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Etiology, Pathogenesis, Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Management of Bovine

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ANIMAL AND VETERINARY SCIENCES
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REVIEW ARTICLE

Etiology, Pathogenesis, Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Management of Bovine

Mastitis: A Comprehensive Review
Mahendra Pal*, Atinafu Regasa** and Fikru Gizaw**
*
Narayan Consultancy on Veterinary Public Health and Microbiology, Aangan, Jagnath Ganesh Dairy Road,
Anand-388001, Gujarat, India.
**
College of Veterinary Medicine, Samara University, Samara, Ethiopia.

Abstract
Mastitis, an inflammation of mammary gland, is the most
devastating disease of dairy animals because of huge economic losses.
Globally, the financial losses attributed due to mastitis is estimated US
Dollar 53 billion. Disease is occurring throughout the world, and is
caused by various microbes, which include bacteria, viruses, actinomycetes,
fungi, mycoplasmas, and algae. Some of the food-borne pathogens, such as
Campylobacter jejuni, Eshcherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes are also
implicated in the etiology of mastitis. The c a u s a t i v e agents may vary
from place to place depending on climate, animal species, and animal
husbandry practices. The main transmission route through which these
pathogens get access to the mammary gland, is the teat canal. In general,
*
Corresponding Author: the pathogens are classified into major and minor. Based on the direction
of transmission of these causative agents, mastitis can be viewed from two
Mahendra Pal major angles: contagious and environmental mastitis. In addition, clinical
manifestations are other criteria to classify the disease as clinical and
Email: palmahendra2@gmail subclinical mastitis. Epidemiological factors including host factors, agent
factors and managemental factors contribute for the occurrence of the
Received: 05/09/2019 disease. Conventional diagnostic tests for mastitis include California
Accepted: 12/10/2019 mastitis test (CMT) and somatic cell count. The advent of polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) technology along with its various versions like
multiplex and real time PCR has improved the rapidity and sensitivity of
diagnosis. Acute phase proteins, haptoglobin and serum amyloid A, are
also potential candidates for monitoring mastitis. Prevention is better than
cure is the phrase that perfectly defines the condition mastitis, as there are
many alterations, which include damage to udder alveoli, mesenchyma, teat
canal, teat itself that cannot be cured flawlessly. Good hygienic practices
and better animal husbandry system of handling dairy animals can reduce
the chances of mastitis. It is imperative that mastitis control should be made
as the integral part of herd health programme in the dairy herds. In order to
avoid the problem of resistance with the prevailing antibiotics, there is a
need to undertake research on the efficacy of herbal drugs to treat mastitis
in dairy animals.

Keywords: Bacterial pathogens, Cattle, California Mastitis Test,

Economic losses, Fungi, Good hygienic practice, Somatic cell count,
Udder.
1. Introduction financial loss of US Dollar 33 billion (Pal, 2018).
Mastitis is a global health problem of dairy Mastitis is a complex and multi-factorial disease, and
animals, such as cows, buffaloes, goats, camel, the occurrence depends on variables related to the
and sheep; and occurs in sporadic and epidemic animal, pathogen, and environment (Radostits et al.,
forms resulting into profound economic losses to 2007). Disease is characterized by physical, chemical,
dairy industry (Pal, 1979; Pal, 1997; Pal, 2015; Pal, and usually bacteriological changes in milk, and
2018). Globally, mastitis is responsible to a great pathological changes in glandular tissue (Radostits et

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al., 2007). Mastitis is an important disease that results animal should be milked last; and this milk should be
into reduced milk production (Biffa et al., 2005; Pal, discarded and the equipment should be thoroughly
2018), and it is among the most important diseases in cleaned before application. Further, the milk collected
dairy animals with worldwide distribution (Zhao and from dairy animals during antibiotic treatment and for
Lacasse, 2006; Pal, 2018). Mastitis is a multi- 96 hours after the last therapy must not be used for
etiological complex disease, which is caused by over food (Pal, 2018).
150 species of organisms (Watts, 1988; Kuang et al., There are two prevalent forms of mastitis in
2009). A wide variety of microbes, which include terms of level of severity; clinical, and subclinical.
bacteria (Aerobacter aerogenese, Campylobacter Clinical form of mastitis shows visible symptoms
jejuni, Cornybacterium bovis, Enterobacter aerogenes, whereas sub-clinical form does not show any visible
Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Listeria symptoms. Clinical mastitis is a major problem to a
monocytogenes, Mannheimia haemolytica, dairy farmer but can be managed by prompt therapy.
Mycobacterium bovis, Pasteurella multocida, On the other hand, sub-clinical mastitis cannot be
Pseudomonas aerogenese, Serratia marcescens, identified without a laboratory or field test, mostly
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, remains unnoticed by the farmer. The most frequently
Streptococcus pyogenese, Str. dysgalactiae, Str. used diagnostic methods are California mastitis test,
pyogenese Str. uberis, Str. zooepidemicus, Trueperalla somatic cell counting (SCC) and bacteriological
pyogenese etc.), actinomycetes (Nocardia asteroides), culturing of milk (Zadoks and Schukken, 2006).
fungi (Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans, Currently, methods such as measurement of N-acetyl-
Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Candida b-D-glucosaminidase (NAG-ase), lactate
albicans, Candida tropicalis, Candida guillermondii, dehydrogenase (LDH), electrical conductivity (EC),
Candida krusei, Candida parapsilosis, Cryptococcus and molecular tools (polymerase chain reaction) are
neoformans, Debarryomyces hansenlii, Geotrichum used less frequently (Zadoks and Schukken, 2006).
candidum, Pichia farinose, Rhodotorula glutinis, From the types of mastitis, subclinical mastitis is
Saccharomyces fragillis and Trichosporon beigelii), economically the most important one due to its long
Mycoplasma spp., viruses, and algae (Prototheca spp.) term effects on milk yields (Zafalon et al., 2007).
are implicated in the etiology of mastitis of dairy Many organisms associated with mastitis also have
animals (Pal, 1979; Pal and Mehrotra, 1983; Watts, zoonotic importance, and can cause diseases like
1988; Gudmundson and Chirino-Trejo, 1993; Jensen et brucellosis, campylobacteriosis, coxillosis, listeriosis,
al., 1996; Pal, 1997; Pal and Lee, 1997; Wellenberg et tuberculosis etc. in human beings (Pal, 2007; Sharif et
al., 2002; Quinn et al., 2006; Kulkarni and Kaliwal, al., 2009).
2013; Pal, 2015; Pal et al., 2017; Pal, 2018). Among The prevalence reports o n m a s titi s were
bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus is an emergent prime heterogeneous, and were affected by several factors
causative agent of clinical and sub-clinical mastitis in including locality, breed, management, and diagnostic
India (Pal, 2018). Similarly, among fungi, Candida methods used. Accordingly, the prevalence for all
spp. is the predominant cause of mycotic mastitis in types of mastitis (i.e., without considering the
dairy animals (Watts, 1988; Pal, 2018). In Europe, the classifications) ranged from 0.4% to 81.1%. Studies
prevalence of fungal mastitis in cows is 1 to 10% on prevalence of bovine mastitis in Ethiopia were
(Lassa and Smulski, 2013). Researchers reported that usually made through physical clinical examination of
Arcanobacterium pyogense, coliforms, fungi, algae, the udder in cases of clinical mastitis and through the
and Corynebacterium spp. were responsible for 31.0%, use of one of the cow side tests for sub-clinical cases.
16.4%, 3.3%, 0.9% and 0.8%, respectively (Lassa and The most commonly used cow side test in the
Smulski, 2013). publications reviewed was California Mastitis Test
Mastitis is the most widely prevalent and (CMT), followed by indicator paper test (Umer et al.,
expensive disease of dairy animals, and poses a great 2015). The main objective of this comprehensive
challenge to its control. In this context, Pal (2018) has review is focused on the etiology, pathogenesis, risk
mentioned that treatment and control of mastitis still factors, diagnosis, treatment, and economic impact
acknowledged one of the major costs to the dairy besides prevention and control of mastitis in dairy
industry in the world. A large number of predisposing animals with particular reference to cows.
factors, which include breed, age of animal, stage of
lactation, udder hygiene, animal husbandry practices, 2. Bovine Mastitis
milker’s hand, quality of water, incomplete milking,
sanitation in animal shed, and awareness of dairy 2.1 Definition
farmers are responsible for the incidence and spread of Mastitis is defined as an inflammation of the
mastitis (Pal, 2018). It is advised the antibiotic treated mammary gland that can be caused by physical or

