Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER 5
SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS
5.1. Introduction
A second-order circuit is characterized by a second-order differential equation. It consists of
resistors and the equivalent of two energy storage elements. Typical examples of second-order
circuits are RLC circuits, in which the three kinds of passive elements are present.

Figure: Series RLC Circuit, Parallel RLC Circuit, |RL Circuit and RC Circuits
5.2. Finding Initial and Final Values
There are two key points to keep in mind in determining the initial conditions.
First, as always in circuit analysis, we must carefully handle the polarity of voltage V(t) across
the capacitor and the direction of the current i(t) through the inductor. Keep in mind that v and i
are defined strictly according to the passive sign convention.
Second, keep in mind that the capacitor voltage is always continuous so that 𝒗(𝟎+ ) = 𝒗(𝟎− )
and the inductor current is always continuous so that 𝒊(𝟎+ ) = 𝒊(𝟎− ). Where 𝒕 = 𝟎− denotes the
time just before a switching event and 𝒕 = 𝟎+ is the time just after the switching event, assuming
that the switching event takes place at 𝒕 = 𝟎 . Thus, in finding initial conditions, we first focus
on those variables that cannot change abruptly, capacitor voltage and inductor current.
Example 1: The switch in the circuit shown below has been closed for a long time. It is open
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑣
at 𝒕 = 𝟎. Find (a). 𝑖(0+ ), 𝑣(0+ ) (b). 𝑑𝑡 (0+ ), (0+ ) (c). 𝑖(∞), 𝑣(∞)
𝑑𝑡

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Solution:
(a). If the switch is closed a long time before 𝒕 = 𝟎 , it means that the circuit has reached dc
steady state at 𝒕 = 𝟎. At dc steady state, the inductor acts like a short circuit, while the capacitor
acts like an open circuit.

Figure: (A). 𝑡 = 0− (B). 𝑡 = 0+ (C). 𝑡 → ∞

𝟏𝟐
𝒊(𝟎− ) = = 𝟐𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗(𝟎− ) = 𝟐𝒊(𝟎− ) = 𝟐 ∗ 𝟐 = 𝟒𝑽
𝟒+𝟐
As the inductor current and the capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly:
𝒊(𝟎+ ) = 𝒊(𝟎− ) = 𝟐𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗(𝟎+ ) = 𝒗(𝟎− ) = 𝟒𝑽
(b). At 𝒕 = 𝟎+ , the switch is open, as shown in the equivalent circuit. The same current flows
through both the inductor and capacitor. Hence,
𝒊𝑪 (𝟎+ ) = 𝒊(𝟎+ ) = 𝟐𝑨 ,
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒗 𝒊𝑪 𝒅𝒗(𝟎+ ) 𝒊𝑪 (𝟎+ ) 𝟐 𝑽
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑪 = 𝒊𝑪 ⇒ = 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, = = = 𝟐𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑪 𝒅𝒕 𝑪 𝟎. 𝟏 𝑺
Similarly, since
𝒅𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝒗𝑳
𝑳 = 𝒗𝑳 ⇒ =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑳
To obtain 𝒗𝑳 we have to apply KVL at the loop:
−𝟏𝟐 + 𝟒𝒊(𝟎+ ) + 𝒗𝑳 (𝟎+ ) + 𝒗(𝟎+ ) = 𝟎
𝒗𝑳 (𝟎+ ) = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟒𝒊(𝟎+ ) − 𝒗(𝟎+ ) = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟖 − 𝟒 = 𝟎𝑽

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𝒅𝒊(𝟎+ ) 𝒗𝑳 (𝟎+ ) 𝟎 𝑨
𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔, = = =𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝑳 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝑺
(c). For t > 0, the circuit undergoes transience. But as 𝒕 → ∞, the circuit reaches steady state
again. The inductor acts like a short circuit and the capacitor like an open circuit, so that,
𝒊(∞) = 𝟎 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗(∞) = 𝟏𝟐 𝑽

Example 2: For the circuit shown below,

calculate
(a). 𝑖𝐿 (0+ ) , 𝑣𝐶 (0+ ) , 𝑣𝑅 (0+ )
𝑖𝐿 (0+ ) 𝑑𝑣𝐶 (0+ ) 𝑑𝑣𝑅 (0+ )
(b) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

(c). 𝑖𝐿 ( ∞), 𝑣𝑅 (∞) , 𝑣𝐶 (∞) ,

Solution:
(a). For t < 0, 3u(t) = 0. At 𝒕 = 𝟎− , since the circuit has reached steady state, the inductor can be
replaced by a short circuit, while the capacitor is replaced by an open circuit
𝒊𝑳 (𝟎− ) = 𝟎 𝒗𝑹 (𝟎− ) = 𝟎 𝒗𝑪 (𝟎− ) = 𝟎
Although the derivatives of these quantities at 𝒕 = 𝟎− are not required, it is evident that they are
all zero, since the circuit has reached steady
state and nothing changes.

