with the recognition of problems/issues
for action, facilitates our understanding about he pattern of demands put by individuals and groups in
society.

Agenda Universe

(All ideas that could be discussed in a society or a political system)

Systematic Agenda

Institutional Agenda

Decision Agenda

Groups both attempt to prevent issues or advance issues to decision agends

Levels of Agenda
Attention to an issue by media, members of public and policy makers constitutes power by
individuals/groups to influence decision process.

Media Public Agenda Policy Agenda

(Three components of agends setting process)

(Mass-Communication approach)
A systematic agenda exists at every national, state and local levels. For instance, items like crime control
or law and order maintenance may appear on more than one systematic agenda whereas improvement
of diplomatic ties with foreign governments may appear only at national level.

Systematic Agenda

Consists of all issues that are commonly perceived by the members of the policy community as
meriteing public attention and as involving matters within the legitimate jurisdiction of existing
governmental authority.

The systematic agenda is eventually a discussion agenda, a macro agenda and covers the widest range
of potential issues that might be considered and choosen by the government to include on the agenda.

Institutional agenda

Those problems and issues which receive serious and active consideration from decision makers.

They are more concrete or more specifie. A micro agenda and covers issues that are already considered
by decision makers (familiar to decision makers)

Agenda setting is a process by which problems and alternative solutions gain or lose public/policy
makers' attention.

Agenda setting refers to the process by which some problems come to public attention at given times
and places. Defining a problem is not enough, the public and policy makers must recognise it as a
problem, and it must get high attention on the agenda that action becomes likely, so search for
solutions or policy formulation begins.

Actors & Institutions

There is two actors/institutions that plays role on public policy making.

1. Governmental g
2. Non-governmental

Task and responsibility state and non-state actors.

State agencies/Institutions are:

A. Legislature

It is a policy making institution. Institutions are for discussing and debating policy issues and
problems with the view to address them and legislature serves as a link between the government
and the governed public/citizens. Specifically, it performs the following functions:
 It is law making body as a law making body legislature perform the function of making
the law. As a law making body, it makes law, modifying or replace the law.
 Scruting of the executive. Scrutinism to examine the the action of executive branch. It is
a mechanism to examine the significance of action and inaction of government
executives.
 Investigating function: A legislature can investigate those policy issues which are of
public importance or national importance.
 Supervisory of oversight function: it is also concern with monitoring the bureaucracy and
it's administration of policy.
The objective is to ensure that public agencies are: following the set or determining goals.
meeting their set standards and that public fund are being used to meet the objectives or
goals.
 Raisin the issue of national and international importance. It functions to discuss and
debate policy issue of national and international importance. It performs to provide
source of importance or the people. It performs the voters; the voters are politically
informed.
 In additional, legislature has important role in the process of changing the constitutions.

Committees:

Committees are mportant mechanism for the conduct of affairs of legislature. Much of the
work of contemporary legislature is performed by committees.

Committees

Integral part

Power
 Exercise by Legislature

Regarding policy making & legislature (law making)

Committees help the legislature/members of the legislature to acquire specific knowledge on

policy areas.

B. Executive and Bureaucracy

The role of executive branch of government is usually assumed by two sets of people.i.e.
executive and bureaucracy.

Executive Bureaucracy

High level of ministers/politicians Who provide leadership to the

executive branch and permanent paid
officials known as bureaucrats,
administrator, civil servants

Executive Dominance:

There is executive dominance of policy. There is executive dominance of legislature on policy

which limits the role of legislature in
policy making. There are certain
reasons.

