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Parañaque City, Metro Manila 1700

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The Principles and Methods

of Teaching

MODULE
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Chapter 1

THE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSION

INTRODUCTION
What makes a good teacher?

To know what makes a good teacher, one must know the task of a teacher. Experiences
of successful teachers have shown that the teacher’s job is not confined solely to the
transmission of knowledge and information. What is more important is teacher’s personal
influence in promoting the development of basic skills, understanding, work habits, desirable
attitudes, values, judgements, and adequate personal adjustment of the learners.

What do the above statements imply? It is a task that calls for an assessment of one’s
own personal qualifications and a genuine desire to improve on them.

Although the various studies have been conducted to define scientifically the
distinguishing characteristics of an effective teacher. A common criterion has not yet been
established. However, these studies generally point to two major categories in which the
characteristics of an effective teacher may be grouped: (1) professional qualities and (2)
personal qualities.

Professional qualities refer to the teacher’s knowledge of general subject matter to be

taught, his understanding of psychological and educational principle, and his understanding and
appreciation of the teaching profession. Personal qualities are those that stem from the
teacher’s personality, his interests, attitudes, and beliefs, his behavior in working relationships
with pupils and other individuals, and the like.

PROFESSIONAL QUALITIES
What are the professional qualities of an effective teacher? Form various studies made on this
matter, the following emerge as basic qualities that have a definite relationship to teaching
competence:

1. Mastery of the subject/field one teaches. Effective learning demands that the teacher
possess solid knowledge of the subject of the field that he teaches.
2. Understanding of the learner. He must develop the special skills needed in gathering
information about children.
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3. Understanding of teaching principles and skill in the use of techniques for their
implementation. The old notion that “if a person knows his subject, he can teach it” is
not true. To promote learning effectively, a teacher must know not only what (subject
matter) but also how (method) to teach. Hence, the third essential of effective teaching
is skill with teaching methods.

4. General understanding of other branches of knowledge. He must be able to show how

his subject relates with other fields, particularly in the solution of life’s problems.

5. Understanding and appreciation of the teaching profession. He must be aware of the

value of high ethical professional relationships.

PERSONAL QUALITIES
1. Pleasing personal appearance, manner, courtesy, pleasant voice.
2. Intelligence, emotional stability, and self-control
3. Sympathy, kindness, helpfulness, patience
4. Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, loyalty
5. Flexibility, creativity resourcefulness
6. Sociability, friendliness, cooperativeness
7. Fairness, impartiality, tolerance
8. Sense of humor, cheerfulness, enthusiasm

Instructional Competencies

A. Teaching Skills
1. Identifies specific needs, interests, and capacities of individual pupils and
provides adequately for these.
2. Analyzes and identifies specific learning tasks.
3. Shows evidence of mastery of subject matter
4. Provides varied learning experiences for the development of communication,
for work, and for interpretative and other basic skills involved in the learning
tasks.
5. Selects, prepares, and utilizes instructional materials and aids effectively in
achieving teaching goals.
6. Selects appropriate available community resources and uses these effectively
in the teaching learning process
7. Motivates the lessons and ask questions effectively to develop critical
thinking and creativity
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8. Creates and tries out appropriate strategies and materials that meet the
peculiar needs and problems of children
9. Communicates ideas effectively in Filipino
10. Communicates ideas effectively in English

B. Guidance Skills
1. Shows interest in pupils’ problems and needs and helps meet them
2. Provides for the maximum involvement of pupils in the learning activities
3. Stimulates and compliments pupils to elicit positive and active interaction.
4. Functions effectively as a member of the learning group
5. Helps pupils develop self-discipline in and through the learning process.

C. Management Skills
1. Prepares adequately for the day’s learning activities
2. Starts learning activities promptly
3. Provides a permissive and stimulating atmosphere that encourages pupils to raise
questions and suggest alternative solutions to problems
4. Administers tests effectively and returns corrected papers and other pupils’ work
promptly
5. Achieves teaching objectives to the optimum degree possible for the subject, lesson,
or activity within a reasonable period

D. Evaluation skills
1. Uses specific criteria for the accurate evaluation of individual performance
2. Selects, evolves, and utilizes criterion – referenced tests
3. Analyzes and interprets evaluation results skillfully
4. Utilizes evaluation results as a basis for improving instruction

I. Personal and Social Competencies

1. Observes the Teacher’s Code of Ethics and other pertinent rules and regulations of
the school service
2. Sets the example in moral and ethical behavior to pupils, peers, and the community
3. Shows honesty and integrity in all his activities
4. Accepts and performs leadership roles competently in the school and in the
community
5. Accepts the followership role whenever the need arises and assumes this
intelligently
6. Shows evidence of professional and cultural growth
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7. Gets along well with pupils, the school staff, and the community without
compromising rules of propriety
8. Participates actively in cultural, professional, and other community organization
activities
9. Shows evidence of mental health and stability
10. Shows evidence of sound physical health
11. Always observes proper grooming and attire
12. Shows creativity and resourcefulness in his performance
13. Prepares and submits neat and accurate reports on time
14. Observes official time and is ready to serve beyond the Call of Duty when the need
arises.
15. Uses this free time wisely.

The Teacher's job.

Knowledge of the duties and responsibilities of a teacher Will help one realize why
teaching is a complex and many-sided task emending a variety of traits and abilities.

 Guiding the learning process. The major task of a teacher is to promote learning.
 Counseling and guidance. Counseling and guidance are not the responsibility of the
school guidance counselor alone.

 During extra class activities. Extra class activities are part of any school program. These
activities are considered important in contributing to the development of children.

 Working with parents and the community. Today's teacher is expected to become
familiar with the community and to work with people to improve community conditions.

 Professional responsibilities. It is his responsibility to improve himself by maintaining

high standards of personal and professional conduct and by continuing to grow
professionally.

PREPARATION FOR TEACHING

There are two types of education: (1) preservice and (2) in-service. Preservice education
is the college education needed to become a teacher. In service education is any activity
pursued by one already teaching for purposes of professional development and advancement.

Preservice Education
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to help prospective teachers develop the qualities considered essential to

effective teaching, the curriculum of any teacher training institution is composed of
three basic areas: (1) subject matter education, (2) general education, end (3)
professional education.

o In the subject matter education courses, the prospective teacher masters the
field or fields off knowledge which he chooses to teach.

o In the general education courses, he studies different areas of knowledge

outside his special subject field. He gets a broader outlook Off his specialized
field.
o In the professional education courses, the prospective teacher gets to know and
process as well as the man thoughts and techniques of teaching.

In-service Education
This involves keeping up with the changes in newer developments in his subject field, in
the theory and practice of teaching, encourage experimentations and education, ended other
areas of knowledge relevant to his teaching.

Such professional growth can be obtained through participation in in service activities.

In the Philippines the most common in-service activities are

1. faculty and department meetings, and individual and group conferences with principals
and/or supervisors
2. Attendance at lectures, seminars, and workshops
3. Study groups, professional readings
4. Visitation of other classes, preschool conferences
5. Convention and conferences, local or national
6. Membership in professional organizations
7. Graduate studies

THE ETHICS OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION

Teaching is a profession. One of the responsibilities of the teacher then is to maintain a
high standard of professional conduct.
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The ethical conduct expected of a teacher in his relationship with the various groups he
must work with, based on the code of ethics for Filipino teachers, includes the following:

A. Relationship with the state

1. The teacher should consider it an obligation to see to it that the national objective of
education is achieved by the school he serves.
2. he should consider himself as a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the
nation; hence, he should uphold moral principles, promote signation and support, instill
respect for constituted authority, And foster obedience of the law of the land.
3. He should earnestly endeavor to help carry out the declared policies of the state in
accordance with the Philippine constitution.

B. Relationship with his students

1. the responsibility of guiding every pupil/student to develop his potentiality and
capability to the utmost should be the foremost concern of the teacher.
2. She should make them morning experiences of the pupils/students enjoyable,
fruitful, and meaningful.
3. He should be firm but gentle in matters of discipline.
4. He should never allow himself to be influenced by any consideration other than
married in the evaluation of the pupils/student’s work
5. he should always maintain his dignity and self-respect when dealing with
pupils/students’ end should refrain from receiving favors directly or indirectly from
any of his pupils/students for their parents.