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chemical agents but the majority of the causes are first calving, in heifers (Radostits et al., 2007). The
infectious, and usually caused by bacteria that invade cows confined in sheds have a greater risk to
the udder, multiply, and produce toxins that are environmental mastitis as compared to cows, which are
harmful to the mammary gland (Radostits et al., 2007). sent for grazing on pasture. Further, bedding materials
serve as an important source for environmental
2.2 Types of Mastitis microbes. It is reported that infection with
According to mode of transmission of environmental bacteria, such as Enterobacter,
pathogens, mastitis can be categorized into Klebsiella and Streptococcus is more frequently
contagious, and environmental mastitis (Radostits et observed during early stage of dry period. On the other
al., 2007). hand, E. coli infections tend to occur immediately
before and after calving. It is thus very important for
2.2.1 Contagious Mastitis both far-off and close-up dry cows to be kept in lots
Among infectious agents, bacterial pathogens with dry clean bedding to minimize the risk of new
are major threat to mammary gland of dairy cattle. infections (Smith and Hogan, 1995). Environmental
These microorganisms are often contagious, widely mastitis is caused by potential pathogens found
distributed in the environment of dairy animals and generally in the digestive tract of cattle or its
thus increase the prevalence rate of surroundings. It has previously constituted less than
intramammary infections (Sharif and Muhammed, 10% of total mastitis cases but, more recently, there
2009). The sources of contagious mastitis are infected has been an increase in the incidence of
cows and transmission is from cow to cow, mainly at environmental mastitis (Jones, 2006). Some organisms
milking time through milking equipment, the such as E. coli do not normally live on the skin or
milker’s hands, and contaminated wash cloths. The in the udder but they enter the teat canal when the
principal contagious pathogens are Streptococcus cow comes in contact with the environment, which is
agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium highly contaminated. The pathogens are generally
bovis, and Mycoplasma spp. Among these, S. aureus, found in the feces, bedding materials, and feed. The
is currently the most frequently isolated contagious pathogens in the contaminated environment get the
pathogen both in subclinical and chronic bovine earliest opportunity to invade the udder when the teat
mastitis worldwide (Zecconi, 2006). Incidence of orifice is open at or soon after milking or after teat
contagious mastitis depends on the dose and type of damage. These environmental pathogens are, thus,
microbes to which a cow is exposed as well as physical described as opportunistic invaders of the mammary
barriers, and the innate and acquired defense gland. It is noted that environmental mastitis cases are
mechanisms. Among the bacteria, Staphylococcus only about 10% of the total mastitis cases in the herds
aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Streptococcus (Jones, 2006). It is mentioned that Escherichia coli,
dysagalactiae have been recognized as the main Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumonia,
causes of bovine contagious mastitis (Blowery a n d Serratia marcescens, Streptococcus uberis, and
E d m o n d s o n , 2 0 1 0 ) . Staphylococcus aureus is Streptococcus spp. are the chief causative agents of
generally considered to be the most prevalent cause of environmental mastitis. These pathogens can
intra-mammary infection in cows. It has been estimated normally be found in feces, bedding material,
that depending on the breed and geographical location farmyards, and feed; and are transferred from the
of the herd, between 7-40% of all cows are infected reservoir to the teats between milking. Coliforms
with S. aureus at any given time (Fox and Gay, 1993). particularly, E. coli, and Str. uberis are identified as the
major environmental organisms causing mastitis in
2.2.2 Environmental Mastitis dairy animals (Blowery and Edmondson, 2010).
Environmental mastitis is caused by organisms Although Str. dysagalactiae is considered as an
that do not normally live on the surface of the skin or in environmental pathogen, there is an evidence of its
the udder, but enter the teat canal when the cow comes transmission from cow to cow as a contagious
into contact with a contaminated environment (Hogan pathogen causing mastitis. The majority of
and Smith, 1987). The primary source of intramammary infections caused by environmental
environmental pathogens is the surroundings in which pathogens are clinical, and of short duration (Smith and
a cow lives. Those pathogens causing environmental Hogan, 1995). Environmental mastitis differs from
mastitis (Streptococcus uberis, Str. dysagalactiae, contagious mastitis in that it is caused by microbes
coliforms, etc.) are present in the environment that do not normally live on the surface of the skin or
(bedding, flooring, droppings), and are generally in the udder, but may enter the teat canal when the cow
transmitted in any time of cow’s life: during milking, comes in close contact with a contaminated
between milking, during the dry period, especially at environment (Jones and Bailery, 2009).

