WEST ey Eau te acucuies For V Semester B.E. Ce om New Syllabus of VTU i P J.B.K. Das « #f pa MeCN]Design of Machine Elements - 1 - For V Semester B.E. Students, by Prot. J.B.K. Das and PL, Srinivasa Murthy published by Sapna Book House (P) Ltd., R.O. #11, 3 Main Road Gandhinagar, Bengaluru- 560 009. Ph: 080-40114455 [Engg.,71] ISBN : 81-280-0237-6 © Authors NOTICE OF CAUTION | Reprodvotion Righis + "Wo pari of tis publication which is material protected by this copyright notce may be reproduced or transmitted or utlized o° stored in any form or by eny moans now known or heteinatter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, inclucing photocopying, scanning, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, witnout prior writen permission from the publishor. ‘¢ Photocopying and Resale Prohibition : “Copying of the book and selling it after photocopying or reselling it as second hard 200k is illegal and is not allowed, under the copyright act” ‘This book is sold subject 10 the condition that it shall nct, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the py writen consent. Pages :x +757 First Edition : April, 2004 VIII Revised & Enlarged Edition ; Aug,, 2013 IX Revised & Enlarged Edition : July, 2014 X Revised & Enlarged Edition : Aug, 2015 FOR COPIES CONTACT OUR FOLLOWING DISTRIBUTORS : 1, UBS Publsnes Distibvtos 1d, Bengal, Ph: ezesstss, 22201803 2. Jaco Book Heuse, Bergan. Ph: 22267016, 22257083, 3. Prakash Sahitya, Bongalum, Ph: 22264950, 22871030, 4. Viyamanar Bot Depot, Hubbel Ph 2264819 5. Vinayake Agencies, Hunbal = 290612 ‘Ase avalbl at cur Showoons 4 SADASHIVNAGAR, Near Shastyan Cie, Bengaluru, Pr, : (080) 4129 621 4 VAYANAGAR, 4" Bleck, Bengaluru Pr, : (080) 4906 6700 + INDIRANAGAR, Opp. Chirmaya Kistna Temple, Bengalur Pr: (080) 4085 5999 + KORAMANGALA, tt Roud, 71h Bloc, Pr: (080) 4089 9990 + RESIDENCY ROAD, Ne, 32, ACR Towers, Bengal rh: (080) 4016 690 + ROYAL MEENAKSHI MALL, 2n¢ Foot, Eamerghata roac Bengalur. Ph. : 080) 4256 6290 + ELEMENTS MALL, ‘ed Flor, Tharisandia Main Road Bengaluru, Pr: (080) 6729-4151 ++ NYSURU, Narayan Shastry Poad, Devarja Mohali Ph, : (821) ates ++ WANGALURU, Esco! Mal, KS. Reo Rend, Ph, (824) <290800, + HUBBALLL, Lasm Nall, Coen Foss r,s (oa) 240900, > COMBATORE, No 1, East Peryaswany Fload 'S Puram, Coimbatore «c41002 Pr. (822) 4600 Penaeus Typesetting and Cover Design by : CESYATALLINK, Bengaturs-20. email: datainkmadha@gmalLcom Printed ot: Ravi Graphics, Bengaluru, aASYLLABUS DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS - I Subject Code + 1OMES2 TA Marks 03 Hours/Week — : 04 ‘Exam Hours ‘Total Hours 52 Exam Marks — : 100 PART-A UNIT -1 Introduction ; Definitions ; normal, shear, biaxial and ti axial stresses, Stress tensor, Principal Siresses. Engineering materials and their mechanical properties, Stress-Strain diagrams, Stress analysis, Design considerations; Codes and Standards. 05 Hours UNIT - 1 Design For Static & Impact Strength: Static Strength : Static loads and factor of safety, Theories of failure: Maximum normal stress theory. Maximum shear stress theory, Maximum strain theory, Strain energy theory, Distortion energy theory. Failure of brittle and ductile materials. Stress concentration, Determination of stress concentration factor. Impact Strength : Introduction, Impact stresses due to axial, bending and torsional loads, effect of inertia, 07 Hours UNIT - Design for Fatigue Strength : Introduction - S-N Diagram, Low cycle fatigue, High cycle fatigue, Endurance limit, Modifying factors ; size effect, surface effect, stress concentration effects, Fluctuating stresses, Goodman and Soderberg relationship, Stresses due to combined loading, Cumulative fatigue damage, 08 Hours UNIT - IV ‘Threaded Fasteners : Stresses in threaded fasteners, Effect of initial tension, Design of threaded fastencrs under static, dynamic and impact loacs, Design of eccentrically loaded bolted joints. 