C. Relationship with his associates

1. the teacher should maintain wholesome and for DL relationship with his associates. his
relationship should be based on the principles of democratic cooperative action and
mutual respect.
2. He should exercise discretion in matters concerning confidential information about
associates
3. he should make do acknowledgement of assistance received from his associates and
should not appropriate the work of others to claim credit for himself.
4. He should be willing to share his professional knowledge and experience with fellow
members of the profession.

D. Relationship with parents

1. the teacher should maintain a harmonious and cooperative relationship with parents.
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2. you should keep continuous contact with parents to inform them or keep their
children's progress and problems in school.
3. He should be prudent and tactful in his relationship with parents.
4. He should keep in confidence all information gathered during visits and interviews with
parents.

E. Relationship with school officials

1. teacher administrator relationship should be a partnership characterized by
cooperation and sharing, imbued with frankness, honesty, loyalty, and
professionalism.
2. The teacher should know and abide by the policies, rules, and regulations of the
school.
3. You should develop openness regarding the professional aspect of his work.
4. You should devote official time fully, faithfully, and honestly in the accomplishment
of official functions and responsibilities.

F. Relationship with non-teaching personnel

1. the teacher should accept non-teaching personnel as partners in coworkers in the task
of achieving the goals of education.
2. He should treat the non-teaching personnel with courtesy, respect, and consideration.
3. You should be punctual in the submission of requirements, requests come on any other
support documents to avoid unnecessary delay in office transactions.

G. Relationship with the community

1. the teacher should actively participate in as well as initiate community movements
for morale, social, educational, economy, and civic betterment.
2. As an intellectual leader, he should be willing to share his knowledge, training, and
experience with the community.
3. He should conduct himself in such a way as to merit the confidence and respect of
the community within and outside the school.

H. Relationship with a profession

1. service in education calls for the highest standards of integrity in morality. The teacher
should conduct himself accordingly and always behave properly.
2. He should be physically, mentally, and morally fit.
3. He should always observe propriety and good taste in language.
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4. You should considerably grow in his profession end of hold the highest possible
standards that will earn for him social recognition as well as material compensation for
service rendered.

Questions
1. Why is teaching considered a complex and many-sided task? Give specific
examples of the various responsibilities of the teacher.
2. what professional qualities are considered important for successful
teaching? Substantiate your answer.
3. How do personal qualities affect teaching success?
4. Is teaching considered profession? Why? How does it compare with other
professions? What do you think are the factors that make up a profession?
5. What various relationships with other people does a teacher have while
teaching? How can he establish harmonious relationships with others?
6. What are the three areas of preservice teacher education? How much of
each area do you think should be given to prospective elementary school
teachers? So prospective high school teachers?
7. What are the common in-service activities engaged in by the teachers?
Explain how each kind of activity will help the teacher in his work.
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Lesson 2
TEACHING AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES AND METHODOLOGY
THE LEARNING PROCESS
learning is an integrated, ongoing process occurring within the individual, enabling him
to meet his specific aims, fulfill his needs and interests, and cope with the living process.

Conceptually, the process involves five distinct phases:

1. Unfreezing. The individual becomes ready to consider changes in knowledge, skills,

attitudes, and behavior.
2. Problem diagnosis. the force is supporting the need for change and the forces working
against the change needs are identified and presented.
3. Goal setting. the desired changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behavior are stated
specifically.
4. New behavior. The individual learns and practices that newer knowledge, skills cover
and the truths, and behaviors which are desired.
5. Refreezing. then you learn earnings have been found to be beneficial and are
assimilated into the individuals on going framework of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
behavior.

Characteristics of learning
o learning is developmental.
o learning is interactive.
o learning is basic.

Principles of learning
1. The learner must clearly perceive the goal.
2. Learner must be psychologically and physiologically ready.
3. The learner must be motivated to learn.
4. The learner must be active not passive for maximum learning.
5. The learner must repeat or practice what he has learned to remember.
6. The learner must put together the parts of attacks and perceive it as a meaningful
whole.
7. The learner must see the significance, meanings, implications, and applications that will
make a given experience understandable.
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8. The learner must be prepared to respond.

9. The process of problem solving and learning or highly unique and specific.

Conditions Which Facilitate Learning

It also involves the implementation of certain conditions enumerated below that put the
learner at east and us facilitate learning.

1. learning is facilitated in an atmosphere which encourages learners to be active.

2. Learning is facilitated in an atmosphere which promotes and facilitates the individual's
discovery of the personal meaning of ideas.
3. learning is facilitated in an atmosphere in which different ideas can be discussed but not
necessarily accepted.
4. learning is facilitated in an atmosphere which consistently recognizes the individual's
right to make mistakes.
5. learning is facilitated in an atmosphere in which evaluation is a cooperative process.
6. learning is facilitated in an atmosphere when individuals feel they are respected and
accepted.
Questions:

1. Analyze the five distinct phases in the learning process. explain how
they take place in the teaching learning situation.
2. What is the characteristic of learning? how do the principles of
learning dovetail with these characteristics
3. Explain how the different conditions that facilitate learning can be
provided in the classroom learning situation.
4. What is method?
5. Why is it important to have a method of doing things?
6. What factors determine the choice of method? show how each
factor may help determine method.
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Lesson 3

Planning Lessons
The Lesson Plan

A Lesson plan is and indispensable tool to a teacher. An engineer would not dare build a
bridge without a plan. Architect plans for every house he constructs, and no homeowner can
dispense with the services of an architect if he wants a good house. Neither can a teacher
afford to teach without a Lesson plan.

Why is a Lesson plan important?

First, a pupil's educational growth depends on the selection of subject matter, activities,
experiences, and methods adapted to his interests, needs, abilities, and level of maturity.

Second, a Lesson plan includes framing objectives and choosing subject matter,
procedures, materials, and evaluation techniques.

Third, making a Lesson plan involves for seeing what is likely to happen and choosing
experiences that will change children for the better.

Fourth, a Lesson plan serves as a guide to the apprentice teacher.

Fifth, planning prevents waste of time that usually accompanies an organized or

haphazard teaching. A Lesson plan helps the teacher to be systematic and orderly.

Sixth, a Lesson plan prevents wandering away from the subject matter by making the
teacher conscious of what he must accomplish for the day.

Seventh, a Lesson plan gives a feeling of security especially to the beginning teacher
who usually feels nervous and tense.

Eight, the principle of self-activity applies to the learning of both teachers and pupils. If
children learn by doing, so do teachers.

Ninth, lesson plans are of use not only the teachers but also to principals and
supervisors.

Tenth, Past lesson plans will be of use to a substitute teacher who may take over in an
emergency.
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Parts of a Lesson Plan

What are the parts of a good Lesson plan? most lesson plans have the following parts: (1)
objectives, (2) subject matter, (3) materials, (4) procedure, and (5) assignment.

Objectives provide goals to be attained, give direction to class discussion, and call for
what outcomes to expect.

The specific subject matter and its sources-textbooks, library references, etc. -should be
stated in the Lesson plan.

Materials are necessary aides to teaching and should be included in a Lesson plan.
Teaching aids and devices, such as maps, graphs, flash cards, pictures, etc.

Procedure is the definite steps of the method being used should be shown in the
procedure.

A Lesson plan is incomplete without the assignment. A good assignment ensures a good
recitation because it tells what is to be done, how it is to be done, and why it must be done.

Prerequisites to Lesson Planning

1. knowledge of the subject matter.

2. knowing the children or the students.
3. familiarity with different strategies.
4. materials
5. understanding of objectives.
Suggestions in making lesson plans

The student teacher should bear the following suggestions in mind:

1. The Lesson plan is an aid to teaching. it should not be a Bible to be followed to the
letter.
2. A Lesson plan should not be too detailed.
3. Lessons should be planned within the time allotment for the subject.
4. The textbook should not be regarded as infallible.
5. The Lesson plan may serve as a basis for future and a means of evaluating the success of
learning.

Taxonomy of Objectives
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According to Gagne (1977), classification of objectives is necessary for planning and

sequencing of instruction.

Cognitive Domain

Bloom’s committee found that most objectives in the educational literature profound related to
the gold native domain.

The following is an abstract of the taxonomy of the cognitive domain:

7. Knowledge
8. Comprehension
9. Application
10. Analysis
11. Synthesis
12. Evaluation
Affective Domain

The affective domain contains behaviors objectives that have some emotional overtones.