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The non-observable form of mastitis, such as no

2.2.3 According to the Clinical Symptoms visible abnormalities of either the milk or the udder, is
known as subclinical mastitis (Kathiriya et al., 2014).
2.2.3.1 Clinical Mastitis In excess of 50% of animals in a herd, can have
On the farm, mastitis is usually detected by the subclinical mastitis at any given time. A sudden rise in
observance of abnormal milk, such as flakes, clots, or a milk somatic cell count observed in normal milk from
watery appearance. The udder may become swollen, normal udders may indicate the presence of subclinical
red, hot, and hard; and there may be also fever, rapid mastitis. Animals which have subclinical mastitis are
heart rate, and loss of appetite (Markus et al., 2013). usually not producing milk to their full potential, and
This condition is known as clinical mastitis, and is can serve as a potential source of infection to healthy
observed in less than 5% of animals in a well-managed udders (Tomita and Hart, 2001). The subclinical form
dairy herd (Tomita and Hart, 2001). Cows that of mastitis in dairy cows is important because this
developed clinical mastitis suffered an immediate form is (a) 15 to 40 times more prevalent than the
drop in production and will not regain previous clinical form, (b) it usually precedes the clinical form,
production levels during the 60 days following the (c) it is of long duration, (d) it is difficult to detect, (e)
clinical onset (Hundera et al., 2005). Although clinical it reduces milk production, and (f) it adversely affects
infections are rarely apparent prior to calving, routine milk quality and (g) constitutes a reservoir of
observation for abnormal swelling is important. microorganisms that can affect other animals within
Normal pre-partum udder secretions range from a the herd due to its contagious nature (Pyorala, 2003).
honey-like appearance to normal milk. Clinical mastitis Besides causing huge losses to milk production, the
can be recognized in pre- and post-calving secretions, subclinically affected animals remain a continuous
colostrum or milk by the presence of clots and flakes, source of infection to other herd mates. If the infection
abnormal texture or discoloration (Malinowski and persists for longer periods, then it may form a fibrous
Gajewski, 2010). Clinical mastitis is presented with tissue barrier between the organisms and the antibiotic
five gross signs of udder inflammation namely preparations, thus, limiting their efficacy (Aarestrup,
redness, heat, swelling, pain, and clots or discoloration 2005). Subclinical mastitis is more common than
of milk. It is an acute short-term event caused mainly clinical mastitis. In subclinical mastitis, there are no
by Gram positive (S. aureus) and by Gram-negative visible abnormalities in udder tissues and physical
bacteria, in particular E.coli. It is characterized by appearance of the milk except that there is an elevated
swelling of the mammary gland, and physical change somatic cell count (SCC). The subclinical mastitis
of the milk. The physical changes observed in mastitic reduces reproductive performance of lactating cows
milk are wateriness, flakes, clots, color change (yellow, with similar activities as clinical mastitis. The general
dark brown), and presence of blood or pus. The symptoms are the increased body temperature
mammary gland is swollen, red, warm, painful to the (>39.5ºC) and loss of appetite. It is characterized by
touch and hard in consistency. Sometimes, mastitis change in milk composition with no sign of gross
involves the whole body resulting in systemic inflammation or milk abnormalities. Subclinical
reactions, such as fever, recumbency, and anorexia. mastitis is the type of mastitis in which no visible
The IMI triggers a complex acute-phase systemic appearance of changes in the milk or udder is seen, but
response that includes increased secretion of milk production decreases, bacteria are present in the
inflammatory proteins, cytokines, prostaglandins, and milk, and composition is altered. It is recognized by
more, which can be detected in the milk and plasma laboratory examination of milk or by animal-side tests
(Shuster et al., 1991; Eckersall et al., 2001). Mastitis is hence, “Hidden” is the term given to this type of
characterized by the presence of one or more of mastitis (Eriskine, 2001). The magnitude of
symptoms, such as abnormal milk color, presence of subclinical mastitis towards the economic loss is
clots in milk, udder swelling, pain, and systemic signs conspicuous from the fact that in USA, it is responsible
including elevated temperature, lethargy, and anorexia. for 60 to 70 % of total economic losses associated with
Coliforms are probably the major etiologic organisms all mastitis infections (Schrick et al., 2001). In several
of clinical mastitis in many dairies but there are countries S. aureus continues to be the major cause of
differences between countries in this respect. Clinical subclinical mastitis and the pathogens previously
mastitis is further classified as per acute that occurs considered to be purely environmental may also be
within short period of time, and gangrenous mastitis, capable of causing persistent infection (Oliver and
which is the most dangerous resulting in gangrene Chakart, 1988). From economic point of view,
formation in the udder (Eriskine, 2001). subclinical mastitis causes more damage to the dairy
sector. It is responsible to massive economic losses by
2.2.3.2 Subclinical Mastitis decreasing milk production, costs of therapy, and

