Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 2017/18

E1ECHAPTER ONE
BASIC CONCEPTS
1.1. Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon which all
branches of electrical engineering are built. Many branches of electrical engineering, such as power,
electric machines, control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric
circuit theory.
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from one
point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is
referred to as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is known as an element.
o An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

Figure 0: A simple electric circuit.

A simple electric circuit is shown in Fig. 1 it consists of three basic elements: a battery, a lamp, and
connecting wires. Such a simple circuit can exist by itself; it has several applications, such as a
flashlight, a search light, and so forth.
Electric circuits are used in numerous electrical systems to accomplish different tasks. Our objective
is the analysis of the circuits. By the analysis of a circuit, we mean a study of the behavior of the
circuit: How does it respond to a given input? How do the interconnected elements and devices in
the circuit interact?
We commence our study by defining some basic concepts. These concepts include charge, current,
voltage, circuit elements, power, and energy.

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1.2. Systems of Units

International measurement language is the International System of Units (SI), adopted by the
General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960. In this system, there are seven principal units
from which the units of all other physical quantities can be derived. Table 1 shows these units, their
symbols, and the physical quantities they represent.

Quantity Basic unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of Substance Mole mol
Table 0: Basic SI units and their symbols
Multiplier Prefix Symbol Multiplier Prefix Symbol
1018 Exa E 10-1 Deci d
1015 Peta P 10-2 Centi c
1012 Tera T 10-3 Milli m
109 Giga G 10-6 Micro µ
106 Mega M 10-9 Nano n
103 Kilo K 10-12 Pico p
102 Hector H 10-15 Femto f
101 Deka da 101-8 Atto a

Table 2: The SI prefixes

1.3. Charge and Current

The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We all experience the effect of
electric charge when we try to remove our wool sweater and have it stick to our body or walk across
a carpet and receive a shock.
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured
in coulombs (C).

All matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atoms and that each atom consists of
electrons, protons, and neutrons. The charge e on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to

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Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 2017/18

1.602 x 10-19 C, while a proton carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as the electron. The
presence of equal numbers of protons and electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.
The following points should be noted about electric charge:
1. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are 1 / (1.602 x 10 -19) = 6.24 x
1018 electrons. The real laboratory values of charges are on the order of pC, nC, or C.
2. According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in nature are integral
multiples of the electronic charge e = -1.602 x 10-19 C.
3. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed,
only transferred. Thus the sum of the electric charges in a system does not change.
A unique feature of electric charge or electricity is the fact that it is mobile; that is, it can be
transferred from one place to another, where it can be converted to another form of energy.

Figure 1: Electric current due to flow of electronic charge in a conductor

When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of
electromotive force), the charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction
while negative charges move in the opposite direction. This motion of charges creates electric
current. It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges. That is,
opposite of the flow of negative charges, as Fig. 2 illustrates. This convention was introduced by
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), the American scientist and inventor. The current in metallic
conductors is due to negatively charged electrons, and that current is the net flow of positive charges.

Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is
dq
i=Δ ……………………………………………………… (1.1)
dt

Where current is measured in amperes (A), and 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

The charge transferred between time and t is obtained by integrating both sides of Eq. (1.1).

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Q=∫ idt ………………………………………………………… (1.2)

¿

The way we define current as i in Eq. (1.1) suggests that current need not be a constant-valued
function. There can be several types of current; that is, charge can vary with time in several ways. If
the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc).
o A Direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time.
By convention the symbol I is used to represent such a constant current. A time-varying current is
represented by the symbol i. A common form of time-varying current is the sinusoidal current or
alternating current (ac).
o An Alternating current (AC) is a current that varies sinusoid ally with time.
The direction of current flow is conventionally taken as the direction of positive charge movement.
Based on this convention, a current of 5 A may be represented positively or negatively as shown in
Fig. 1.3.