The following is an abstract of the taxonomy for the affective domain.

1. Receiving
 Awareness
 Willingness to receive
 Controlled or selected attention
2. Responding
3. Valuing
4. Organization
5. characterization by values
Psychomotor Domain

The major organizational principle operating in this domain is that all complexity with attention
to the sequence involved in the performance of a motor act.

Harrow’s (1972) taxonomy for the psychomotor domain Includes

1. Perception
2. Set
3. Guided response
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4. Mechanism
5. Complex overt response
6. Adaptation
7. Origination
QUESTIONS:

1. What is a Lesson plan?

2. Why do teachers need to make lesson plans?

3. What are the different forms of lesson plans?

4. What types of lesson plans are used in Philippine schools?

5. Formulate behavioral objectives within the hierarchy of the major levels

and sublevels of the taxonomies educational objectives are set forth by
Bloom for an instructional unit in
a. Araling Panlipunan
b. Science
c. Physical education
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Lesson 4
Types of lessons

Some lessons may not follow a specific method or may use a combination of
methods. Daily lessons may fall into the following categories: development lesson,
review lesson, drill lesson, application lesson, supervised study lesson tests or
examination lessons, and appreciation lesson.

THE DEVELOPMENT LESSON

NATURE

The Development lesson is one in which something new is presently or developed. It may be a
fact, principal, a skill, a generalization, for some knowledge. It must be something the class did
not know before.

TYPES

Development lessons are of two types, the formal and the informal. The formal development
lesson uses formal time-tested methods such as the inductive, deductive, or problem solving.
The informal development lesson does not make use of a definite method with definite steps.

STEPS

An informal development lesson may have the following steps:

1. Preparation -the preparation consists of the cognitive and motivational aspects.

2. Presentation or development-the teacher directs children's learning by means of
questions and teaching aids. During the presentation step, the teacher makes the class
aware of what is to be learned through clear perception of the object, specimen, fact,
and the like.
3. Application – This step is the test of whether the pupils have really learned or not.
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THE REVIEW LESSON

NATURE

A review lesson AIMS to renew study of the same subject matter or to recall what has been
taken up in the past and will this again from a different perspective our point of view area.

PURPOSES OF THE REVIEW

Although there may be lesson themes mainly to give a new view, it has other purposes, such as

1. Retention of material learned - review used to be associated with retention of facts and
information; Hence that it will be for an examination.
2. Organization of materials and experiences into large wholes - for learning to be
significant and meaningful, Facts learn in the various lessons should be seen and
manifested in the daily experiences of the learner.
3. That I love man of ability to evaluate material - daily lessons impress on the learner that
facts at topics are of equal worth. They eventually see the important points and the
minor details that support the points.
4. Supplementations of materials and experiences-it is during the review that elements of
new learning may be given to round out the units, to clear confusion, and to make
understanding complete.
5. Foundation for further learning-a review of the past lesson may be necessary to form
the apperceptive basis of a new lesson.
6. Diagnosis of pupil weakness - a review usually will reveal the weaknesses of the few
pills.
7. Diagnosis of teacher weakness - the weakness of the pupils maybe due to the teacher's
shortcomings.
8. Development of interest in old materials - The review serves the purpose of awakening
interest in old materials.
9. Stimulation of original thinking and creativeness - thinking about old facts and ideas may
suggest new ways of using them and thus lead to creativity.
10. Facing the floor or maybe thought throughout the union
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TYPES OF REVIEW

1. The short pre-lesson Daily review for three or five minutes - this type of review can
provide apperceptive basis for the new lesson.
2. The post lesson unit review - this review may be used in organizing materials and
experiences into large hole you need or reorganizing previously organized information
into a new pattern.
3. Extensive large unit review involving coordination of many units - Search R if you can
take place toward the end of the semester or school year and spread over several days.
TECHNIQUES OF REVIEW

Review this serves as much attention and planning as a development lesson. The following
pointers make the review worthwhile:

1. Time of review-there is no definite time for the review. It should be given, when
necessary, as determined by the needs of the class and by the goals and the nature and
importance of the subject matter.
2. Length of the review-there is no time limit for the review. The daily review may only be
for a few minutes. that if you at the end of a unit may use up the whole period, while
that if you at the end of the year me last for two or three days.
3. Preparation for review - that if you lesson should be as well prepared as any lesson. It
should also have the necessary steps, such as objectives, motivation, approach, and
activities.
THE DRILL LESSON

Nature and Purpose

sometimes a development lesson is followed by a drill instead of a review. Some authors use
drill and practice interchangeably, but although both make use of repetition, they are different.
The term drill refers to activities that involve memorization. The term practice refers activities
involving acquisition of skills and skill of application.

Drill Procedure

A drill will be effective if the teacher follows certain steps such as motivation, vocalization,
repetition with attention, and application.
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1. Motivation - motivation to do a drill is necessary to arouse pupils to maximum and

sustained effort.
2. Focalization - Add drill requires concentration and so children's attention should be
focused on the specific skills to be drilled on.
3. Repetition with attention - mere repetition will not result in learning unless
accompanied by attention. There should be a variety of teaching aids, and the time
devoted to each should not be too long or the child’s attention will wander.
4. Application - to show that he has profited from the drill, the pupil must be able to apply
what he has learned.

THE APPLICATION METHOD

An application lesson often follows a development lesson. The application lesson gives the child
a chance to express or apply what he has learned.

FORMS

The ideas, facts, and principles that have been taught to children can find outlets in any of the
following:

1. Dramatization – dramatization is acting out a story or play.it uses language, facial

expression, gesture, and action. It tells a story more vividly than a printed page.
2. Storytelling – the story, as a teaching device, is used in reading, language, history,
geography, science, and other subjects.
3. Oral reading – while silent reading is thought getting, oral reading gives the child
practice in conveying thought to others.
4. Construction and drawing – construction or drawing is the physical embodiment of
thought. An idea may be concretized in drawing or construction work.
5. Written compositions – not only is a written theme an expression of what is in a
person’s mind, but it is also training in grammar,
6. Singing – children love to sing, individually and in groups. Singing gives practice in
tonality, pitch, and expression. Singing also gives emotional release.
7. Test or examination - The examination shows what do you think snow or do not know,
but also how effective the teaching has been.
8. Creative work - any creative work done by the child is a form of application.
9. Other forms of application work are translation from one language to another, solution
of problems, and exercises.
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Technique

certain points should be borne in mind to have a good application lesson. It may go through
such steps as the following:

Motivation - the application lesson, like other lessons, needs to be motivated. the motive
should be real and practical.

Statement of a problem or task - the children should have a thorough knowledge and
understanding of what is to be expressed or applied.

Necessity of information - Children cannot express what they do not know. hence, the pupils
should first be given the facts, information, principles, rules, or generalizations that will be
applied later on.

Characteristics of a Good Application Lesson

An application lesson is good if it has the following characteristics: (1) the few pills work is original rather
than imitative, (2) W feels feel responsible for their work and try to apply the principles studied; (3)
individual pupil effort is present; and, (4) not everything assign is recited on.

THE SUPERVISED STUDY LESSON

NATURE

The Supervised study lesson is one whose purpose is to teach children how to study a given
subject effectively. The pupil studies his lessons under the guidance of the teacher who definite
directions as to steps, methods, and goals and supervises the individual without interfering with
the work of the rest. Supervised study directs the student in the use and mastery of the best
techniques of efficient study.

In essence in the supervised study lesson:

1. The pupil is taught the techniques of learning.

2. The teacher acts as guide in the various study procedures.
3. This guidance takes place in the classroom
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Need for Supervised Study

Observation shows that there is a need for supervised study lessons even in college for several
reasons. Among these reasons are the following:

1. Many of the failures and dropouts in school are due to poor study habits.
2. Many homes do not have proper study conditions.
3. There are improved techniques of study that need to be taught to students.
4. Weak students especially need supervised study.
Forms of Supervised Study Lesson

Supervised study lessons can be classified into

1. Individual supervised study – A child is supposed to graduate to graduate to

unsupervised study when he has learned the techniques of the study.
2. Group study – when children study in groups, care should be taken that (a) they do not
waste time and (b) the composition of the group is right. It is not good if the bright
pupils do all the work or if the slow pupils always tag behind
3. Study with books, people, or things – study has always been associated with book
learning, but study can also be done where people, instead of books serve as
consultants or resource persons
Techniques of Supervised Study

The success of supervised study depends a great deal upon the teacher who will train and guide
the pupils on how to study. It is well to remember a few points

 The physical setting should be conducive to study

 Distractions should be removed
 All necessary tools and equipment for study should be available, such as books, paper,
dictionary, maps, etc.
 The assignment should be clear, and the purpose of the study understood.
 Teacher and class must begin right away. The sooner the work is begun, the sooner
concentration can come
 The teacher should instruct the class to skim and get a general idea of the lesson.
 Pupils may be instructed to pause every now and then at the end of the paragraph,
page, or section and to summarize in their minds what they have read or done.
 The teacher should avoid giving too much assistance but should always be available
when needed
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THE APPRECIATION LESSON

An appreciation lesson is designed to lead the class to understand and enjoy something.
One cannot fully appreciate what one does not understand or enjoy.