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unused milk during the withdrawal period (Atasever About 90% of pathogens responsible for udder
and Erdem, 2009). inflammations are environmental pathogens (Lassa and
Smulski, 2013), which are commonly present in cow-
2.2.3.3 Chronic Mastitis barn environment. Increase in humidity and pollutions
Chronic mastitis is an inflammatory process in cow shed increase number of bacteria, and other
that exists for months, and may persist from one pathogens on animals. First of all, it should be
lactation stage to another. It exists for the most part as emphasized that except Actinomyces pyogenes, which
subclinical, and may flare up periodically as subacute is present as the etiological agent of clinical mastitis
or acute form for a short period of time. The results only, all the microorganisms can be the reason of both,
are hard lumps in the udder from the walling off of clinical and subclinical form of mastitis (Malinowski et
bacteria, and the forming of connective tissue (Taverna al., 2006). Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli and
and Dhong, 2007). Klebsiella spp. cause the greatest losses of milk in
primiparous cows that suffered from mastitis. The most
2.3 Epidemiology of Mastitis significant losses in older cows are caused by
Mastitis is a complex disease problem that Streptococcus sp., S. aureus, A. pyogenes, E. coli and
represents a classical example of the interaction of Klebsiella spp. (Gröhn et al., 2004). Major pathogens
microorganisms, host, and the environment. most often cause clinical mastitis, and give rise to the
most extensive changes of milk composition (Djabri et
2.3.1 Dynamics of Infection al., 2002).
When evaluating data on udder infections, it is
important to realize that cows live in an environment 2.4.1.1 Staphylococci
with a high exposure to infection. An udder infection Staphylococcus aureus, a Gram positive
itself (including the host response, i.e. rise in cell organism, is the principal cause of bovine mastitis. The
count, conductivity, temperature etc.) is therefore, not a bacterium colonizes the nipple skin, and advance
pathologic process, and as such, does not require through the mammary gland canal into the gland. This
intervention. Only when the infection is not cured by bacterium possesses many virulent factors. For
the host-defense mechanisms, it becomes a patho- example, it adheres to the fat compartment in milk,
physiologic problem. As stated before, single making it able to reach the mammary tissue quickly
measurements will not be able to distinguish between (Middleton et al., 2007). The intramammary infection
infection with subsequent self cure, and infection with S. aureus predominantly causes clinical mastitis
that is not cured by the defense mechanisms. Only resulting in a chronic infection lingering lifelong (Yang
measurement over time will be able to distinguish and Bakej, 2008). Staphylococcus aureus is also a
between these two processes. When evaluating the zoonotic bacterium, and chronically infected cows act
prevalence of infection, a time component should as a reservoir from which transmission to humans
always be included. This can be two or more SCC can occur both from physical contact (i.e. hand
measurements, repeated bacteriological cultures, or a milking) and consumption of unpasteurized milk.
combination of these two. Intervention with host- Some strains of S. aureus produce toxins that can cause
defense mechanisms should only be undertaken when severe illness in both cows and humans, and these
evidence of failure of this system is present (Eriskine, toxins are not destroyed by pasteurization. Udder
2001). infections by S. aureus are therefore not only
potentially harmful to the animal but also to humans.
2.3.2 Infection Patterns Staphylococcus aureus has been shown to be the most
Two distinct patterns in the epidemiology of commonly isolated pathogen from mastitis cases in
mastitis can be recognized. The first pattern is a many countries worldwide (Persson et al., 2011).
contagious disease pattern where transfer of
microorganisms from animal to animal is essential to 2.4.1.2 Streptococci Species
propagate the disease. The second pattern is a pattern There are three major Streptococcus species,
of opportunistic microorganisms. Host factors and namely, Str. agalactiae, Str. dysgalactiae, and Str.
environmental factors put an animal at risk. A wide uberis that cause mastitis. They are not equally spread
range of microorganism can then enter the mammary over the world, but cause varying problems in different
gland and cause disease (Becker, 1989). geographical areas (Miranda-Morales, 2012).
Streptococcus agalactiae is an obligatory udder
2.4 Etiologic Agents of Mastitis bound pathogen, and is considered to be very
contagious. It has several virulence factors and can
2.4.1 Major Pathogens cause both CM and SCM (Miranda-Morales, 2012).

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Streptococcus agalactiae infects the gland cistern time during lactation. Those in early lactation are more
and ducts of mammary gland causing irritation as susceptible to Mycoplasma infection, and the pathogen
well as swelling (NMC, 1999). Streptococcus can be isolated from high production animals without
dysagalactiae is commonly classified as an signology (NMC, 1999). Mycoplasmosis is frequently
environmental mastitis pathogen although it exhibits related to the mastitis outbreak onsets, to the
characteristics of both a contagious and an introduction of new animals to a herd, to previous
environmental pathogen. It is not as contagious as Str. respiratory disease, and to herds with unresponsive
agalactiae that is why prevalence in an infected herd is mastitis to antibiotic treatment. When the recurrent
usually lower than the cases with Str. agalactiae. mastitis, a non-signs illness, and an unresponsive
Streptococcus dysgalactiae is commonly associated treatment are observed, Mycoplasma infection should
with so called summer mastitis, but can cause mastitis be suspected (Fox et al., 2005).
throughout the year (Schukken et al., 2011). This
Streptococcus can be found almost anywhere in the 2.4.2 Minor Pathogens
environment surrounding the cow, but also on the Minor pathogens like Corynebacterium bovis,
cow’s teat skin and in the rumen. Since the cow’s Pseudomona aeruginosa, Coagulase negative
environment is a reservoir for Str. uberis, teat dipping Staphylococcus etc. cause only moderate infection, and
and other frequently used methods for mastitis are most often associated with subclinical mastitis.
control, are not very effective against this bacterium. (Djabri et al., 2002). Minor pathogens have been
Although its main source is the environment, a reported to have a protective effect against major
contagious behavior of the bacteria with transfer pathogens, and the reason has been suggested to be
between animals has been observed lately (Schukken et competitive growth, antagonism, induced leukocytosis
al., 2011). or an increased immunity of the cow (Lam et al.,
1997). Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) are
2.4.1.3 Coliform considered opportunistic mastitis pathogens, resident
Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. are colonizers on the teat skin, rarely causing clinical
coliforms that can cause mastitis. These bacteria are mastitis, and are frequently not reported in mastitis
part of the normal bovine intestinal flora and studies (Hogan et al., 1987). However, during the last
contaminate the environment, often bedding material, decades, CNS have appeared with increasing frequency
via feces. During the puerperal period, the cow is among isolates from mastitis cases, and are currently
especially sensitive to coliform infections since the considered as important mastitis pathogens although
immune defense at this time is lower than normal. All not as major one all over the world (Pyörälä and
Gram-negative bacteria produce endotoxin, and an IMI Taponen, 2009). This bacterium group comprises more
usually results in a severe inflammatory response. It is than 50 species and subspecies, such as S. chromogens,
important to mention that mastitis due Klebsiella S. epidermitis, S. hyicus, S. simulans, S, hamolyticus,
often occurs as a herd problem (Schukken et al., and S. xylosus. These are the most common CNS spp.
2011).Klebsiella spp. in general causes serious but less that are isolated from bovine mastitis cases. They
rapidly developing clinical mastitis cases than E. coli are highly associated with subclinical mastitis and
but with a longer duration of infection and may give the highest prevalence is in primiparous animals rather
rise to subclinical mastitis. Escherichia coli most than in multimiparous cows. Coagulase-negative
frequently induce acute clinical mastitis, often of Staphylococcus spp. differs from each other in
serious character with a rapid progress and sometimes antimicrobial susceptibility, virulence factors, and host
with a fatal outcome. Escherichia coli can also cause response to infection (Taponen et al., 2009). Other
subclinical mastitis, although less frequently, but these agents including fungi (Candida albicans, C.
strains are different from those causing clinical tropicalis, Candida spp. Cryptococcus neoformans,
mastitis. The frequency of E. coli and Klebsiella spp. Geotrichum candidum and others) (Pal and Mehrotra,
isolated from mastitis cases may vary considerably 1983; Pal, 2018), algae (Prototheca spp.) (Pal and Lee,
depending on herd and country (Dogan et al., 2005). 1997), Mycoplasma (González and Wilson, 2003),
Chlamydia (Pal, 2007), and viruses, such as bovine
2.4.1.4 Mycoplasma Species herpes viruses, cowpox virus, pseudo cowpox,
Mycoplasma spp. is highly contagious vesicular stomatitis, foot and mouth disease viruses,
microorganism, but less common than S. agalactiae, bovine papilloma viruses etc. can play an indirect role
and S. aureus. Nevertheless, Mycoplasma spp. in the etiology of bovine mastitis. These viruses can
damages the secretory tissues, induces the gland induce teat lesions, for instance in the ductus papillaris,
fibrosis, abscesses, and the lymphatic nodules fibrosis. which result in a reduction of the natural defense
Animals of all ages are susceptible, as well as at any mechanisms of the udder and indirectly in bovine