Figure: For (a). 𝑡 = 0− (b). 𝑡 = 0+

For 𝒕 > 𝟎, 𝟑𝒖(𝒕) = 𝟑 so that the circuit is now equivalent to that in Figure (b). Since the
inductor current and capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly,
𝒊𝑳 (𝟎+ ) = 𝒊𝑳 (𝟎− ) = 𝟎 𝒗𝑪 (𝟎+ ) = 𝒗𝑪 (𝟎− ) = −𝟐𝟎 𝑽
Although the voltage across the 4Ω resistor is not required, we will use it to apply KVL and
KCL; let it be called 𝒗𝒐 Applying KCL at node a gives,

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𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) 𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ )
𝟑= +
𝟐 𝟒
Applying KVL to the middle mesh:
−𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) + 𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ ) + 𝒗𝑪 (𝟎+ ) + 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒗𝑪 (𝟎+ ) = −𝟐𝟎
−𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) + 𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ ) − 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) = 𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ )
𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) 𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ )
Then, 𝟑 = + ⇒ 𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) = 𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ ) = 𝟒 𝑽
𝟐 𝟒
𝒅𝒊𝑳 𝒅𝒊𝑳 (𝟎+ ) 𝒗𝑳 (𝟎+ )
(b). 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑳 𝒅𝒕
= 𝒗𝑳 ⇒ 𝒅𝒕
= 𝑳

But applying KVL to the right mesh:

𝒅𝒊𝑳 (𝟎+ ) 𝒗𝑳 (𝟎+ ) 𝟎 𝑨
𝒗𝑳 (𝟎+ ) = 𝒗𝑪 (𝟎+ ) + 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎 Hence, = = 𝟎.𝟔 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝑳 𝒔
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒗 𝒊𝑪
Since, 𝑪 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒊𝑪 ⇒ = , We apply KCL at node b to get iC
𝒅𝒕 𝑪

𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ ) 𝟒
= 𝒊𝑪 (𝟎+ ) + 𝒊𝑳 (𝟎+ ) ⇒ = 𝒊𝑪 (𝟎+ ) + 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒊𝑪 (𝟎+ ) = 𝟏 𝑨 Then,
𝟒 𝟒
𝒅𝒗𝑪 (𝟎+ ) 𝒊𝑪 (𝟎+ ) 𝟏 𝑽
= = = 𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝑪 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔
To get 𝑣𝑅 (0+ )/𝑑𝑡 , we apply KCL at node a and obtain
𝒗𝑹 𝒗𝒐
𝟑= +
𝟐 𝟒
Taking the derivative of each term and setting 𝑡 = 0+ gives ∶
𝒅𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) 𝒅𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ )
𝟎= 𝟐 + … … … … … (∗)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
We also apply KVL to the middle mesh and obtain:
−𝒗𝑹 + 𝒗𝒐 + 𝒗𝑪 + 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎
Again, taking the derivative of each term and setting 𝒕 = 𝟎+ yields ∶
−𝒅𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) 𝒅𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ ) 𝒅𝒗𝑪 (𝟎+ ) 𝒅𝒗𝑪 (𝟎+ )
+ + =𝟎 𝒃𝒖𝒕, = 𝟐 𝑽/𝒔
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) 𝒅𝒗𝒐 (𝟎+ )
=𝟐+ … … … … … … (∗∗)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
From Equation (*) and (**) we get:
𝒅𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) 𝟐
= 𝑽/𝒔
𝒅𝒕 𝟑

Since, 𝒗𝑹 = 𝟓𝒊𝑹 then we find 𝒊𝑹 (𝟎+ )/𝒅𝒕 :

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𝒅𝒊𝑹 (𝟎+ ) 𝟏 𝒅𝒗𝑹 (𝟎+ ) 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐

= = ∗ = 𝑨/𝒔
𝒅𝒕 𝟓 𝒅𝒕 𝟓 𝟑 𝟏𝟓

(c). As 𝑡 → ∞, the circuit reaches steady state. We have the equivalent circuit in Figure (a)
except that the 3-A current source is now operative. By current di0vision principle,
2 4
𝑖𝐿 (∞) = 3= 1𝐴 𝑣𝑅 (∞) = 3 ∗ 2 = 4 𝑉 𝑣𝑅 (∞) = −20 𝑉
2+4 2+4
5.3. The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit
An understanding of the natural response of the series RLC circuit is a necessary background for
future studies in filter design and communications networks.
Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Figure shown below.

