Cancer Detection
Cancer Detection
Cancer Detection
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: A novel technique has been reported in the present research to sense the nature of different cells either normal or
Photonic crystal waveguide cancerous by employing a 2-D photonic crystal waveguid (PCW), where the suggested structure is realized
Sensing of cancer cells through 5 × 5 silicon based rods etched on a square lattice having a central defect with air as the background.
PWE To envisage accurate sensing, we have focused on two groups of live cells, out of which one is normal cell group
Electric field distribution
(INOK) and the other one is cancerous cell group (YD-10B). Plane wave expansion (PWE) method has been
Dispersion effect
Scattering loss
suitably manipulated to realize electric field distribution and peak reflected wavelength in the proposed PCW
structure. Various structure parameters such as lattice spacing, diameter of circular rods and nature of the
background material have engaged as crucial roles for the accomplishment of proper sensing of normal and
cancer cells. The simulation outcomes asserted that for normal cells, reflected wavelengths fall in the orange
color wavelength range whereas for cancerous cells, the reflected wavelengths lie in the yellow color wavelength
range. Further, the detailed investigations on negative dispersion coefficient, scattering loss and nonlinear
coefficient are carried out for the proposed structure by separately considering the normal cells and cancerous
cells. Apart from this, a high sensitivity of 2360.12 nm/RIU, a very low resolution of 1.78 × 10−6 and high
quality factor of 99.765 is achieved for the proposed sensor which claims the accuracy in sensing of normal cells
and cancerous cells. Moreover, the aforementioned sensing principles open up a convenient and simple way to
sense the cancer cells, which can find a suitable application as a biosensor in biophotonics.
1. Introduction measure in the detection and diagnosis of malignant cells [7,8]. Pho-
tonic sensors are deliberately designed for the detection of various bio
Owing to the failure of medical science towards complete treatment analytes by successfully transforming bio-entity into the electrical form
pertaining to cancer diseases, research on cancer diagnosis has been which can be easily scrutinized through the spectrometer [9–12]. The
intensified throughout the globe over the last few decades. These can- differences between normal and cancerous cells are lucidly analysed
cerous cells grow abnormally and develop as tumors, which can be through their electrical properties [13] and electric field analysis
sensed through various medical diagnosis. To mitigate the deadly effect [14,15]. Moreover, the refractive indices of different analytes emerge as
of cancer, it is indispensable to detect the same in the early stage and to important parameter to realise accurate biosensors [16–19]. Recently,
accomplish the same, numerous types of clinical investigations are of- few works have been carried out which are based on the tabulated
fered in healthcare organizations to predict the current report of the cell optical properties of numerous tissues, but sufficient information about
[1,2]. However, numerous exciting upshots vis-à-vis biophysics of the living cells may not be obtained from this table. Different optical
live cancer cell can be acquired through the knowledge of its optical, [20,21]methodologies such as solution matching [22], refractometry
chemical and mechanical properties [3–6]. Recently, the interaction of analysis [23,24] have been used for determination of the effective re-
light with cells give rise to useful information pertaining to change in fractive index of discrete living cells.
optical properties of different cells. Most importantly, the refractive Nevertheless, interesting outcomes are exposed in the aforemen-
index of the cell has gathered considerable attention and prolonged the tioned references, but lack of investigations on the local refractive index
possibilities of detection of cell abnormalities. According to cancer of cell is a matter of concern. Also, the devices and methodologies used
science, refractive indices of the normal cells are comparatively lower for sensing are quiet complex in the design point of view, which is
than that of cancerous cells, which can be regarded as a noteworthy difficult to realise practically. Apart from this, none of the listed works
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: puspa.devi@ece.nits.ac.in (P. Puspa Devi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yofte.2019.102123
Received 16 September 2019; Received in revised form 5 December 2019; Accepted 22 December 2019
1068-5200/ © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
A. Panda and P. Puspa Devi Optical Fiber Technology 54 (2020) 102123
in the literature has performed simultaneous analysis of sensor sensi- But the limitation of the above said technique is that appropriate care
tivity, resolution, quality factor and nonlinear coefficient. Moreover, has to be taken to avoid formation of more defects in the structure.
the aforesaid measuring parameters of the sensors are not up to the Nonetheless, numerous techniques offer flexibility in infiltrating ana-
mark to meet the challenge of the current sensing scenario. lytes in the central core region of PCW, Yanyi Huang et al. [26] have
Although several techniques for the detection of cancer cells have practically demonstrated an UV curable polymer and a multistep in-
been revealed in the literature, the present research is based on analysis jection-cure-cleave process, which came up as an efficient and unique
of a novel method to sense normal and cancerous cells within very little technique for selective infiltration of PCW. Thus, by following afore-
time. To the best of our knowledge, first time we have analysed the mentioned processes, normal cells and cencerous cells can be easily
sensing of cancerous cells by investigating electric field distribution in a infiltrated in the proposed structure.