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mastitis due to bacterial pathogens (Wellenberg et al., 2008).PMNs act by engulfing and destroying the
2002). invading bacteria via oxygen-dependent and oxygen
independent systems (Kalorey et al., 2007). They
2.5 Prevalence of Mastitis in Ethiopia contain intracellular granules that store bactericidal
Over the last several years, a number of studies peptides, proteins, enzymes (such as myeloperoxidase)
are available that describe the prevalence of bovine and neutral, and acidic proteases (such as elastase,
mastitis in different parts of the country (Matios et al., cathepsin G, cathepsin B and cathepsin D) (Bank and
2009). The prevalence reports were heterogeneous, and Ansorge, 2001). The released oxidants and proteases
were affected by several factors, such as locality, breed, destroy the bacteria and some of the epithelial cells,
management, and diagnostic methods used. resulting in decreased milk production, and release of
Accordingly, the prevalence for all types of mastitis enzymes, such as N-acetyl-b-D-glucosaminidase
(i.e., without considering the classifications) ranged (NAGase), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (Kitchen,
from 0.4% to 81.1%. In Ethiopia, studies on bovine 1981). Destruction of most of the PMNs takes place by
mastitis were based on physical inspection of udder and apoptosis once their task is fulfilled. Subsequently,
cow side test in clinical and sub clinical mastitis, macrophages engulf and ingest the remaining PMNs
respectively. The most commonly used cow side test in (Paape, 2003). The dead and sloughed off mammary
the publications reviewed was CMT, followed by epithelial cells, in addition to the dead leukocytes, are
Indicator Paper Test. In both clinical and secreted into the milk, resulting in high milk SCCs.
subclinical cases, investigators have used When the infection persists, there is internal swelling in
bacteriological methods for isolation and identification the epithelium of mammary gland. The mammary
of the causative agents (Umer et al., 2015). gland alveoli become damaged and start losing
anatomical integrity. The blood-milk barrier is
2.6 Pathogenesis breached, causing extracellular fluid components, such
A comprehensive understanding of the as chloride, sodium, hydrogen, potassium and
pathogenesis of mastitis is the key for the development hydroxide ions, to enter the gland and mix with the
of appropriate detection techniques (Moon, 2007). The milk. When extensive damage to the blood-milk barrier
primary cause of mastitis is a wide spectrum of has occurred, blood might be detected in the milk. This
bacterial strains; however, incidences of viral, algal leads to visible changes on the udder, such as
and fungal-related mastitis were also reported (Pyorala, enhanced external swelling and reddening of the
2003). Normally, the teat canal is tightly closed by gland. Changes also occur in the milk, including
sphincter muscles, preventing the entry of pathogens increased conductivity, increased pH, raised water
(Hettinga, 2008). The teat canal is lined with keratin, a content, and the presence of visible clots and flakes
waxy material, which prevents the migration of (Zhao, 2008).
bacteria. However, the efficiency of keratin is
restricted. Fluid accumulates within the mammary 2.7 Risk Factors
gland as parturition approaches, resulting in increased Several features of hosts, agents and
intra-mammary pressure, and mammary gland managemental or environment can be identified, which
vulnerability is caused by the dilation of the teat might indicate an increased risk of developing mastitis
canal and leakage of mammary secretions (Paulrud, (Peeler et al., 2000).
2005). Additionally, during milking, the keratin is
flushed out, and there is distention of the teat canal. 2.7.1 Host Factors
The sphincter requires approximately 2 hrs to return
back to the contracted position. Once inside the teat, 2.7.1.1 Age
bacteria must also elude the cellular and humoral Adult cows are more frequently affected by
defense mechanisms of the udder. If they are not mastitis than the young, peaking at 7- years of age
eliminated, they start multiplying in the mammary (Workineh et al., 2002).
gland (Rainard et al., 2006). They liberate toxins and
induce leukocytes and epithelial cells to release chemo 2.7.1.2 Breed
attractants, including cytokines such as tumor necrosis Cows of certain breeds are more prone to
factor-a (TNFα), interleukin (IL)-8, IL-1, eicosanoids mastitis. For example, among the Swedish breeds,
(like prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α)), oxygen radicals and Swedish Holstein cows have a higher incidence of
acute phase proteins (APPs) (e.g. haptoglobin (Hp) mastitis than Swedish Red cows. Compared with local
serum amyloid A (SAA). This attracts circulating breeds, crossbred cows are more susceptible to
immune effector cells, mainly polymorphonuclear mastitis, which might be due to difference in
neutrophils (PMNs), to the site of infection (Zhao, anatomical structure of the teats, and difference in