Figure: A source-free series RLC circuit

The circuit is being excited by the energy initially stored in the capacitor and inductor. The
energy is represented by the initial capacitor voltage 𝑉0and initial inductor current 𝐼0 . Thus, at t =
0,
𝟏 𝟎
𝒗(𝟎) = ∫ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊(𝟎) = 𝑰𝟎 … … … … (𝟏)
𝑪 −∞
Applying KVL around the loop in figure shown above:
𝒅𝒊 𝟏 𝒕
𝑹𝒊 + 𝑳 + ∫ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎 … … … … … (𝟐)
𝒅𝒕 𝑪 −∞
To eliminate the integral, we differentiate with respect to t and rearrange terms. We get
𝒅𝟐 𝒊 𝑹 𝒅𝒊 𝒊
𝟐
+ + = 𝟎 … … … … (𝟑)
𝒅𝒕 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 𝑳𝑪

This is a second-order differential equation and is the reason for calling the RLC circuits is a
second-order circuits. To solve such a second-order differential equation requires that we have
two initial conditions, such as the initial value of i and its first derivative or initial values of some
i and v. The initial value of i is 𝒊(𝟎) = 𝑰𝟎 . We get the initial value of the derivative of i from
Equation (*) and (**) that is:
𝒅𝒊(𝟎) 𝒅𝒊(𝟎) 𝟏
𝑹𝒊(𝟎) + 𝑳 + 𝑽𝟎 = 𝟎 ⇒ = − (𝑹𝑰𝟎 + 𝑽𝟎 ) … … … … (𝟒)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑳
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With the two initial conditions in Equation (1) and (4), we can now solve Equation (3).Our
experience in the preceding chapter on first-order circuits suggests that the solution is of
exponential form. So we let 𝒊 = 𝑨𝒆𝑺𝒕 … … … … … (𝟓)
Where A and s are constants to be determined. Substituting Equation (5) into Equation (3) and
carrying out the necessary differentiations, we obtain
𝑨𝑹 𝒔𝒕 𝑨 𝒔𝒕 𝑹 𝟏
𝑨𝒔𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝒕 + 𝒔𝒆 + 𝒆 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝑨𝒆𝒔𝒕 (𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + ) = 𝟎
𝑳 𝑳𝑪 𝑳 𝑳𝑪
𝑺𝒕
Since 𝒊 = 𝑨𝒆 is the assumed solution we are trying to find; only the expression in parentheses
can be zero:
𝑹 𝟏
(𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + ) = 𝟎 … … … … . (𝟔)
𝑳 𝑳𝑪

This quadratic equation is known as the characteristic equation of the differential Equation (3),
since the roots of the equation dictate the character of i. The two roots of Equation (6) are

𝑹 𝑹 𝟐 𝟏
𝒔𝟏 = − + √( ) − … … … … … … (𝟕)
𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝑳 𝑳𝑪

𝑹 𝑹 𝟐 𝟏
𝒔𝟐 = − √
− ( ) − … … … … … … (𝟖)
𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝑳 𝑳𝑪
A more compact way of expressing the roots is:

𝑠1 = −𝛼 + √(𝛼 2 − 𝜔02 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠2 = −𝛼 − √(𝛼 2 − 𝜔02 )

Where
𝑹 𝟏
𝜶= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝎𝟎 =
𝟐𝑳 √𝑳𝑪
The roots 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are called natural frequencies, measured in nepers per second (Np/s), because
they are associated with the natural response of the circuit; is known as the resonant frequency or
strictly as the undamped natural frequency, expressed in radians per second (rad/s); and is the
neper frequency or the damping factor, expressed in nepers per second. In terms of and, Eq. (8.8)
can be written as: 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝜶𝑺 + 𝝎𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎
Thus, the natural response of the series RLC circuit is
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏𝒕 + 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏𝒕

Where the constants 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are determined from the initial values of i(0) and di(0)/dt. We can
infer that there are three types of solutions:
If 𝜶 > 𝝎𝟎 , we have the over-damped case.
If 𝜶 = 𝝎𝟎 , we have the critically-damped case.
If 𝜶 < 𝝎𝟎 , we have the under-damped case.
1. Over-damped case (𝜶 > 𝝎𝟎 )

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𝜶 > 𝝎𝟎 Implies that, 𝐶 > 4𝐿/𝑅 2 . When this happens, both roots 𝑠1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠2 are negative and
real. The response is:
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏𝒕 + 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏𝒕
2. Critically-damped case (𝜶 = 𝝎𝟎 )
𝑹
When = 𝜔0 , C = 4L/R2 and 𝜶 = 𝝎𝟎 = then the response will be:
𝟐𝑳