simple 2D photonic crystal fiber structure. We have considered two Moreover, with the burgeoning of nanotechnology industries, our
clusters of cell lines, human immortalized normal oral keratinocyte proposed PCW structure can be easily fabricated by following various
(INOK) which in normal cells group and YD-10B cells which is can- methods such as sol-gel casting, drilling, stack and draw, extrusion
cerous [25]. Further, simultaneous analysis of peak reflected wave- [27–29]. Specifically, extrusion technique suffers from high material
length, dispersion coefficient, scattering loss, sensitivity, sensor re- loss whereas the stack and draw method and drilling method are lim-
solution, quality factor and nonlinear coefficient for both types of cell ited to closely packed geometries and few number of air holes respec-
groups enhance the novelty of the current research. Furthermore, all tively. On the other hand, sol-gel technique leads to fabrication of
the data incorporated in this research are based upon live cells, which complex geometry PCW structures. Additionally, the sol-gel technique
leads to accurate sensing of cancerous cells and normal cells. Moreover, offers great design flexibility which is indispensable for the design of
compact structure and simple methodologies are employed in this re- the proposed central defect based PCW. Also, the authors in recent
search, which can be easily realised with newly advent technologies. In researches [30,31] have experimentally validated the aforementioned
addition to this, the simultaneous measurements of wavelength and promising techniques, which lead to fabrication of different PCW
transmitted power permit the sensor operation in a wide refractive structures with infiltration of analytes in the core.
index range with an optimum resolution and quality factor. The defect is created in the photonic crystal structure by removal of
a single rod from the center which is responsible for confinement of the
2. Proposed structure and operating principle electric field within the defect area. Again, the structure parameters
such as lattice spacing, diameter of the circular rods and refractive
The current research deals with a simple 2-D square lattice type index of background material are suitably optimized to envisage ac-
photonic crystal structure consist of 5 × 5 silicon based circular rods curate sensing of cancerous cells. The dimension of the proposed square
etched on it including a defect at the centre, whereas the background lattice structure is considered to be 5 × 5 μm2 where lattice spacing is
material is considered to be air and the same has been delineated in chosen as 1000 nm, the diameter of each circular rod is selected as
Fig. 1. The primary reason behind choosing such type of structure is to 450 nm and height of the silicon based rods is considered to be 500 nm.
exploit the effect of excellent light guidance through the defect area. The foremost reason for selecting the aforementioned values is that
The proposed central defect based PCW is a hollow core fiber, where perfect sensing characteristics can be perceived at these values of
the central defect acts as the core and surrounding silicon based rods act structure parameters only. The refractive indices at the wavelength of
as cladding. The prime principle behind efficient light guidance through 650 nm for INOK and YD-10B are listed in Table 1. From this table, it
the defect is the bandgap guiding mechanism. The bandgap is basically has been clear that the refractive index of cancerous cell is higher as
prohibited wavelength ranges, in which light is reflected back and compared to that of normal cell. This notable variation in the refractive
therefore unable to travel through the structure. Hence, owing to the index between normal cell and cancer cell is marked as a consequence
presence of bandgap, light is confined to the central defect region only of speedy cell splitting and multiplication in the number of cancer cells
and thus cannot penetrate to the periodic cladding structure, which leading to greater absorption of protein particles in the cellular orga-
creates a low loss waveguide along the defect area. nelles. This higher concentrations of protein particles is mainly re-
With the advent of new technologies, filling of air holes with dif- sponsible for the increase in the refractive index of cancerous cell.
ferent analytes in the proposed PCW is possible. Analytes can be filled Further, plane wave expansion method is manipulated with the
into the defect area by arc-fusion technique under high temperature. suggested photonic structure where the incident light wavelength is
taken as 650 nm. Furthermore, each of the considered live cells which
are listed in Table 1, are infiltrated in the central defect area and si-
mulated separately to achieve peak value of emitted electric field in-
tensity. Again, reflectance from the suggested structure is investigated
from the electric field and it is revealed that reflected wavelengths fall
in orange color wavelength for normal tissues whereas reflected wa-
velengths lie in yellow color wavelength range for the cancerous cells.
The above said sensing principle is realised at the optimized value of
structure parameters only. Apart from this, a significant shift is
Table 1
Refractive indices (R.I.) of normal cell group (INOK) and cancer cell group (YD-
10B) [25].
Normal cell group Cancer cell group
R.I. R.I.