Figure 2: Conventional current flow: (a) positive current flow, (b) negative current flow.
In other words, a negative current of -5 A flowing in one direction as shown in Fig. 3(b) is the same
as a current of +5 A flowing in the opposite direction.
Example1: How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?
Solution: Since each electron has -1.602 x 10 -19 C. Hence 4,600 electrons will have -1.602 x 10 -19
C/electron X 4,600 electrons = -7.369 x 10-16 C.
Example 2: The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin4 π t mC.
Calculate the current at t = 0.5s.
Solution: i = dq/dt = d/dt (5t sin4 π t) mC/s = (5 sin4 π t + 20 π t cos4 π t) mA
At t = 0.5, i = 5 sin 2 π + 10 π cos2 π = 0 + 10 π = 31.42 mA
Problem: If q = (10 - 10e- 2t) mC, find the current at t = 0.5s. Ans: 7.36 mA.

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Example 3: Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1s and t = 2s, if the current
passing the terminal is i=( 3 t 2−t )A.
Solution:
2 2

( )
2
∫ i dt=∫ ( 3 t 2−t ) dt=t3− t2 ∨12=( 8−2 )− 1− 12 =5.5 C
t =1 1

1.4. Voltage
To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy transfer.
This work is performed by an external electromotive force (EMF), known as voltage or potential
difference.
Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge through an
element, measured in volts (V).

The voltage VAB between two points A and B in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to
move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically,

dw
V ab=Δ ……………………………………………………………………… (1.3)
dq

Where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage V AB or simply v is
measured in volts (V), named in honor of, the Italian physicist Alessandro Antonio Volta (1745–
1827), who invented the first voltaic battery. From Eq. (1.3), it is evident that

1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb

Figure 1.4 shows the voltage across an element (represented by a rectangular block) connected to
points a and b.

Figure 3: Polarity of voltage Vab

The plus (+) and minus (-) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage polarity. The V ab can
be interpreted in two ways:

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(1) Point a is at a potential of Vab volts higher than point b, or

(2) The potential at point a with respect to point b is Vab.

It follows logically that in general

Vab = -Vba
Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric circuits. The common term signal is used
for an electric quantity such as a current or a voltage (or even electromagnetic wave) when it is used
for conveying information. Engineers prefer to call such variables signals rather than mathematical
functions of time because of their importance in communications and other disciplines. Like electric
current, a constant voltage is called a DC voltage and is represented by V, whereas a sinusoidal time-
varying voltage is called an AC voltage and is represented by v. A DC voltage is commonly
produced by a battery; AC voltage is produced by an electric generator.

1.5. Power and Energy

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).
We write this relationship as
dw
p= ……………………………………………………………………… (1.5)
dt

Where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s). From Eqs.
(1.1), (1.3), and (1.5), it follows that

dw
∗dq
dw dq …………………………………………. (1.6)
p= = =vi
dt dt

p=vi ………………………………………………………..……. (1.7)

The power p in Eq. (1.7) is a time-varying quantity and is called the instantaneous power. Thus, the
power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage across the element and the
current through it. If the power has a [+] sign, power is being delivered to or absorbed by the
element. If, on the other hand, the power has a [-] sign, power is being supplied by the element.
Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive terminal of
an element and P = +VI. If the current enters through the negative terminal, p = -VI

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Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in determining the sign of power. It is
therefore important that we pay attention to the relationship between current i and voltage v in Fig.
5(a). The voltage polarity and current direction must conform to those shown in Fig. 5(a) in order for
the power to have a positive sign. This is known as the passive sign convention. By the passive sign
convention, current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage.

In this case p = +vi or vi > 0, or implies that the element is absorbing power. However, if p = -vi or vi
< 0, as in Fig. 1.5(b), the element is releasing or supplying power. Unless otherwise stated, we will
follow the passive sign convention throughout this course.

Figure 4: Reference polarities for power using

the passive sign convention:
(a) Absorbing power,
(b) Supplying power.

An absorbing power of + W is equivalent to a supplying power of - W. In general,

+ Power absorbed = - Power supplied

In fact, the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason, the
algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:

∑ p=0……………………………………….……………….. (1.8)
This again confirms the fact that the total power supplied to the circuit must balance the total power
absorbed.

o Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where

1 Wh = 3,600 J
Example 1: An energy source forces a constant current of 2 A for 10 s to flow through a light bulb.
If 2.3 kJ is given off in the form of light and heat energy, calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.

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Solution: The total charge is Δq = i Δ t = 2 x 10 C = 20 C.