 Greater concentration of power in the executive which makes it possible to play an

important role in policy formulation particularly in developing countries. Executives
enjoy certain prerogatives (special rights).
 Major policy issues are not initiated by the executives but also its majority in the
legislature. It helps to get support and approval for policies. There are resources that
support executives in policy making. Executives has control over information and it has
greater source of information and it can withheld, manipulate, release information in such
a way that help to get support for its preferences.
 The executives have control over fiscal resources. In other words, the approval of
legislature of the budget usually greater areas of discretion for the government or
executive.
  The executives have greater access to mass which is important in publishing it's policy
stand/position to the society.
 Executives have the bureaucracy at its disposal which supports to provide advice on
policy matter and carry out the preferences set by the executives.
 Finally, the executives can also use resources to influence upon policy making mass
media and think-tanks to get support for the policy preferences.
Now, politicians and executives administrative arms of the government cannot be
consider in isolations for the development of policies. Hence, administrative policies are
also concern with policy making. They are not as once thought as only the
implementaters of policy. Provision of advice to the political executives by the
bureaucrats. Therefore, role of bureaucracy not only involve providing advice but also
what we call influence over policy making. Sometimes, bureaucrats exert greater degree
of policy making.
Policy officials may perform the function of law- law making through-delegated
legislation.

Delegated legislation is also called secondary legislation. It refers to law made by public officials
under the power granted by a legislative (or primary legislation).

A broad framework established by legislature and detailed regulations are developed by the
public officials legislature lack information expensive of technical knowledge about policy
matters. There are also many complexities of policy matters. Executives administartive
knowledge, permanent, they also have expertise on policy matters, access on information, and
closeness to political power. These factors help to exert influence in policy making. Bureaucracy
autonomy from politicians and society/groups helps to strengthen effective policy making.

 Capacity & commitment of political executive is also important factor, particularly to

judge the correctness of the advice given by bureaucrats, avoid the influence in policy
making and to adopt effective policies.
 Finally, the working environment is also essential factor. The favorable motivating
environment is also important in policy making.

C. Courts (judiciaryconsists of courts)

 Basically, the role of court is to adjudicate the dispute between two parties (civil,
criminal, administrative or constitutional) areheard in the court.
 The role of the courts to settle policy issues, basically, judicial review, (the power of the
court to review statutes and actions and inactions of legislature and executives; the
purpose is to confirm whether the actions and inactions are according to the principles of
the laws of the constitutions)
  The review affects the content of the policy and accordingly the policy making follows to
include the legitimate actions and inactions.
 The actions and inactions of legislature or executive are subject to invalidation by the
courts.
 The courts are also responsible for interpreting and deciding statutory provisions that
carry conflicting interpretation.
 The next role of court is judicial activitism. The court also creates law or establish new
rule that applies to policy issues.

Decisions of the courts are the basic to guide future policy climate/policy environment. The
courts specify what governments cannot do, what it must do to meet constitutional or legal
obligation.

Courts help to shape policy (vision and direction) in the form of law or help to match the
actions and inactions with the legal provisions.

Non-State

1. Political parties: Represents citizens as people's representatives. Act as elected officials

and law makers. Got executive power. Powerful control over policy raise policy issues
presents policy options.
2. Interest groups: the representatives from concern problems raises their voices.
3. Individuals/the public or individuals or citizens: As voters they have control on public
policy throught their representatives.
4. Mass media

Media acts as a crucial link between citizens and government. Media helps the citizen to learn to
know about what sorts of policy and how such policies affect them. Media helps the government
to receive feedback on policies and programs taken by the government. Media facilitates public
understanding of the views of the government policy. This helps citizens to form/to take their
opinions on policies or actions/inactions.

 The citizen's understanding and perception of problems and alternatives are influenced
by the media or how the media presents the issues(the way it is presented by media).
 Media also can help to get support for and present policies because it can critically
scrutinize the public affairs or government. Sometimes, media may be more interested on
some problems and issues (the attraction of media to such issues) result in the wide
coverage and presentation of such issues. This helps the issues to find a place in policy
agenda. (i.e. media plays as important role in the establishment of agenda). Media may
be biased both in the presentation of governmeno get policy to citizens and views of the
citizens to policymakers or government. Policy makers may even use media for their
own advantage (or use media to get support for their issues).
  Finally, media also help to shape the overall social context/environment in which policies
are made. The policy making environment is influenced by the media.

5. Think Tanks (research institutions conduct researches)

Academics Link Link Policy makers

-Independent institutions which carry out policy oriented research studies to provide policy
relevant knowledge/policy ideas

-It represent as institutions or group engaged in research and advocacy in the field of public
policy.

- Its basic idea is to link the academic world with policy makers.