2
A. Panda and P. Puspa Devi Optical Fiber Technology 54 (2020) 102123
3
A. Panda and P. Puspa Devi Optical Fiber Technology 54 (2020) 102123
Fig. 3. (a): Signal emerged from defect area for cell 1 of YD-10B cell group (b):
Fig. 2. (a): Signal emerged from defect area for cell 1 of INOK cell group (b): Electric field distribution for cell 1 of YD-10B cell group.
Electric field distribution for cell 1 of INOK cell group.
4
A. Panda and P. Puspa Devi Optical Fiber Technology 54 (2020) 102123
Table 2
List of peak intensity of the electric field and reflected wavelength for both
normal cells and cancerous cells.
Cell group Cell line Peak Peak reflected
intensity of wavelength
electric field (nm)
(V/μm)
Fig. 4. Variation in transmitted power and peak reflected wavelength for different infiltrated cells.
5
A. Panda and P. Puspa Devi Optical Fiber Technology 54 (2020) 102123
2.4 dB/km is obtained for cancer cells whereas scattering of 1.1 dB/km An innovative approach is presented in the current research to sense
is observed for normal cells at the incident wavelength of 650 nm. This cancerous cells by employing 2D photonic crystal waveguide which
notable increase in scattering is apparent owing to the abnormalities consist of 5 × 5 silicon based circular rods suspended in the air as
that lie with the cancer cells. Hence the proposed photonic crystal fiber background with a defect at the center. Further PWE computational
is proficient towards exploiting sensing of infiltrated cells. method is employed to envisage electric field distribution and peak
Nonlinear coefficient is an important parameter of PCW to judge its reflected wavelength for each normal cells and cancerous cells by in-
potential towards sensing application, hence a high value of nonlinear filtrating them separately in the defect area. Remarkably, simulation
coefficient is desirable in PCW for efficient photonic sensors. Fig. 7 il- outcomes revealed that for normal cells, reflected wavelengths (604 nm
lustrates the variation of nonlinear coefficient with respect to the op- to 623 nm) fall in the orange color wavelength range whereas for
erating wavelength. From this figure, it is explored that nonlinearity is cancerous cells the reflected wavelengths (565 nm to 579 nm) belong to
more at lower wavelength as compared to higher wavelength. The yellow color wavelength range. Furthermore, transmitted power is
primary reason behind the above statement is that lower wavelength analyzed numerically where it is asserted that the suggested structure
fetches more vibration of atoms, which leads to increase the interaction emits substantially more power for cancerous cells. Also, simulation
of photons with the atoms in the crystal structure and produces more upshots of dispersion effect, scattering loss and nonlinear coefficient
nonlinearity. Also, the simulation upshots revealed that nonlinearity is exposed that cancerous cells are possessed with low negative disper-
more for cancer cells as compared to the normal cells due to small ef- sion, high scattering loss and high nonlinear coefficient as compared to
fective mode area for cancer cells. A high nonlinear coefficient of normal cells. Finally, it is revealed that maximum sensitivity of
100.6 W−1 Km−1 and 96.62 W−1 Km−1 is obtained in the proposed 2360.12 nm/RIU, a very low resolution of 1.78 × 10−6 and high
PCW for cell 1 of cancer cell and normal cell group respectively, which quality factor of 99.765 can be achieved for the proposed sensor, which
can act as a potential parameter for sensing of cancer cells. claim the effectiveness of the sensor. So, with the above stated sensing
Subsequently, we move on to explore the sensitivity of both normal principles, the proposed structure can be an apt candidate for biopho-
and cancerous cells using analytical Eq. (14). Here, we have realized tonics applications.
that a higher sensitivity of 2360.12 nm/RIU is obtained for cancerous
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to extend their hearty thanks to the re-
viewers for their meticulous analysis of the manuscript and making
valuable suggestions for improving the quality and significance of the
Fig. 7. Variation of nonlinear coefficient as a function of wavelength. manuscript for the scientific community.
6
A. Panda and P. Puspa Devi Optical Fiber Technology 54 (2020) 102123
Table 3
Performance comparison with different sensors.
Sensor structure Maximum sensitivity (nm/RIU) Resolution (RIU) Quality factor (Q) Reference
−5
Multi-hole PCF sensor 2000 nm/RIU 2.70 × 10 ———— [12]
Tapered fiber coupler 2171 nm/RIU 1.40 × 10−5 ———— [16]
θ-shaped microfiber resonator 2060.07 nm/RIU ———— ———— [17]
Birefringent PCF sensor 2000 nm/RIU 3.00 × 10−5 ———— [18]
Gold coated circular PCF sensor 2200 nm/RIU 3.75 × 10−5 ———— [19]
2-D PCF based refractive index biosensor 720 nm/RIU ———— 25–30 [11]
Square lattice defect based PCW sensor 2360.12 nm/RIU 1.78 × 10−6 99.765 Proposed work
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