The voltage drop is v = dw/dq = 2.3 x 10 3 / 20 = 115 V.
Example 2: Find the power delivered to an element at t = 3 ms if the current entering its positive
terminal is i = 5cos60 π t A and voltage is (a) v = 3i (b) v = 3 di/dt
Solution:
(a) The voltage is v = 3i = 15cos60 π t hence, the power is p = vi = 75cos260 π t W
At t = 3ms,

p = 75cos2 (60 π x 3 x 10 -3) = 75 cos2 0.18 π = 53.48 W

(b) We find the voltage and the power as

di 3 d ( 5 cos 60 π t )
v=3 = =3 (−60 π ) ( sin 60 πt )=−900 π ( sin 60 πt )
dt dt

p=vi=[ −900 π ( sin 60 πt ) ] [ 5 cos 60 π t ] =−4500 π∗sin 60 πt∗cos 60 π t

At t=3 msec,

0 0
p=−4500 π∗sin 0.18 π∗cos 0.18 π=−4500 π∗sin 32.4 ∗cos 32.4

p=−6.396 kW

Example 3: How much energy does a 100-W electric bulb consume in two hours?
Solution:
min sec
w= pt =100 W∗2hr∗60 ∗60 =720,000 J =720 kJ
hr min
w= pt =100 w∗2 hr=200 wh

1.6. Circuit Elements

An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the elements. Circuit analysis is the process of
determining voltages across (or the currents through) the elements of the circuit.

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There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active elements. An
active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not. Examples of passive
elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements include generators,
batteries, and operational amplifiers.
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power to the
circuit connected to them. There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources.

o An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or

current that is completely independent of other circuit elements.

In other words, an ideal independent voltage source delivers to the circuit whatever current is
necessary to maintain its terminal voltage. Physical sources such as batteries and generators may be
regarded as approximations to ideal voltage sources. The key idea to keep in mind is that a voltage
source comes with polarities in its symbol, while a current source comes with an arrow, irrespective
of what it depends on.

Figure 6 shows the symbols for independent voltage sources. Notice that both symbols in Fig. 1.6 (a)
and (b) can be used to represent a dc voltage source

Figure 5: Symbols for independent voltage sources:

(a) Used for constant or time-varying voltage,

(b) Used for constant voltage (dc).

Similarly, an ideal independent current source is an active element that provides a specified current
completely independent of the voltage across the source. That is, the current source delivers to the
circuit whatever voltage is necessary to maintain the designated current where the arrow indicates
the direction of current i.

o An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity
is controlled by another voltage or current.

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Figure 6 independent current source. Figure 07 (a) dependent voltage, (b) dependent current source.

Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.8. Since
the control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in the
circuit, and the source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are four possible types of
dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements
such as transistors, operational amplifiers, and
integrated circuits.
It should be noted that an ideal voltage source
(dependent or independent) will produce any current
required to ensure that the terminal voltage is as stated,
whereas an ideal current source will produce the necessary voltage to ensure the stated current flow.
Thus, an ideal source could in theory supply an infinite amount of energy. It should also be noted
that not only do sources supply power to a circuit, they can absorb power from a circuit too. For a
voltage source, the voltage but not the current supplied or drawn by it. Similarly, the current
supplied by a current source but not the voltage across it.

Example: Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in Figure below

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Solution:
We apply the sign convention for power shown in Figs. 1.7 and 1.8. For p1, the 5-A current is out of
the positive terminal (or into the negative terminal); hence,
P1 = 20(-5) = -100 W, Supplied power

For P2 and P3, the current flows into the positive terminal of the element in each case.

P2 = 12(5) = 60W, Absorbed power

P3 = 8(6) = 48W, Absorbed power

For P4, we should note that the voltage is 8 V (positive at the top), the same as the voltage for P3
since both the passive element and the dependent source are connected to the same terminals.
(Remember that voltage is always measured across an element in a circuit.) Since the current flows
out of the positive terminal,
P4 = 8(-0.2I) = 8(-0.2 x 5) = -8W, Supplied power
We should observe that the 20-V independent voltage source and 0.2I dependent current source are
supplying power to the rest of the network, while the two passive elements are absorbing power.
Also,
P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 = -100+60+48-8 = 0
In agreement with Eq. (1.8), the total power supplied equals the total power absorbed.

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