𝒅𝟐 𝒊 𝑹 𝒅𝒊 𝒊 𝒅𝟐 𝒊 𝒅𝒊
+ + = 𝟎 ⇒ + 𝟐𝜶 + 𝜶𝟐 𝒊 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 𝑳𝑪 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝒅𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝒅𝒊
( + 𝜶𝒊) + 𝜶 ( + 𝜶𝒊) = 𝟎 Let, 𝒇= + 𝜶𝒊 Then, the equation becomes
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒇
+ 𝜶𝒇 = 𝟎 Which is a first order differential equation with solution 𝒇 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆−𝜶𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝒅
+ 𝜶𝒊 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 ⇒ ( 𝒆𝜶𝒕 + 𝒆𝜶𝒕 𝜶𝒊) = 𝑨𝟏 ⇔ ( 𝒆𝜶𝒕 𝒊) = 𝑨𝟏 Integreting both sides
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅
∫ ( 𝒆𝜶𝒕 𝒊)𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝑨𝟏 𝑑𝑡 ⇔ 𝒊 = (𝑨𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 ) 𝒆−𝜶𝒕
𝒅𝒕
Hence, the natural response of the critically damped circuit is a sum of two terms: a negative
exponential and a negative exponential multiplied by a linear term, or
𝒊 = (𝑨𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 )𝒆−𝜶𝒕
3. Under-damped case (𝜶 < 𝝎𝟎 )
For 𝛼 < 𝜔0 and 𝐶 < 4𝐿/𝑅 2, the roots may be written:

𝑆1 = −𝛼 + √−(𝜔02 − 𝛼 2 ) = −𝛼 + 𝑗𝜔𝑑

𝑆2 = −𝛼 − √−(𝜔02 − 𝛼 2 ) = −𝛼 − 𝑗𝜔𝑑

Where, 𝑗 = √−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑑 = √(𝜔02 − 𝛼 2 ) which is called the damping frequency. Both
𝜔0 and 𝜔𝑑 are natural frequencies because they help to determine the natural response; while 𝜔0
is often called the undamped natural frequency, 𝜔𝑑 is called the damped natural frequency.
The natural frequency is:
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆−(𝜶−𝒋𝝎𝒅)𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆−(𝜶+𝒋𝝎𝒅)𝒕 = 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒅𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆−𝒋𝝎𝒅𝒕 )
Using Euler’s identities: 𝒆𝒋𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆−𝒋𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 we get,
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 [𝑨𝟏 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝒋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒅 𝒕) + 𝑨𝟐 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 − 𝒋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒅 𝒕)]
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 [(𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝒋[(𝑨𝟏 − 𝑨𝟐 ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒅 𝒕]
Replacing constants (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 ) and 𝑗(𝐴1 − 𝐴2 ) with constants 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 we write:

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𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 [𝑩𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝒋𝑩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒅 𝒕]

With the presence of sine and cosine functions, it is clear that the natural response for this case is
exponentially damped and oscillatory in nature.

Figure: (a). Over-damped response (b). Critically-damped response (c). Under-damped response
Example-1: For the circuit shown below if R = 40Ω, L = 4H and C = ¼ F. Calculate the
characteristic roots of the circuit. Is the natural response over-damped, under-damped, or
critically damped?

Solution: We first calculate:

𝑹 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
𝜶= = = = 𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅
𝟐𝑳 𝟐 ∗ 𝟒 𝟖
𝟏 𝟏
𝝎𝟎 = = =𝟏
√𝑳𝑪 𝟏
√𝟒 ∗
𝟒
The roots are:

𝑺𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝟐 = −𝟗. 𝟖𝟗𝟗

Since𝛼 > 𝜔0 , we can conclude that the response is over-damped. This is also evident from the
fact that the roots are real and negative.
Example-2: Find 𝑖(𝑡) in the circuit shown below. Assume that the circuit has reached steady
state at 𝑡 = 0− .

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 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Solution:
For t < 0, Switch is closed

For t > 0, Switch is opened

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3Ω + 6Ω = 9Ω
The roots are calculated as follows:

Hence, the response is underdamped (𝜶 < 𝝎𝟎 ) that is:

We know obtain A1 and A2 using initial condition at t = 0

𝒅𝒊(𝟎) 𝟏
= − 𝑳 (𝑹𝑰𝟎 + 𝑽𝟎 ) = −𝟐[(𝟗 ∗ 𝟏) − 𝟔] = −𝟔𝑨/𝒔
𝒅𝒕

Then at t = 0, gives

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 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

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