It is the task of the teacher, therefore, to plan lessons that will guide children to appreciate what
is beautiful and worthwhile in literature, music, nature, the arts, religion, culture, and the things around
them. The curriculum offers many opportunities for the development of proper attitudes and
appreciations.

The sources of appreciation lessons are

1. Literature 5. Religion.
2. Music 6. Culture
3. Nature 7. The environment
4. The arts

Types of Appreciation

Aesthetic appreciation – is derived from situations that are artistic and inspiring, as may be
found in such subjects ask music, nature, art, literature, and drama.

Ethical – social appreciation – comes from satisfaction in recognizing social or moral qualities of
goodness and truth in a situation.

Technical or intellectual appreciation – stems from admiration of the technique, skill in

performance, or the mind that produces a creation.

Procedure

The following procedure for an appreciation lesson in literature may also be applied to other
subjects like music and art.

I. Preliminary stages
The teacher must exercise judgement in deciding whether the positive
preparation step should be a day before or several days before the appreciation
lesson.

II. The lesson proper

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A. Immediate preparation - the negative and positive preparations have been

thorough; all that the teacher needs to do here is to get into the right mood and
to put the pupils in the right frame of mind too.
B. The hour of appreciation - the first impression is very important. The teacher
(not the pupils) should read or recite a poem (or selection) with proper
expression and feeling.

C. Intellectual discussion (understanding or knowledge) - the second presentation

should be followed by a checkup of comprehension. Teachers should not analyze
too much or go into too much detail, or appreciation may be lost.
D. Aesthetic discussion – the teacher should encourage the pupils to tell what they
consider beautiful in the poem. After a discussion of how and why the selection
is beautiful, the children should Android the second reading more.
E. Reproduction (memorization in the olden days) reproduction is the final step in
an appreciating lesson. The story that is appreciated may be reproduced in play
or story form.
Suggestions for Developing Appreciation

1. Choose materials and activities that children are interested in and which they
can enjoy.
2. Since appreciation is an outgrowth of experience, the learner must participate in
the activities and derive emotional satisfaction from them.
3. Appreciation activities should be informal.
4. Make use of memorization. Beautiful passages may be committed to memory.
5. Provide follow – up activities that will deepen pleasurable response of the first
impression.
Conditions for an Effective Appreciation Lesson

1. Knowledge on the part of the teacher of what is to be appreciated.

2. Appreciation of the piece by the teacher himself
3. Stimulation of the children to appreciate the piece
4. Encouragement of the children to discuss the parts worth appreciating without the teacher
dictating or requiring it
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Questions:
1. What is a development lesson?

2. Why do we review?

3. How does the drill differ from the review lesson? what principles should be
followed in drill work?

4. Give the forms of application lessons. what characterizes a good application

lesson?

5. Why is it necessary to have supervised study lessons? How can the

supervised study lesson be made successful?

6. why is there a need for appreciation lessons? Where can materials for
appreciation lessons be taken
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Lesson 5
TIME - TESTED METHODS

THE INDUCTIVE METHOD

Nature
the inductive method is in reality a discovery method serious a lesson that utilizes in the
pit mental usually calls attention told this thing but related details that leads to the
formation of a conclusion, a definition, a rule, a principle or a formula. the inductive
method aims

1. to help pupils discover important rules or truths for themselves through careful
observation of enough specific examples that will support the generalization.
2. To make meanings, explanations, and relationships of ideas clear to pupils
3. To enable pupils to carry on investigations by themselves, independent of the
teacher.

Values
The greatest value of the inductive method lies in the fact that a child learns chiefly
through his own activity. He observes the cases, compares them, analyzes them and then draws
his own conclusion. Whatever he learns through induction is more permanently retained
because it utilizes repetition, and many examples are taken up.

When to Use It
The inductive method should, therefore, be used when (1) The role, concept, truth, principle,
fact, or generalization is important enough to justify the time devoted to the lesson and (2) the
pupils can state the rule, fact, principle, truth, or generalization by themselves.
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Procedure
The steps in the inductive method are:

1. Preparation -
2. Presentation
3. Comparison and abstraction
4. Generalization
5. Application

The Deductive Method

Nature
The deductive method is the reverse of the inductive procedure. Where induction starts with a
study of specific cases and ends with a generalization or rule, deduction starts with a
generalization that is applied to specific cases. Deduction is a process of reasoning from the
general to the particular.

Aims
the deductive method games at the following:

1. Don't teach pupils to master difficulties by utilizing truths or rules established by others.
2. go teach pupils to the late Richmond until truth is proven and not to judge even in the
face of seeming certainty until analysis is complete.
3. Should I MIDI or overcome few kills tendency to drop to conclusions at once.

Type of Deduction
There are two types of deduction: the anticipatory and the explanatory.
Anticipatory deduction forecast details that will be found any particular situation, while
explanatory deduction connects facts at hand with principles that interpret them.
The teacher often resorts tooted up front when he asked his peers to answer questions,
to solve problems, Myrtle master puzzling situations which they encounter by referring to laws,
principles, axioms, or other general conclusions already in their possession.
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Steps
The steps of the methods are statement of the problem, generalization, inference, end
verification.

Statement of the problem - the problem should be stimulating and should arouse a desire to
solve it.

Generalization - two or more generalizations, rules, definitions, or principles may be recalled.

One of these will be the solution to the problem.

Inference - this is choosing the generalization, rule, or principle that will fit the problem.

Verification - this is trying out in securing the successful generalization. It is determining the
validity of the inference by consulting accepted authorities such as the teacher, the textbook,
dictionaries, encyclopedias, or other books.

Conditions for Effective Deduction

for effective use of the deductive method, certain conditions are necessary, such as starting
with a rule or principle that will fit the conditions, applying the rule or principle to enough cases
to prove or develop the rule quote to make the illustration clear and at the conclusion, restating
the rule or principle the used.

Evaluation
it's advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are as follows:

1. the method is much simpler than the inductive method and takes less time.
2. Ordinary subject matter and principles in textbooks lend themselves well to the
deductive method.
3. Already established principles are made more meaningful through deduction.
4. In the anticipatory form, a very good motive is furnished for seeking evidence is that will
support the inference is made, thus arousing the puzzle instinct, which is a valuable aid.
the disadvantages of the deductive method are as follows:

1. Some pupils cannot profit from deductive thinking.

2. It is criticized for encouraging guessing which, however, may be allowed within certain
limits.
3. It is restricted to certain topics and is no value in securing drill or emotional outcomes
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THE TYPE STUDY METHOD

Nature
Closely into the inductive method is that type study method. in reality the type study metal is
an inductive procedure except that only one case is studied.

Aims
The type study method aims to study the typical case thoroughly and in detail so as to make the
concepts gathered as basis for comparison in studying similar cases.

Steps
in using the type study method, the following steps can be followed:

1. selection of the traffic isotype to be studied

2. apperception and motivation
3. Statement of the typical case for the model that will serve plus basis for comparison
4. Study of details
5. comparison of details with the model
6. generalization

Outcomes
the type study results in rich and meaningful concepts. Many facts of less importance around
the central idea or other outcomes.

Evaluation
There are many advantages in favor of the study type method. One is its simplicity. Another is
that it arouses keen interest since the tendency to emphasize details makes the work concrete.
Intensive study makes the topic clear. Furthermore, it saves time.