- Think tanks are basically non-profit organizations financed by governments, advocacy

groups or individuals.

- Some think tanks are partism.

- Basically, it is termed as civil society organization. (they are basically civil society).

There are number of roles of think tanks as civil society organization. These are:

-Think tanks play a mediating function between governments and citizens or public.

-Think tanks indentify, articulate and assess/evaluate present and emerging problems and issues
including proposals (policy).

- Help to transform/change policy ideas and problems into issues.

-Think tanks serve as independent and informed voice/say in policy debate (for and against the
policy).

-Think tanks provide a constructive forum for the exchange of ideas and information between
stakeholders in the policy making process.

Functions:

-The primary function of the think tanks is to help government and make informed choice about
the issue of national and international concern.

- Think tanks facilitate citizen's understanding of domestic or international policy issues.

- Think tanks interpret issues and problems for media and thus help issue to find placing agenda.

Relation:
 - Think tanks utilize method of policy analysis in defining problems, recommending
options, and understanding process including policy evaluation/consequences.
- Think tanks also play an important role inall the phases of policy cycle from problem and
agenda setting to assessment of the impact of the policy.

Specificality:

Specifically think tanks are concerned with creating and developing new
policies, modifying the existing policy and informing and advocating citizens about policy and
programs.

Trends:

Conclusion: (trends with regard the functioning influence of think tanks)

There are the considerations to be taken by think tanks:

- Increasing complexity of policy debates (these debates are evolved due to experience and
principles).
- Trans-border nature (cross-cultural) of many contemporary policy problems and issues
(ICT, globalization, competition are crucial factors).
- Networking of thinks tanks (certain degree of exposure and influence)
- Increasing competition for funding of think tanks.
- Need for autonomy of think tanks from government and other societal process like
political parties and institutions.
- Possibility of the result being biased depending upon sponsorship.

Resources
 Well designed policy delivery plan
 Good hands
 Access to information
 Authority
  Money

Factors
There are various actors and factors that influence policy making process. They may constrain
or facilitate in the real world of policy making. The factors are as follows:

Environment factor:

Environmental variables such as economic, social system, history, philosophy, culture, religion.
Morale etc can influence policy making. Likewise, certain norms and values, code of conduct,
ethical considerations have also heavy hand in policymaking process.

Ideological factor:

It is directly associated with politics. Ideological ground of the government such as liberalism;
communism, socialism, nationalism, etc. Have a big role to play in public policy formulation.
Similarly party manifesto and vested interest of certain political party may also have crucial
effect in policy making.

Political leadership:

Ideological and functional strenghts of political leadership also affect the policy making process
as various types leadership have their own views on policy issues. The top leaders generally pay
more attention to the external affairs, defence, and economic affairs sicne they can
demonstrate significant influence on policies that their subordinates.

Administrative policies:

Policies which do not match with the administrative policies can face many contradictions and
difficult to be formulated and implemented. Hence there shcould the proper math up of public
policies with administrative policies, constitution, and laws, to have legitimate effect.

Political parties

They have direct ability to communicate with the policy makers as they carry public support on
various issues. They have popular control over government and policies as they become
organised to take control of the office at any time. Hence, the role of ruling and opposition
party cannot be undermined in policmaking.

Governmental structure:

The structure of the government influences policymaking. The autocratic system puts
substantial restrictions on participatory approach of policy making whereas democratic system
facilitates and demands popular participation in policymaking.

Past and Present polices:

Countries past and the present policies may also affect the policy making to some extent
because it is sometimes very complicated to make a significant departure from the existing
practice.

Administrative Behaviour:

Administrative behaviour heavily affects on policy making as their self-interest such as power,
status, reward and their administrative efficiency may facilitate or hinder policymaking.

Social Character:

It mainly deals with the demands of the people, aspirations, problems and hardships of the
people. The social character of the people also influences policy making as it may encourage
newer demand or satisifes with the existing ones.

Interanationalism and bilateralism:

No country can live in isolation without recognising the international trend of policy issues. So
they are interpedendent and help to each other in solving problems and needs.