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genetic resistance to disease (Persson et al., 2009). mastitis pathogens. Certain conditions, such as wet
beddings, dirty lots, milking wet udders, inadequate
2.7.1.3 Parity pre milking udder, and teat preparation, and poor fly
As parity increases, it had a tendency towards control can increase chances of environmental
increasing prevalence of mastitis. Older cows, mastitis (Almaw et al., 2008).
especially after four lactations, are more susceptible to
mastitis. Multiparous cows are generally at higher risk 2.8 Diagnosis
of developing clinical mastitis except in the very early
stages of lactation where the relationship is the 2.8.1 Clinical Inspection of the Udder
opposite (Lakew et al., 2009). The udder should be examined clinically by
using visual, then palpation to detect possible swelling,
2.7.1.4 Stage of Lactation pain and disproportional symmetry, blindness of teats,
The risk of developing clinical mastitis is and the milk to be visualized for discoloration, and
higher in the early stages of lactation whereas the presence of clots for the presence of mastitis (Quinn et
risk of subclinical mastitis increases with increasing al., 2006).
days in milk (Persson et al., 2009).
2.8.2 Direct Microscopy
2.7.1.5 Milk Yield The milk sample can be centrifuged and stained
Mastitis is more common in high milk smear made from the deposit. A Gram-stain is used
yielding cows, followed by medium yielding, and routinely to detect Gram-positive pathogens such as
less common in low yielding cows (Lakew et al., Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and will also reveal
2009). This may be associated with the fact that yeasts such as Candida albicans that are stained
higher-yielding cows have been found more deeply by crystal violet. A modified Ziehl Neelsen
susceptible to mastitis owing to position of teat and stained smear can be made if Nocardia asteroides is
udder, and anatomy of teat canal; and such cows have suspected, and Ziehl Neelsen stained smear for the rare
more susceptible genes making them prone to cases when acid fast bacteria, such as Mycobacterium
mastitis and due to less efficacy of phagocytic cells in fortuitum or M. bovis are present (Kalorey et al., 2007).
higher yielding cows associated to dilution (Radostits
et al., 2007). 2.8.3 Somatic Cell Count (SCC)
Somatic cells are part of the natural defense
2.7.2 Agent Factors mechanisms, including lymphocytes, macrophages,
Many bacterial agents of mastitis have polymorphonuclear, and some epithelial cells (Pillai
virulence factors like adherence components for et al., 2001). Somatic cells are, therefore, a reflection
attachment, ability to colonize, capsule formation, of the inflammatory response to an IMI. Hence, to be
presence of virulence gens on large plasmids, able to distinguish between infected and uninfected
production of toxins. For example, E. coli produces quarters, a cut-off of approximately 200,000 to
lipopolysaccharide endotoxin, which is responsible for 250,000 cells are accepted. Normal milk will have
many of the inflammatory changes observed during less than 200,000 cells per milliliter, but an
coliform mastitis; and S. aureus isolated from intra- elevated SCC is an indication of inflammation in the
mammary infections produce many potential virulence udder (Schepers et al., 1997).
factors including enterotoxins, hemolysin,
hyaluronidase, and leukocidins. Some mastitis 2.8.4 Bulk Tank Milk SCC
pathogens also show resistance to the commonly used Bulk milk tank (BMT) SCC is a general
antibiotics. For instance, some Staphylococci indicator of the udder health in a herd, and it is also
produce β-lactamase, an enzyme, which makes these regarded as an indirect measure of milk quality
bacteria resistant to penicillin (Olsen et al., 2006). (Schukken et al., 2003). Elevated SCC, are correlated
with changes in milk composition, casein, and more
2.7.3 Managemental Factors serum-derived whey proteins, as well as increased
Hygienic status of housing systems, milking proteolytic and lipolytic activities (Auldist and Hubble,
conditions, and tick infestation of the udder are 1998).
potential managemental factors that can determine
mastitis occurrence. With regard to this, higher 2.8.5 California Mastitis Test
prevalence are recorded in cows living in poor housing The California Mastitis Test (CMT) is a simple
systems, poor hygienic milking conditions; and tick cow-side indicator of the somatic cell count of milk. It
infestation of the udder also increases susceptibility to operates by disrupting the cell membrane of any cells

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present in the milk sample, allowing the DNA in those Streptococcus spp. and the indole, methyl red, VP,
cells to react with the test reagent (Alkyl aryl citrate (IMViC) test can be used for the identification
sulphonate), forming a gel. It provides a useful of E. coli (Quinn et al., 2006).
technique for detecting subclinical mastitis (David et
al., 2005). 2.8.9 Molecular Biology Tools
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to
2.8.6 Culture improve diagnosis of pathogens for which biochemical
Laboratory culturing of milk samples for methods for identification of species are known to
bacteria and Mycoplasma species and for determining be inaccurate (Wyder et al., 2011). A PCR is based
the antimicrobial susceptibility of S. aureus on the concept that the nucleus of bacterial cells
(specifically whether it produces beta-lactamase), is contains DNA composed of nucleotides with unique
very important for instituting optimal treatment sequences (Zadak and Watts, 2009). It is noted that
protocols for cows with clinical and subclinical PCR testing is useful to detect the presence of obligate
mastitis for instituting appropriate control measures. udder pathogens like S. agalactiae in bulk milk,
Bulk tank milk can be cultured to diagnose the especially when there is a low prevalence of infected
presence and prevalence of mastitis pathogens on a cows within the herd (Katholm et al., 2012).
herd basis, and also milk from individual cow can be
cultured as part of a herd examination for mastitis or on 2.9 Treatment
individual quarter samples or on composite samples Although various preventive measures, and
including milk from all four quarters. Selective culture management practices can be effective, there is still
plates, such as biplates (MacConkey agar and blood a great need for efficient therapeutic measures against
agar with 1% esculin), triplates (MacConkey agar, clinical and subclinical mastitis caused by different
blood agar and TKT agar (thalium, crystal violet and pathogens. Currently, these measures include the use of
staphylococcal toxin in 5% blood agar with 1% antimicrobials, anti-inflammatory agents, and
esculin), petrifilm plates, which are selective culture supportive therapy (Morin, 1999).
media products can be used to differentiate
between Gram-positive, Gram-negative and no 2.9.1 Antimicrobial Treatment
growth; and may aid in the rational and target use of Antimicrobial drugs are assumed to exert
antimicrobial agents (Dinsmore et al., 1992). A number their beneficial therapeutic effect via bactericidal
of mycological media, such as Sabouraud dextrose gar, or bacteriostatic action. In addition to the antimicrobial
Pal sunflower seed medium are employed for the effect, some drugs have been reported to affect the
isolation of fungi and algae (Prototheca) from the pathophysiological processes by other modes of
mastitic milk (Pal, 2016). actions. One example is the capability of polymyxins
to neutralize bacterial endotoxins. Antimicrobials
2.8.7 Electrical Conductivity Test might also exert possibly detrimental effects by
Mastitic milk has a higher electrical causing massive bacterial endotoxin release induced
conductivity than normal milk due to tissue damage, by drugs, and by interfering with phagocytic activity in
and the subsequent increase in sodium and chloride the udder (Hoeben et al., 1998). Cefquinome is a broad
ions in milk (Nielen et al., 1992). spectrum, fourth generation cephalosporin with
improved antibacterial activity against Gram-negative
2.8.8 Biochemical Tests bacteria over the second and third generation
Biochemical tests are the tests used for the cephalosporins. Cefquinome is resistant to b-
identification of bacteria species based on differences lactamases produced by the majority of clinically
in the biochemical activities of different bacteria. Since important bacteria. Sulphonamides and trimethoprim
bacterial physiology differs from one species to other, (TMS) combinations have been used for many years
the differences in carbohydrate metabolism, protein for the treatment of infectious conditions caused by
metabolism, fat metabolism, production of certain susceptible organisms. This combination is still
enzymes, such as coagulase, NAG-ase, urease, frequently used in the treatment of clinical mastitis
catalase etc. , and ability to utilize a particular (Schmid et al., 1994).
compound. Many of the mastitis causing bacteria can
be identified by the biochemical tests, such as 2.9.1.1 Intramammary Infusion
coagulase test, catalase test, Vogas Proskauer (VP), Treatment of mastitis varies with specific
urease test, and thermonucleus test for the etiologic agents (Pal, 2018). Intramammary infusion is
characterization of Staphylococcus isolates and sugar the administration of infusion antibiotics directly into
fermentation, catalase tests, esculin hydrolysis etc. for the mammary gland through the teat canal. Strip out