THE PROBLEM METHOD

NATURE

Problem solving is the purposeful activity that will remove difficulty or perplexity through a
process of reasoning. Reflective thinking is utilized in problem solving; it consists of two phases:
(1) statement of perplexity or difficulty which gives rise to thinking and (2) the act of searching,
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or inquiring, to find, the material that will solve or dispose of perplexity. Problem solving is both
a learning and a teaching procedure.

Types of Problems
1. Mental – these are problems that are contemplative, reflective, academic,
reconstructive, or imaginative. Arithmetic problems fall under this category.
2. Symbolic – these are problems that require written language, drawing, modeling, or
construction for solution.
3. Real – these are material, physical, or practical problems.
Functions
The major functions of problem solving are
1. To give training in reasoning
2. To give practical knowledge and skill
3. To develop proper thought habits that will enable the child to meet whatever exigencies
in life there are
4. To escape the consequences to some acts
5. To learn how to act in a new situation
6. To learn how to make something
7. To solve a puzzling mental problem
8. To get out of a difficult situation
9. To learn to suspend judgement
10. To learn to define and limit problems
11. To learn how to find solutions
12. To improve judgement
13. To verify an opinion
14. To discover a new process
15. To invent a new device
16. To create a new idea
17. To improve knowledge
18. To entertain others
19. To help another solve a problem
20. To satisfy curiosity

Values
The problem method gives direction to a discussion and prevents wandering off from topic. It
stimulates reflective thinking and furnishes a guide for organizing ideas. It directs attention to
the task to be done and encourages concentration.
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Characteristics of a Good Problem

1. A difficulty exists which demands solution. It is thought provoking

2. The problem is clear, definite, suitable to the level of the pupils, and of practical value
3. It is real, interesting, and worthwhile to the class.
Evaluation

The advantages of the problem method have been discussed under values.

Some of the disadvantages and dangers may arise from

1. Superficial thought
2. Over rationalization
3. Forming hasty conclusions
4. Losing sight of the main thought.
The problem method may be used in teaching a lesson. Sometimes it may be one of the many
methods used in teaching a unit.

THE PROJECT METHOD

Nature

The project is a significant, practical unit of activity of in problematic nature, plan and get it to
completion this to them in a natural manner and involving things of physical materials complete
the unit of experience.

The project has the following characteristics:

1. it is problematic in nature
2. the activity should work toward a definite attainable goal
3. the activity should be purposeful, natural translate, and significant
4. the pupil should plan, direct, and execute the activities

Relation of Project to Problem

no problem in the project we have the same steps except at the very end. No problem will be
considered ended after the mental solution is reached. the project thus would mean both
intellectual and physical solutions. It is a more purposeful and constructive activity.
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Types of Projects
projects may be classified as

1. Construction project - the motive is to do or make something. Students have ideas that
they want to put in concrete form, such as preparing articles for a bazaar.
2. enjoyment project -the motive is participation in an activity that is a company by
enjoyment or satisfaction. An example may be planning and taking part in a school
program.
3. problem project - the motive is to master some intellectual difficulty which comes from
the learner himself. curiosity or interest in the subject may be the dominant factor.
4. learning project - the inner drive is toward acquisition of a skill or some knowledge. for
example, the student may want to learn to swim or master certain combinations in
arithmetic.
Characteristics of a Project

A project no matter what kind, has the following characteristics:

1. the activity is a unit

2. it is carried on in a natural manner and in a natural setting
3. this is independent of logical divisions of subject matter and is free from academic
artificiality
4. the learner approaches the task in an attitude of purposefulness ask the task is self-
imposed
5. The activity is aimed at definite, attractive, and Only attainable goals.
6. the Lerner marshals his own activities, plans, and directs them, assuming responsibility
practice efforts in the success of his activities
7. The nature of the activity is such that the degree of success it attains is apparent in an
objective way to the learner and is not dependent upon the judgment of the instructor

Steps
The project consists of the following steps: purposing, planning, executing and evaluating

Purposing – the nature and goals of the project are determined in this step. It is important for
the teacher to consider the pupils’ needs, abilities, and interests, at this step of the lesson.

Planning – even the planning can be the activity of both the teachers and the pupils. When
activities are planned and initiated by the pupils, they perform their parts willingly and
enthusiastically.
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Executing – this means carrying out activities as planned and envisioned by the class.

Evaluating – the finished products are displayed and judged by both pupils and teacher. Here is
an excellent chance for the teacher to help develop critical thinking among his pupils. They
should be trained to look for what is positive, not merely that which is negative.

Problems Encountered in the Use of the Project Method

Certain problems can occur in connection with the use of the project method. Discipline is
harder to maintain when the class is having a project, especially if it is the construction kind.
choosing projects that will fill educational criteria is another difficulty the teacher has to
surmount It is not easy to look for projects that have the following characteristics: educational
value, adaptability to the needs of the situation, availability of materials, justification of time
consumed in terms of its results, adaptability of project performance to school schedule, Low
cost of materials, decided advantage of this method over others, capability of finishing the
project in the allotted time.

Values
The project method is adjudged valuable for the following reasons:

1. it provides a motive for learning

2. it trains pupils to be responsible and to develop initiative
3. It trains learners to solve problems in practical life situation
4. it develops the spirit of cooperation
5. it gives training in perseverance
6. it developed such attitudes as alertness, open mindedness, and tolerance
7. It develops judgment
8. it encourages creative activity
9. it furnishes the child with a hobby

Advantages
1. it emphasizes the practical in learning
2. Increase interest as it is practical and tangible
3. games experience in making plans and in selecting tools and materials
4. it encourages independent research in applying practical criteria to a series of related
activities
5. it breeds respect for the difficulties and values of constructive labor
6. Provides a natural way of learning
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Disadvantages

1. It is a slow way of learning and is time consuming

2. it is expensive
3. much in life does not consist of planning and carrying out activities
4. it is a failure in the hands of poor teachers
5. it's sometimes degenerates into a fixed and formal statement of subject matter.

THE LABORATORY METHOD

NATURE

The laboratory method was used to designees the teaching procedure that you say
experimentation with apparatus and materials to discover or verify facts and to study scientific
relationship. Since then, the laboratory method has been tried in all other subjects - physical
and Biological Sciences, social sciences, English, mathematics, vocational, and commercial
subjects

Relation to Other Methods

the laboratory is also called every search method because the science classroom offers many
opportunities for scientific investigation. Learning activities dealing with the original data that
led to the solution of problems are planned in the laboratory.

Aims
The laboratory method types of learning namely, information gained through observation,
experimental solution last problems guided by reflective thinking, and acquisition of skill in
manipulation. John Walton (1966) gives the following aims of the laboratory method.

1. To give first-hand experience in the laboratory which may increase student interest
2. to provide to them participation in original research
3. to develop skill in the use of laboratory equipment and instruments

Types
There are two types of the laboratory method: the experimental and the observational.

The experimental type aims to train pupils in problem solving with incidental acquisition of
information and motor skill. In the observational type, the acquisition of facts is the dominant
aim of the method.
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Steps
Introductory step for orientation and motivation – the teacher should decide beforehand what
is to be done and then present this to the class so that the nature and purpose of the work will
be clearly understood by the pupils.

Work period – when all the pupils may be working on the same problem or on different
problems on their own, this becomes supervised work period.

Culminating activities – after completion or near completion of the work, the class may get
together to discuss and organize their individual findings.

Suggestions

In using the laboratory method, it would be well for the teacher to remember a few things.

1. Laboratory exercise should be adapted to broader social needs and should be adjusted
to the needs, interests, and capacities of the students.
2. For reflective thinking, laboratory exercises must grow out of problems.
3. The laboratory manual should be chosen with care
4. The teacher must be a skillful director of problem solving and of study.
Evaluation

Advantages claimed in favor of the laboratory method are

1. It is learning by doing
2. Impression through several senses
3. Undergoing actual experience is more vivid and what one learns by the laboratory
method is retained longer.
4. It is direct preparation for life
The disadvantages are

1. It is an uneconomical way of learning – the lecture – demonstration may be substituted

for better results
2. It becomes mechanical at times
3. The expensive apparatus sometimes does not justify results
4. Loss of time occurs due to indiscriminate overuse of the methods
EXPOSITORY METHOD
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Nature

The expository method is used a great deal in the lower grades as there is much that needs
explaining. However, it is also used in the upper grades, in the secondary school, and even in
college when something difficult needs explanation by the teacher.