Media:

It is the pre-requisite of democracy. It provides channels of information to the citizens and the
government on various crucial and emerging issues. It adheres people's reaction on policies.
However, media shouldn't be biased and should maintain true standard of credibility by
providing right information to the public and the government.

Likewise, information system, peopel participation, expert knowledge, and conflict between
political persone and administration are other factors they effect the policy making process.
 Resources on policy making
– Well designed policy making framework/plan
– Good hands/capability/skill
– Access to information/data
– Authority/given by constitution and laws
– Money/Budget

we must discuss the resources the actors and institutions use. Capacities are action resources, that
consist of the transfer of any good that has a value for the receiver.
There are political, economic, legal resources and cognitive resources those plays role on policy
making.

Political Resources
Political resources are the amount of consensus an actor is able to get. It can refer
to the whole population or to specific social groups involved in the different public
policies. It can be confirmed through elections or referendums, it can be modified
through information and communication campaigns and often suffers from
external events (a particularly ferocious murder alters the consensus to policies to
combat crime). It can derive from countless factors: charisma or personal status of
the policy actor, ideology of who grants it and who receives it, recognition of the
fact that an actor has the intellectual capacities to tackle a policy problem, perception
of the convenience of the proposed options, or simply tradition.
This is a fundamental resource for all public policy decisional processes.
The availability of political resources is essential from the specific point of view
of the policy innovator, the actor who tries to transform in a non-marginal way the
treatment of a collective problem. We can somehow say that all the other resources
are important only if they are able to turn into consensus during the political
exchange, meaning they gather other participants’ agreement as regards the
opportunity to make the decision.

Economic Resources
Economic and financial resources consist of the ability to mobilize money or any
form of wealth in order to modify other actors’ behaviour.
The fact of having money is not a sufficient condition to predict the importance of a specific
actor in a decisional process: the almost unlimited availability of economic resources of a
multinational company does not make it particularly important in a policy process in which
fundamental values or collective identities are at stake.
This is somehow true also as regards the instrumental use of wealth. For sure, if
you have money you can buy useful resources to make innovation proposals better
and more attractive. The possibility to invest a lot of money in the design of a
solution, mobilizing well known and expensive experts, can certainly improve its
quality and consequently its external communication, thus modifying public
opinion. In these cases, the effectiveness of economic resources is only indirect: it
depends on the importance of the other resources that can be acquired.

In fact, sometimes we can obtain the improvement of the quality and or external communication
of projects without a huge amount of resources.
Economic resources are actually important since they can be used directly to
influence the behaviour of the subjects whose agreement is useful to make the
decision possible and effective. They are therefore part of the political exchange.

Legal Resources
With this last example we have approached the theme of legal resources. We
consider legal resources as the advantages or disadvantages, attributed to particular
subjects by legal regulations and in general by legislative and administrative
authority’s decisions.
Examples of legal resources are:
• the fact that according to the law, a certain duty is entrusted to a specific office
(competence principle);
• the fact that certain behaviour is forbidden and violations are sanctioned;
• the fact that any individual has the possibility to challenge in front of a judge a
public authority decision that violates his rights;
• the fact that the sequence of the activities needed to reach a legally valid
decision is strictly predetermined (existence of formal procedures).
Ever since the rule of law was established after the American and French
revolutions of the 18th century, all these situations, as well as many others, have
been considered very important because they contribute to the definition of how
policies are ‘‘made’’ and to determine, as a consequence, the outcomes of many
decisional processes.