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the quarter fully before infusing antibiotic into the components; production loss, and control expenditures.
quarter. This removes millions of bacteria with the Losses include benefits that are taken away and
milk and clots and debris that can hinder the spread of benefits that are not realized. The former can be
antibiotic treatment. This may be assisted by the exemplified by milk that must be discarded
injection of 2-3 ml of oxytocin into the muscle prior following treatment with antibiotics and the latter by
to milking. The commonly applicable infusion drugs milk that is never produced as a result of disease.
include benthathin, cloxacillin, erythromycin, and Expenditures are extra inputs needed to limit losses,
streptomycin combined with penicillin (Schering, either by reducing the impact of an unplanned event,
2008). such as treatment of a mastitis cow, or by preventing
such events from occurring, as in the case of
2.9.1.2 Systemic Treatment investments into preventive measures (Osteras, 2005).
Systemic (parenteral) route of administration
was introduced into mastitis therapy by Swedish and 2.10.1 Direct Losses
later Israeli authors. It was suggested that systemic
treatment would penetrate throughout the udder better 2.10.1.1 Milk Production Losses
and be more efficient than IMM treatment in therapy In both clinical and subclinical mastitis, there
of mastitis. Procaine penicillin G, amoxicillin, is a loss in milk production. Moreover, the loss in
ampicillin, and oxytetracycline are effective a s milk production does not only occur during the case
systemic antibiotics (Ullberg et al., 1985). It is itself, even after the mastitis case is cured, the milk
pertinent to perform in-vitro antimicrobial sensitivity production level of the cow stays lower (Houben et al.,
test before treating the mastitis case in order to give 1993). The extent of yield loss depends on severity,
right antibiotic with optimum dose both intra- causative pathogen, parity of cow, and the stage of
mammary as well as parenteral routes (Pal, 2018). lactation at which mastitis develops. In primiparous
cows, yield loss is most severe when clinical mastitis is
2.9.2 Anti-Inflammatory Treatment caused by S. aureus, E. coli, and Klebsiella spp
The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs whereas, in multiparous cows, E. coli, S. aureus,
(NSAIDs) are known for many years for their anti- Streptococcus spp., Klebsiella spp. and A. pyogenes are
inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic effects. These responsible for the largest yield loss. Multiparous cows
effects are mediated by the inhibition of the COX suffer more severe yield loss than primiparus cows.
(cyclo oxygenase) enzyme complex. COX has two Therefore, reduced milk yield is the major component
isoforms, the COX1, which is constitutively expressed of the cost associated with both clinical mastitis and
in most tissues and responsible for maintenance of subclinical mastitis (Gröhn et al., 2004).
various physiological processes, and the inducible
COX2, a pro-inflammatory enzyme (Vane, 1994). 2.10.1.2 Effects on Milk Composition and Quality
Nearly, all currently used veterinary NSAIDs are non- Mastitis decreases the synthetic capacity of the
selective COX1 and COX2 inhibitors. The various mammary gland, which leads to decreased
NSAIDs differ in their chemical structure, concentrations of fat and caseins in the milk (Pyörälä,
pharmacokinetics, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and 2003). Indeed, clinical mastitis and subclinical mastitis
antipyretic potency, prostanoid synthesis inhibition were found to cause somewhat lower fat content in the
activity, antibradykinin activity, anti-platelet milk, and, on lactational level, estimates of the absolute
aggregation activity, and toxicity. Flunixinmeglumine, fat yield loss due to clinical mastitis varied between 3
tolfenamic acid, and ketoprofen can be classified as and 22 kg (1.5 to 7.5%). Mastitis influences the quality
highly potent NSAIDs, and phenylbutazone as a of milk. Some of these changes cause a less efficient
medium potency NSAID. The NSAIDs ketoprofen, processing of milk and might result in products with
phenylbutazone, and dipyrone are effective in the less favorable properties. Examples are an unstable
treatment of field cases of clinical mastitis. Ketoprofen and rancid taste of milk, a lower cheese yield and a
is superior to the other two drugs (Lohuis, 1991). decreased shelf life (Santos et al., 2003).

2.10 Economic Impact of Mastitis 2.10.1.3 Treatment Costs

Mastitis is of great economic significance to This is a straight forward economic damage.
milk producers, because the disease has negative Drugs, which are necessary to treat a cow with
impact on several important aspects of cow and herd mastitis, cost money. Depending on the legislation, and
performance. Incurred costs are of both direct and the infrastructure in a country, costs of drugs may vary
indirect nature (Kossaibati and Esslemont, 1997). The between countries (Yalcin, 2000).
total economic cost of disease consists of two distinct