Uses

The expository method can be used to advantage under the following conditions:

1. When relevant information is needed to make the class understand a part in the lesson
2. When pupils do not have the information, and time can be saved by teacher telling it.
3. When an idea or principle can be learned only by explanation
4. Where the use of induction will take too much time to justify its use, or whenever the
difficulties of its use outweigh its value
Evaluation

The teacher should guard against committing the following errors when using the method:

1. telling too much

2. telling too little
3. telling what can be developed
4. telling what the pupils can find out for themselves
5. telling only what is in the book

THE LECTURE METHOD

Nature

The lecture method is like the telling method, but they are not identical.
The lecture method is more of exposition while telling is more of narration. Telling, however, may be a
part of lecture. Bossing defines lecture as teaching procedure for clarifying or explaining a major idea
cast in the form of a question or problem

When to use the lecture method

The main aim of the lecture method is to serve as a guide through a great mass of information
characteristic of subject areas. The use of lecture may be justified therefore under the following
conditions:
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1. when the teacher can give in one hour of lecture – demonstration information that may
take the class two or three hours
2. Teacher has available data that would be difficult for the class to obtain
3. when a new topic is to be in introduced so as to show how the new topic fits into the
work, to give a bird’s eye view of the work to come, to arouse interest in the new work,
and to give adequate explanation for students to begin new work.
4. when summaries are needed at the close at the day’s work, close of the topic, end of the
chapter, end of a unit.
5. At the beginning of the lesson to create proper mind – set, to generate enthusiasm, or
to arouse appreciation
6. On occasions where problems arise or questions that are valuable and pertinent are
asked.
7. where supplementary materials may be introduced to advantage, such as, recent
material, interesting detail, historical or biographical background, explanation of the
author's viewpoint and exposition of the teacher’s
8. when visual materials, such as slides, pictures, graphs, fields, and specimens need
explanation

Technique
Preparation of the lecture - the teacher needs to prepare his lecture in much the same way he
prepares his Lesson plan. the lecture, like the Lesson plan, is anticipatory teaching

When the lecture is expository, it may make use of the following steps:

 preparation
 presentation
 comparison
 generalization
 application
Walton (1996) gives the following steps to be followed if the lecture is not formal:

1. Introduction to the lecture - an attention getting device may be used here. The class
should be given an idea of what the lecture is about.
2. Presentation of the body of the lecture - the important points should be presented first.
The less important should come later.
3. Conclusion, closure, completion, culmination - a summary or reorganization of what has
been said may end the lecture.
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Procedure in the lecture – to lecture well is an art. Here are some suggestions on how to
improve the art.

 An outline will help make the organization clear and effective; so, will practical
illustrations like charts and diagrams.
 Interest may be aroused at the beginning by presenting a problem or posing a question
which is to be explained in literature
 Attention can be sustained by keeping the class in an expectant attitude
 The teacher may point out a problem and ask questions during the lecture to maintain
interest or to check if the class is following the thought movement
 The teacher should adjust his pace to the difficulty of the subject matter and the ability
of the class
 He should talk in a conversational manner and cultivate a good sense of time.
 Student should be trained to take down notes, and they should be held responsible for
the lectures.
 There should always be a checkup as a means of diagnosis as an aid to remedial
teaching
Other factors – teacher personality weighs a great deal on the effectiveness of a lecture.

 A good voice, a good pronunciation, and enunciation, proper facial expressions, and
gestures are important
 The style of delivery and the manner of lecturing should be appropriate to the subject
matter and comfortable for the teacher.
 The teacher should talk in a poised, animated, conversational style and should maintain
a pleasant and cheerful disposition during the lecture
Evaluation

Like other methods, the lecture has its strengths and weaknesses. Despite the criticisms against
the lecture, there are many good points that justify its use. The lecture may serve as a very
effective means of arousing appreciation.

The lecture may also serve to motivate a study, such as, for instance, a study the life of Gabriela
Silang. By telling the historical background of Gabriela Silang, the teacher may put the class in
the right emotional tone.

Also has its weakness. the greatest objection to it serious is that it violates the principle of
‘learning by doing’. This is the reason why its place in the elementary and high school is
insignificant. Moreover, it fosters passive attitude in the class. Hello
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assistant lecturer it will be just a waste of time where students are immature, and it was
lectured can be found in the textbook, or if the material is available to the students, or eat the
teacher lectures on what he has assigned.

The lecture may not hold the attention of the class for various reasons such as

 the teacher may not know the technique of lecturing

 the teacher may overuse the lecture
 The children may be too young

it may also be ineffective assignment of teaching because

 Students may not know how to take down notes

 they may not be able to distinguish he imported from the not so important points
 they may not know how to analyze and summarize

Other disadvantages of the method are as follows

 you feel slapped the opportunity to study in advance

 The learner becomes a mere recipient instead of a thinker
 Merely telling pops does not guarantee That this will be taught over, learn, and used.
 the material may not become part of the mental life of the hearer; hence, it may not be
remembered or applied
 there is lots of opportunity for discussion and expression

QUESTIONS:

1. Compare the inductive end adaptive methods.

2. How is that type study method similar to the inductive method?

3. When does a problem exist? Give the types of problems and an example of each. in
what way will the problem method be of value in the children's future?
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4. What is the difference between a problem and a project?

5. How is the laboratory method related to the experimental method, the research
method, the supervised study? How do the types of laboratory work differ?

6. How does the demonstration or showing method differ from the laboratory method?

7. How can the expository for telling method be made effective?

8. When is it justified to use the lecture method in the high school? How long should it be?
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LESSON 6
IMPROVE INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES AND DISCUSSION
PROCEDURES
With the change of emphasis on educational or directives, with the inclusion of more
outcomes of learning, with the focus on the child's the most important factor in the educative
process, the concept of method has likewise diversified and broadened. In recent years, newer
and more informal methods have come about.

The problems which teachers must face in relation to classroom teaching or ‘what is the
weather in the classroom and how?’ Are there certain types of classroom experiences that can
contribute both to social adjustment and through the attainment of the objectives of a course?
How should we treat subject matter and how should we treat the learners?

INTEGRATIVE TECHNIQUE
Nature
Integrative technique is a term used to designate what modern educators called the new
learning, which aims to achieve the integration of the individual. Integrative teaching is
concerned with the development of a well-rounded personality one which can address and
respond to situations in a meaningful way.

Integration as a concept of organization is seen in different ways. educators appeared to

use the concept of integration in several contexts.

Psychologically, integration is the term employed to denote the educators concern for
the total personality of the learner.

Pedagogically, integration is used to describe a teaching procedure which relates

varieties of subject matter 2 units of study or to problem solving situations.

Sociologically, Integration is utilized in different ways, namely:

1. to designate the desired relationship between an individual and the other individuals as
interacting personalities
2. to designate the desired relationship between an individual and the organized
institutions of society
3. To designate the desired relationship between one organized institution of society (the
school, for example) and other institutions involved in the complex nature of culture
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Objectives of Integrative Teaching

The objectives of integrative teaching may be summarized as follows:

1. the foster security and subtraction if it is developing in the pupils a feeling of belonging
and of acceptance of each other as word well members of the group
2. to promote cooperative learning by having pupils and teachers plan together
3. The help develop sense of values by fostering an atmosphere in the classroom that
enables pupils to evolve aesthetic standards, spiritual values, work standards camera
norms of group conduct, and appreciation for human work an individual integrity
4. but the help self-direction through the teachers developing in their child the ability to
control his own affairs and his own emotions
5. the foster creativity by developing self-expression through hard, music, dramatics, etc.,
as well as in the social, scientific, and literary fields. Learners should be given the
freedom to select the media they want to use in expressing themselves.
6. To provide opportunities for social action through the teachers making use of all
opportunities to develop in the trial the willingness to cooperate with the members of
his group for the common good.
7. To help evaluate learning such that individual pupils as well as the group are guided to
evaluate progress in all phases of learning.

Integrative Activities in the Classroom

The teacher who uses integrative techniques in the classroom should be familiar with
the principles involved especially those that pertain to subject matter divisions, that is, learning
experiences are unified around a certain core or team for which the child has a felt need.
Organized learning experiences are called units.

A unit may be defined as an organization of activities or experiences around a purpose

or a problem. Unit of work have been classified in various ways; however, the new meadows
classifications may be categorized into three major types: subject matter units, center of
interest units, and integrative if experience units

Subject matter units are organized around the usual textbook chapters or topics or
around major generalizations and principles.