• First of all, an actor can decide not to use the legal resources available due to the
simple fact that it is not convenient.
• Secondly, the decision as how to use legal resources also depends on the other
resources participants can use.
• Moreover, as all lawyers know, law is not a set of inflexible rules that bind all
participants’ behaviour.
• Finally, the fact that laws are actors’ resources has another main characteristic:
they can be produced during the policy making process.
To conclude: we spoke enough about this matter as it represents, one of the
most important and peculiar aspects of the public policy analysis, along with a few
more elements (distinction between content-related and process-related goals, that
we already spoke about, and the importance of the content of the decision in
determining the process outcome, that we will see later).
Cognitive Resources
The last type of resources that can be mobilized in decisional processes are cognitive
resources, meaning the availability of important information or conceptual
models for the decisional process.
Knowledge is a required element to make appropriate decisions and this is
implicit in various theorizations about the decisional process.
• Data and information are certainly important resources. Having reliable statistics
on a population or a territory, being able to quantify costs and expected
outputs of a specific technology, or to measure the level of satisfaction of the
beneficiaries of a policy or of the users of a service, are certainly all elements
that can be important in decisional processes.
• However, and this is the second element that forms the set of cognitive
resources, data alone often do not mean much if not interpreted and set in
theories and models that give a sense to numbers. Therefore the availability of
these theories and models is an important resource for the actors which often
means giving alternative explanations of the same set of data. A rise in public
expenditure, or in the inflation rate, have very different meanings in a Keynesian
or monetary approach to economic policies. The fact that there are less
enrolments in university can mean that the labour market is more attractive and
therefore young people have better opportunities, but also that the university
system lost in credibility and/or does not offer attractive courses. Knowledge, in
this second definition, often comes in the form of more or less persuasive
arguments, aimed at organizing information and guiding its interpretation in a
specific direction, that coincides with the interests and goals some actor.
Therefore, in policy making processes cognitive resources will tend to correspond
to the role of the experts that we will talk about in the following
paragraph.
• The third and last knowledge component that we need to highlight is knowledge
about the decisional process itself. The ability to correctly conceptualize the
ways through which it is possible to achieve the modification of a public policy,
by identifying the actors who participate in the interaction and their specific
characteristics, and in general understanding their dynamics and forecasting the
possible outcomes: all these aspects are essential resources for a policy innovator.
This specific type of knowledge is called strategic knowledge.

Factors: influence PMP

 There are various factors that influence policy making process. They may constrain/limit
or facilitate in the real world of policy making. The factors are as follows:
1. Environment factor:
Environmental variables such as economic, social system, history, philosophy,
culture, religion, Morale/drive etc can influence policy making. Likewise, certain norms
and values, code of conduct, ethical considerations have also heavy hand in policy making
process.

2. Ideological factor
It is directly associated with politics. Ideological ground of the government such as
liberalism; communism, socialism, nationalism, etc. have a big role to play in public policy
formulation. Similarly party manifesto and vested interest of certain political party may
also have crucial effect in policy making.
3. Political leadership
Ideological and functional strenghts of political leadership also affect the policy
making process as various types leadership have their own views on policy issues. The top
leaders generally pay more attention to the external affairs, defence, and economic affairs
sicne they can demonstrate significant influence on policies that their subordinates.

4. Administrative policies:
Policies which do not match with the administrative policies can face many contradictions
and difficult to be formulated and implemented. Hence there should the proper math up of
public policies with administrative policies, constitution, and laws, to have legitimate effect.

5. Political parties
They have direct ability to communicate with the policy makers as they carry public
support on various issues. They have popular control over government and policies as they
become organized to take control of the office at any time. Hence, the role of ruling and
opposition party cannot be undermined in policy making.
6. Governmental structure:
The structure of the government influences policymaking. The autocratic system
puts substantial/wider restrictions on participatory approach of policy making whereas
democratic system facilitates and demands popular participation in policymaking.
7. Past and Present polices:
Countries past and the present policies may also affect the policy making to some
extent because it is sometimes very complicated to make a significant departure from the
existing practice.

8. Administrative Behavior:
Administrative behavior heavily affects on policy making as their self-interest such
as power, status, reward and their administrative efficiency may facilitate or hinder
policymaking.
9. Social Character:
 It mainly deals with the demands of the people, aspirations, problems and hardships
of the people. The social character of the people also influences policy making as it may
encourage newer demand or satisifes with the existing ones.
10. Internationalism and bilateralism:
No country can live in isolation without recognizing the international trend of policy
issues. So they are interdependent and help to each other in solving problems and needs.
11. Media
It is the pre-requisite of democracy. It provides channels of information to the citizens and
the government on various crucial and emerging issues. It adheres/holds people's reaction
on policies. However, media shouldn't be biased and should maintain true standard of
credibility by providing right information to the public and the government.
Likewise, information system, people participation, expert knowledge, and conflict between
political person and administration are other factors they effect the policy making process.