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2.10.1.4 Discarded Milk referred to as hidden costs. They include increased risk
Milk produced when a cow shows signs of of subsequent disorders, reduced fertility (extra
mastitis, or while a cow is treated with antibiotics, is services per conception and, as a result of this, an
discarded. It is pertinent to cite that financial loss as a extended calving interval), increase risk of culling
result of discarded milk can be compared with loss of (Schneider et al., 2007).
decreased milk yield. However, there is one
difference; the discarded milk is actually produced by 2.10.2.1 Culling
the cows, which means that feeding costs for that Clinical mastitis increases the risk of culling
amount of milk has to be taken into account with the as well as mortality (Bar et al., 2008a). The extent
calculations. The cost per unit of discarded milk is thus to which clinical mastitis affects the risk of culling
higher than the corresponding cost of milk not depends on lactation stage at clinical onset. It is also
produced (Halasa et al., 2007). influenced by reproductive status, and open cows are at
greatest risk of being culled due to clinical mastitis if
2.10.1.5 Mortality they are diagnosed in early lactation, whereas,
Failure to early recognize the disease, and take pregnant cows are subjected to a relatively similar
treatment measures can lead to increased risk of risk of being culled because of clinical mastitis
mortality. High mortality rates are usually associated irrespective of when in lactation they are diagnosed
with high incidence of Gram-negative bacteria induced (Schneider et al., 2007). Somatic cell count above
clinical mastitis (Bar et al., 2008). 300,000 cells/ml has been reported to increase the
risk of culling in primiparous cows, and in late
2.10.1.6 Veterinary Services lactation, subclinical mastitis is the most important
Besides delivering drugs in many countries, the disease influencing culling decisions regardless of
veterinarian might have to spend time on diagnosis of a parity of the cow. The cost associated with involuntary
(clinical) mastitis case. Veterinary services may be culling as a consequence of mastitis is an important
mandatory for each (clinical) mastitis case, if required component of the total cost of mastitis. Involuntary
by national legislation, or is only provided upon culling is associated with replacement costs, and hence
request by the farmer (McNab and Meek, 1991). includes costs of rearing or buying a heifer.
Furthermore, economic loss can be expected as milk
2.10.1.7 Diagnostics yield of primiparous cows is lower than that of
Diagnostic costs that are relevant to mastitis multiparous cows, and because there is a risk that the
must be included in the calculations, for instance costs yield level of a heifer might be disappointing (Halasa et
of technicians and bacterial cultures, costs for al., 2007). Economic cost also arises as cows culled
purchasing additional new chemical reagents, money due to mastitis do not reach their full production
invested on purchasing diagnostic equipments like potential (Osteras, 2005).
microscopes, CMT; and also a need for an advanced
diagnostic aids like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is 2.10.2.2 Subsequent Disorders
very costly (Zepeda et al., 2000). Cows having experienced one case of clinical
mastitis often develop a subsequent case of clinical
2.10.1.8 Materials and Investment mastitis later in lactation. Also, as contagious
Mastitis management includes the use of pathogens use the udder of infected cows as reservoir,
materials and commodities that cost money. These having mastitis cows in a herd increases the risk of
materials can either be renewable (for instance spreading infection to healthy cows. Mastitis is
disinfectants and drugs could be seen as specific associated with increased risk of lameness; and clinical
types of renewable materials) or non-renewable (for mastitis has been reported to be associated with
instance a new milking parlor). The purchase of concurrent or subsequent diagnosis of ketosis,
renewable materials has short term economic displaced abomasum, and non-parturient paresis
Consequences and the costs can easily be calculated. (Peeler et al., 1994). It is reported that both clinical
The purchase of non-renewable materials has long- mastitis and subclinical mastitis are known to
term consequences. Finally most non-renewable adversely affect reproductive performance of animals
materials require maintenance and this also generates (Petersson et al., 2006).
costs (Zepeda et al., 2000).
2.10.2.3 Extra Labor
2.10.2 Indirect Losses Clinical mastitis is associated with extra labor
Indirect costs are those that are not always requirement, for instance in form of attendance of the
obvious to the milk producer, and are therefore visit by the veterinarian and administration of

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medicine. Also, clinical mastitis may affect the order et al., 2013). Recombinant Streptococcus uberis GapC
in which cows are milked, and thus gives rise to less or a chimeric Christie Atkins Munch-Petersen (CAMP)
efficient milking routines. The time requirement antigen; pauA; live Str. uberis 0140J strain and
associated with a case of clinical mastitis is likely to bacterial surface extract, DNA vaccine containing
amount to two hours. The amount of time needed to clumping factor A of S. aureus and bovine IL18,
treat subclinical mastitis can be expected to be less DNA-Protein vaccine may be used against S. aureus
than that associated with clinical mastitis, because etc. (Yin et al., 2009)
subclinical mastitis is not always detected, and, when
detected, is not always treated. Extra labor requirement 3. Conclusion
should be valued based on the opportunity cost of Bovine mastitis, caused by multiple etiologic
labor, i.e. the value of the next best alternative agents, is a major production disease of high economic
foregone as the result of having to assign time to and public health importance, and therefore, regular
mastitis (Halasa et al., 2007). screening for early detection and prompt treatment,
follow up of chronic case, and control of subclinical
2.11 Prevention and Control mastitis are recommended to alleviate the problem. As
As mastitis is a very complex disease with subclinical mastitis is highly prevalent and
multiple etiologies, complete eradication of disease is economically important, there is a need to create better
not possible. However, good hygienic measures, and awareness on the importance of this type of mastitis to
regular screening of cows for subclinical must be the farmers. Poor milking, unhygienic environment,
followed at the dairy farm to reduce the chances of and inadequate personnel hygiene should be avoided in
mastitis (Pal, 2018). Most of the cases of mastitis are order to prevent cross contamination and increased
due to the injury of the udder followed by microbial chance of infection. It is advised to use disinfectants
infection and these can be avoided, and even if these and available vaccines in endemic areas on regular
occur accidentally, treatment should be rapid and basis. A comprehensive research regarding the
regular. These can be handled by good management prevalence and risk factors of mastitis should be
and cleanliness in sheds. Use of antiseptics post undertaken to enable effective control measures.
milking and at the opening of teat also reduces the Positive actions from world and national public health
chances of microbial entry, thus considered as an agencies, universities, and research organizations are
effective management practice for prevention of needed to reduce the impact of mastitis on human and
contagious mastitis (Olde et al., 2012). Measures animal health, and food safety around the world.
aiming at preventing new cases of mastitis include
breeding, fly control, optimal nutrition, improvement Acknowledgements
of milking hygiene, avoidance of inter-sucking among The authors wish to thanks Prof. Dr. R.K.
young ones, implementation of post-milking teat Narayan for going the manuscript and giving his
disinfection, regular control of the milking equipments, suggestions. The computer help of Anubha is highly
implementation of milking order, a n d improvement appreciated.
of bedding material (DeVliegher et al., 2012). Some
of the vaccine already in field trial against control
of bovine mastitis include inactivated, highly
Conflicts of Interest
None
encapsulated S. aureus cells; a crude extract of S.
aureus exo- polysaccharides; S. aureus CP5 whole cell
vaccine; inactivated and un-encapsulated S. aureus as Financial Support
well as Streptococcus spp. cells based vaccine Nil
developed for controlling bovine mastitis (Camussone

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