Center of interest units are based on the interests of pupils, their felt needs, their
dominant purposes, or a combination of these.
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Integrative experience units, on the other hand, go further in seeking a learning product
in changed behavior and the adjustment of the individual (Monroe 1950)

Units should be problem centered. Problems suggest purposes which lead to action or
response. The unit should deal with some phase or problem of living sufficiently significant to
merit study. Significant problems cut across artificial subject matter barriers because they deal
with broad knowledge and understandings.

Unit should provide continuous development of the learner in all phases of growth, for a
sequence of experiences, and for variety of activities or experiences for the class and for
individual learners. These experiences may be in the form of

 visual activities like reading, looking at pictures, observing people at work and play
 oral activities like stating a fact, relating an event, asking a question, offering a
suggestion, or taking part in an interview
 listening activities like listening to a formal presentation of materials, listening to a
conversation or a group discussion, or listening to a play
 drawing activities like drawing a graph, a diagram, a map, or a pattern or painting a
mural
 motor activities like performing an experiment, selecting materials, holding an exhibit,
constructing a model, playing a game, dancing, taking care of pets, or making a garden
 mental activities like imagining, memorizing, detecting a problem, analyzing factors
involved, seeing relationships, or arriving at the decision

Steps Involved in Developing a Unit

teacher subscribed and found the following steps most effective in carrying out the integrative
activity technique:

1. Initiating the unit - through the skillful guidance of the teacher, the pupils become
aware of a problem confronting them which challenges them into action. It can be in the
form of a problem or a difficulty which children feels concern them most.

2. Point of experiencing - at this stage each pupil decides on his interest, and under the
teacher’s guidance, begins to work on the various activities suggested. Interest groups
are created, leaders are voted upon, and the groups meet to find out possible solutions
to their problems.
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3. Research techniques – research is defined as a diligent investigation or studious inquiry.

Research is a method of securing information which every citizen should know and
should be in the habit of using

4. Acquiring Needed Skills – another learning activity which comes naturally in unit
teaching is reading. Children should be guided and encouraged to read, digest,
summarize, or select and relate to the unit the significant material they read.

5. Culminating activities - at this stage the teacher games for the integration of the unit.
with the teacher's guide, the few pupils summarize the unit, organize ideas, and develop
expression.

6. Evaluation – Evaluation is a continuous process in all phases of the unit. Pupils and
teachers are continually measuring and evaluating whenever choices are made.

Principles Underlying the Planning of Integrative Activity Units

1. The learner is more important than the subject matter. The development of the
learner’s whole personality should be the main concern of the teacher.
2. Long range plans and large units should be preferred to daily, isolated tasks.
3. Learning activities should be organized around real -life problems of the pupils, their
needs, and their interests
4. Learning should be characterized by group planning, group work, and group evaluating.
All activities should be shared by both the teachers and the pupils, with the latter
supplying the maximum share. The teacher should be merely the adviser.
5. Teaching and learning activities should follow democratic procedures. Integration of
personality should be accomplished through love and understanding, not through
coercion or harsh treatment.
6. Individual differences should be provided for by a wide variety of learning activities and
experiences.
7. The atmosphere of the classroom should be permissive
THE DISCOVERY APPROACH

Nature

The discovery approach refers to an inductive method of guiding pupils to discuss and
organize ideas and processes by themselves. It means helping them use ideas already acquired
as a means of discovering ideas. It is the process which the children under subtle direction go
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through the logical process of observation, comparison and abstraction, generalization, and
application.

Types of Self – Discovery

Self-discovery as a learning process is figuring out things for oneself.

Guided Discovery – is an approach to instruction by which the teacher tries to draw out from
his pupils’ certain bits of information through properly organized questions and explanations
leading them to the eventual discovery of concepts or principles.

Pure Discovery - it's an approach where the pupils are expected to arrive at certain concepts
and principles completely by themselves, i.e., with little or no guidance from the teacher except
for the explanation of terms or references.

Principles Underlying Discovery Process

the success of the discovery approach entails following certain principles.

1. the learning process moves from a hunch or intuition to a stage of in-depth analysis and
then to the point where knowledge claims are based on concrete, documentary
evidence.
2. The classroom serves as a miniature laboratory and the community, a large-scale
laboratory for exploration and discovery.
3. children learn because of their observations and the experiences they undergo.
4. children discover nation ships and generalize in their own individual ways.
5. learning through self-discovery is enhanced by individualized and small group
explorations.
6. the methods used by children in learning through self-discovery are like the ways in
which scientists think, work, and for the nice knowledge.

Evaluation
Children's ability to employ methods of self-discovery can be evaluated by the following means:

1. Ricardo observations of children's performance stay conduct their demonstrations,

experiments, and other creative work, check hypothesis, and form conclusions.
2. Make children prepare diaries or logbooks of consecutive class activities
3. Analyze methods of inquiry employed by pupils who have engaged in creative activities
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4. Evaluate tape-recorded class activities for evidence of critical thinking in children’s oral
contribution
5. Use recommendations made by specialists to define behavior patterns indicating
children’s ability to use methods of inquiry
the techniques of discovery developed by pupils will enable them to meet the needs of our
technological age, which requires more than mere mastery of information and skills.

The advantages of the discovery method when consistently and carefully used are as follows:

1. more permanent, meaningful, and useful learning is achieved when the pupils are
actively involved what about as a result of teacher direction and control
2. A sense of freedom prevails as children are encouraged to discover and test
generalizations and to search out new ways of solving problems
3. new topics become new opportunities as children or encourage to approach new topics
with confidence rather than apprehension. this confidence comes with the knowledge
that they have at their command techniques for discovering new ideas or for applying
old ideas in new situations.
4. excitement pervades the classroom. the discovery has high motivating effects on the
learner.

THE PROCESS APPROACH

There is no difference between the process of Roche and the discovery approach because they
mean the same thing. We go through a series of processes and finally discover something.

The basic philosophy of the discovery method is that the child learns by first-hand
experience then progress is at his individual rate of learning while he finds out concepts for
himself.

The Process Approach to Science Instruction

Problems in science will always arise as a child observes nature. one may wonder or be
astonished over a certain phenomenon and may even call it a miracle.

One misconception of many teachers about the process approach is that it is a method
of teaching, which is not the case. Actually, the processes are used in the question-and-answer
method and in the unit, the project, the inductive, or other methods. The only difference is in
the amount of emphasis on the processes used in teaching procedures. The process approach
allows the children to
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1. Understand that change, a person effect relationship, has been, is, and will continue
to be a fundamental phenomenon in our universe.
2. Attain their maximum potential for effective thinking and action.
3. increase understanding of themselves and of their relationships to the universe.
4. retain the enthusiasm of seeking more and more knowledge
5. accept the challenge that society needs their best talents and wisdom

Why Use the Process Approach?

1. Observation - observing is the process of noting the characteristics of an object or
objects. it involves sensory perceptions such as taste, site, hearing, smell, and touch.
2. Description or communication - scribing or communicating is the process of standing but
was perceived. It requires precise verbal communication. the children should be taught
enough descriptive vocabulary to enable them to give accurate descriptions of colors,
shapes, sizes, weights, volumes, etc.
3. Classification - classifying is the process of sorting and arranging objects into meaningful
groups. the aim of providing experiences in classification is to develop the skills in
showing relationships, identifications, and noting similarities and differences.
4. Measurement - measuring is the process of determining plan, wait, there, with, area,
volume, time, and temperature objects or things. mathematics is the language of
science. The aim of providing experiences in measurement is to develop the skills in the
use of different methods of measuring and to give the children the idea of standard
measurement.
5. Inference – inferring is the process of arriving at a tentative conclusion. Inferring is
thinking about a fact based on observations or experiments.
6. Hypothesis - hypothesizing is the process of giving a tentative explanation each is yet to
be tested for validity. A hypothesis is an educated guess. Hypotheses are often followed
by experimentation
7. Prediction - prediction is the process of foretelling probable consequences based on
observable and patterned facts. the process itself is projection or prognosis. prediction
develops analytical thinking and guessing approximately what will happen next.

THE CONCEPTUAL APPROACH

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In this approach, subject matter is taught to enable pupils to develop concepts. A

concept is one's mental picture of anything - An idea, an object, or a procedure; it will vary from
one person to another, depending on previous experiences. Concepts grow and change with
experience.