Concept of Policy Cycle

Concept of Policy cycle
Problem
Agenda
Structuring
Setting
Policy
Forecasting
Formulation
Policy
Recommen
dation Adoption
Policy
Monitoring
Implementation

Evaluation Policy
Assessment
1

Policy making process

1. Agenda setting

 Elected and appointed officials place problems/issues on public agenda.

 Agenda setting passes through two specific stages:

 I. Emergence of issue/s

II. Issue/s turning into policy agenda

Emergence of an issue: A conflict between two or more identifiable groups over procedural and/or
substantive matters relating to the distribution of positions or resources

 Four means of an issue creation

 1. Re-adjustors: Perceive an unfavorable bias in the distribution of power or resources

E.g. Reservation in public sector

2. Exploiters: Manufacturing an issue for own gain

 People brought into social movements through the skills of leaders and agitators

 Person wanting to take session magnifying the training institution malpractice unnaturally

3. Circumstantial reactors:

Issue initiation through unanticipated event

 Assassination of Kennedy led to the gun control issue

 Assassination of Garfield led to Pendleton Act and demise of spoil system in USA.

4. Do-gooders: Raising issue/s for public interest

 Concerns like public health, environment, employment, educational quality, consumer goods
quality and so forth.

II. Transforming an issue into an agenda

 Issue commonly perceived by members of political community as meriting public attention and
as involving matters within the legitimate jurisdiction of existing governmental authority

 Problems/issues gaining public and elite attention

THREE PRE-REQUISITES

I. Widespread attention or, at least awareness

II. Shared concern of a sizeable portion of public that some type of action is required

III. A shared perception that the matter is an appropriate concern of some governmental unit and
falls within the bounds of its authority

 Thus, three actors:

i. Problems: Problem/issue recognition

 ii. Politics: Consensus built by bargaining than persuasion

iii. Participants:

 President/PM/MPs (visible)

 Academic specialists/career bureaucrats (hidden)

 Non-state actors

2. Policy formulation
I. Officials formulate alternative policies to deal with a problem in the form of policy agenda

II. Alternative policies assume the form of executive orders, court decisions, and legislative acts

III. Policy relevant knowledge about future states of affairs which are likely to occur as a
consequence of adopting alternatives including doing nothing

3. Policy adoption
 Recommendation yields policy relevant knowledge about the benefits and costs of alternatives,
the future consequences of which have been estimated through forecasting

 A policy alternative is adopted with the support of legislative majority, consensus among agency
directors, or a court decision

4. Policy implementation
 An adopted policy carried out by administrative units which mobilize financial and human
resources to comply with the policy

 Involves the creation of policy delivery system in which specific mechanisms are designed and
pursued to achieve the stated policy goals and objectives.

 Monitoring provides policy relevant knowledge on the consequences of implemented policies.

 Helps to assess:

i. Degree of compliance

ii. Discover unintended consequence of policies and programs ( C.S. teams field report of
Terai, time bound promotion of civil servants)

iii. Helps determine if resources and services for beneficiaries reached them

iv. Discover implementational obstacles and constraints

5. Policy assessment
  Who does this?

 Auditing and accounting units in government determine whether executive agencies, legislatures,
and courts are in compliance with statutory requirements of a policy and achieving its objectives

 Social scientists

 Parliamentary committees

 Special commission by head of the government

 Other administrative agencies through PPBS, MBO, Zero Base Budgeting etc

 Public opinion

 Measuring the discrepancies between expected and actual policy performance

 Process of investigating whether and to what extent a program has its desired effect

Policy evaluation criteria:

 Effectiveness: Has a valued outcome achieved?

 Efficiency: How much resource was required to get a valued outcome?

 Adequacy: How much does it solve the problem?

 Equity: Are costs and benefits distributed equitably among various groups?

 Responsiveness: Do policy outcomes satisfy the needs, preferences of particular groups?

 Appropriateness: Are desired outcomes/objectives actually worthy or valuable?

 Timeliness: Are outcomes produced at the right time for the right kind of people?

End