It takes time to develop in pupils the ability to generalize. are the procedures used to
arrive at generalizations?

1. Select or develop a generalization on which to focus teaching.

2. Analyze the generalization to identify concepts inherent within it.
3. Determine the content necessary to help pupils understand the concepts in the
generalization.
4. Plan many invalid earning experiences to develop understanding.
5. Guide pupils to form the generalization at the most appropriate time
Conceptualization or concept formation is very different from mere verbal is a job or
memorization ask the former is properly organized and more profound than the latter.
concepts provide shortcuts which make it possible for that dance for off learning to take place
in the mind of the learner as he learns and experiences things.

Here are some useful points to remember in concept formation.

1. Concepts should always be introduced in context rather than in isolation.

2. Pupils should be given opportunity to arrive at their own meaning of the concept prior
to guidance and direction from the teacher
3. in concept formation, pupils should engage in a lot of reading, listening, and writing to
be exposed as to many situations as possible, leading to the discovery of the accurate
and complete meaning of the concepts.

Approaches to Concept Building

A. Teaching for Depth
The teacher should do what he can to have it re children to search for feelings and reasons
behind human behavior and events.

To develop depth in thinking, the teacher should

1. provide a broad background of the unit content

2. build 1 background for the pupils
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3. determine which concepts and generalizations to emphasize,

4. consider available books, films, and other materials which can be used to deepen
understanding.
5. formulate questions and problems that challenge thinking and resourcefulness.

B. Teaching for conceptual thinking

Nature should provide a careful balance between “firsthand" experiences, where many
experiences may be built “in action” and verbal experiences, where concepts are extended and
carefully defined.

An ideal learning laboratory, the classroom environment should make sense to the children,
carry them a step beyond where they were before, provide varied ways of expressing ideas,
verbal, nonverbal, graphic, artistic, or numeral

MASTREY LEARNING
Mastery learning as a strategy in my city the individual capacity and needs of the
learners. Instruction is individualized within upon text of the regular group instruction by means
of an ongoing feedback process.

Master of personal approach for raising the achievement level of other Nur, thereby
immunizing him from mental health problems. Mastery learning aims to ensure that each
student will develop to his maximum potential and thus acquire successful learning experience
each will engender self-confidence and word of mental problems.

Principles of mastery learning are as follows:

1. the learning you need is broken into its component behaviors or tasks.
2. the learning tasks are properly sequenced.
3. frequent diagnosis and progress of formative evaluation test forgiven on what is taught.
4. proper clinic teams are given to overcome group or individual weakness is revealed by
the formative tests.
5. yesterday is given enough time to attain mastery.
6. mastery of the learning task is George on the basis of a predetermined standard which is
absolute, or it will be the sole criterion of judging mastery.

Procedures in Application of the Principles

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The procedures may be subdivided into two phases - the preparatory phase and the
instructional phase.

Preparatory phase - at the start the teacher should choose a subject area that lends itself
effectively to the mastery learning approach. master a learning yields the best results in
subjects that

1. require minimal prior learning or previous learning which most learners already possess
2. are sequentially learned
3. are considered closed since they emphasize convergent rather than divergent thinking.
The next step is to break down the big you need into small learning tasks and specify the
behavioral objectives to be attained. to do this, the teacher has to identify the content
elements - the terms, the facts, the rules, and the skills, of learning needed for the mastery of
each element.

The teacher then which content elements at simpler levels are prerequisites to learning at a
more complex level so he can prepare the hierarchy of the learning tasks. the learning tasks
must be sequenced.

After the preparation of this hierarchy of learning items, the teacher should examine the
existing textbooks, workbooks, and reference books to find out which materials may be useful
in the development of the specific skills to be developed and to prepare whatever additional
exercises may be needed to achieve mastery.

The next very important step is for the teacher to construct brief and simple formative and
summative tests, which are both criteria referenced specifically geared to the specific behavior
and the objectives of the learning tasks to determine how much the pupils have learned.

Instructional phase

After the preparatory phase, the teacher is ready to present the lesson you are seeing
improve techniques in terms of interesting, challenging presentation, clear got explanation, in
orderly sequencing of elements to be mastered.

After the completion of each little learning task, the teacher should give a formative
test. The continuous giving of evaluation test is a must in mastery learning, for the feedback on
this test pinpoints the teacher which items must be retaught, which are to be reviewed, which
are to be drilled on.
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The formative test is not to be graded. some such non grade remarks, however, as
Mastery – okay; Good work; more practice needed; Review rules on… etc., should be used.
Such remarks those who have attained mastery assurance that they have gained adequacy and
that their study habits are effective.

The teacher should then interpret the feedback and provide a learner who need help
the clear S and most appropriate instructional cues, practice, end the enforcement before they
proceed to the next learning task. aren't the fit and kinds of corrective devices that may be
used. The best is the so-called small group problem sessions. The students needing help may be
divided into small groups or five or more.

Another way of grouping is the so-called diversified group. Four or five deals with very
different German strengths and weaknesses I put together in one group. in this kind of
grouping, each child is giving the trends to teach and to be taught by others of his own age.

Types of Evaluation in Mastery Learning

Adoption of mastery learning strategies will mean the use of at least three types of
evaluation: the diagnostic evaluation, the formative evaluation, the summative evaluation.

The general objective of the diagnostic evaluation is to place the child in the proper step
in the instructional sequence. It determines the extent to which each child possess entry
behaviors requisite to the attainment of the objective(s) of the common unit. The diagnostic
evaluation may be oral or written tests.

The formative evaluation is a constant on – going activity that provides information

necessary for directing subsequent or corrective teaching and learning. It serves to identify
unmastered learning areas early enough to permit their correction before the grading
evaluation.

The summative evaluation is the end of instruction evaluation, given primarily to grade
the learner’s achievement. It provides information about how the learner has changed with
respect to the aims. Summative evaluation also utilizes criterion – referenced measures;
however, in a summative test, only a subset of materials or a sample of materials covered is
included in the test.
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PROGGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

The word program refers to a planned learning pattern, which is presented to the pupils
in a sequential manner. Programmed instructions is a technique of self – instruction. Lessons
are given in small segments which require the learners to answer each bit in the learning
module before going to the next learning task.

The learners are provided opportunities to demonstrate their understanding of or their

skill in the work at hand through the presentation of instructional tasks that are graduated in
difficulty.

Although programmed instructions take many forms, all of them are characteristically
the same. It is the method of presenting materials to be learned step by step. Each step is
repeated and practiced so that the learner understands the step thoroughly before he goes to
the next step

The following sound principles of learning are best illustrated in the use of programmed
instruction:

1. learning by doing
2. learning is best facilitated through the psychological feedback afforded the learner.
3. Learning experiences provide many opportunities for the learners to progress at
their own rate.
4. Learning experiences simulate the learner’s immediate environment; hence, carry
over of learning experiences from the school to the home is assured.
5. Learning situations being utilized provide for the needs of both the slow and fast
learners. Consequently, less frustrations are experienced particularly by the slow
learners who are given chances to beat their own records. Proponents of
programmed learning:
a. Students take increased responsibility for their learning.
b. Knowledge is being generated so fast that new techniques for teaching
are imperative
c. People learn only when they master skills and ideas step by step
d. Step mastering provides a built-in reinforcement of learning
e. The constant feedback from the machines or the program provides high
incentive.
f. More content is covered in each amount of time and covered better
than by conventional methods
g. Students have, in effect, individual tutors.
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h. There is no cheating
i. Expensive machines are not necessary. Inexpensive devices, simulated
machines, and “programmed” books are satisfactory.
j. Machines do not dictate educational programs

Questions:

1. Explain the different aspects of the discovery and process approach as a teaching –
learning process, it’s advantages and disadvantages. How can the disadvantages be
minimized?

2. Analyze the steps in self-discovery as a teaching approach. how does this compare with
the problem-solving inductive methods of teaching?

3. Discussed the steps in the integrity of activity technique.

4. Explain the principles underlying the planning of integrative activity units. how do these
principles apply in other teaching approaches?

5. Explain how programmed instruction and the use of learning modules meet individual
needs.

6. What are the implications of oral communication in daily living and the school
curriculum?

7. what is common in the different discussion procedures discussed?

8. organize a group discussion utilizing any of the suggested patterns consider topics of
current interests.
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