06 Hours iePART - B UNIT-V Design of Shafts : Torsion of shafts, design for strength and rigidity with steady loading, ASME codes for power transmission shafting, shafts under fluctuating loads and combined loads. 07 Hours UNIT - VI Cotter And Knuckle Joints, Keys And Couplings Design of Cotter and Knuckle joints, Keys: Types of keys, Design of keys, Couplings: Rigid and flexible couplings, Flange coupling, Bush and Pin type coupling and Oldham’s coupling. 07 Hours UNIT - VII Riveted and Welded Joints : Types, rivet materials, failures of riveted joints, Joint Efficiency, Boiler Joints, Lozenge Joints, Riveted Brackets. Welded Joints ~ Types, Strength of butt and fillet welds, eccentrically loaded welded joints. 07 Hours UNIT - VIII Power Screws : Mechanics of power screw, Stresses in power screws, efficiency and self- locking. Design of Power Screw, Design of Screw Jack: (Complete Design) 03 Hours vill =CONTENTS 1, INTRODUCTION 1-54 1.1 MACHINE DESIGN; 1.2. PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL; 1.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS; 1.4 CODES AND STANDARDS; .5 DISCUSS FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF A SUITABLEMATERIAL FOR A MACHINE ELEMENT: 1.6 STRESS, STRAIN, HOOKE’S LAW, STRESS-STRAINDIAGRAMS & DEFINITIONS; 1.7 STRESSES INDUCED DUETO NORMAL AND SHEAR LOAD; 1.8TWO DIMENSIONAL (BL-AXIAL)STRESS FIELD; 19 THREE DIMENSIONAL (TRE-AXIAL) STRESS FIELD: 2. DESIGN FOR STATIC AND IMPACT STRENGTH 55-186 2ISTATIC STRENGTH; 2.2 STATIC LOAD; 2.3 SIMPLE STRESSES: 24COMPOUND STRESS; 2S WORKING STRESS; 26 FACTOR OF SAFETY (ROS); 2.7 BOCENTRICLOADING; 2.8 THEORIES OF FAILURE; 29 PAILURE OF BRITTLE MATERIALS; 2.10 FAILURE OF DUCTILE MATERIALS; 2.11 STRESS CONCENTRATION; 2.12 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR; 2.13 DETERMINATION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR; 2.14 METHODS OF REDUCING STRESS CONCENTRATION OR MITIGATION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION [Refer pages 4.24 1o 4.28 in New DDHB}; 2.15 IMPACTLOAD; 2.16 IMPACT STRESS; 2.17 EFFECT OF INERTIA; 2.18 RESILIENCE AND ‘TOUGHNESS 3. DESIGN FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH 187 - 261 3,LINTRODUCTION; 3.2 DEFINITIONS, 33.N. DIAGRAMS AND ENDURANCE, LIMIT; 3.4 EFFECT OF FACTORS ON ENDURANCE LIMIT; 3.5 FATIGUE ‘STRENGTH UNDER FLUCTUATINGSTRESSES; 3.6 STRESSES DUE TO COMBINED LOADING; 37 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE: MINER'S RULE. 4. THREADED FASTENERS 262 - 310 4.1 THREADED FASTENERS; 4.2. THREADED FASTENER (FIG. 4.1]: 4.3 THREADED SCREW TERMINOLOGY; 4.4 FORMS OF SCREW THREADS; 45 RIGHT HAND AND LEFT HAND THREADS: 4.6 INDIAN STANDARD. "THREAD; 4.7 STRESSES IN SCREW FASTENING DUE TO STATICLOADING; 4.8 BFFECT OF IMPACT LOADING; 4.9 EFFECT OF FATIGUE LOADING; 4,J]0ECCENTRICLOADING:5. DESIGN OF SHAFTS 311-398 51 TORSION OF SHAFTS; 5.2 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY WITH STEADY LOAD: 53, TYPES OF SHAFTS; 5.4 PROPERTIES OF SHAFT MATERIAL; 5.5 HEAT TREATMENT OF SHAFT; 5.6 METHODS OF MANUFACTURING. ‘SHAFTS; 5.7 ASME ANDBIS CODES FOR DESIGN OF TRANSMISSIONSHAFTS, 58 FORMULAE USED; 5.9 SHAFT MOUNTINGS; 5.10FORCES ACTING ON THE, SHAFT DUE TO BELT DRIVE; 5.11 FORCES ACTING ON THE SHAFT DUE TO GEAR DRIVE; 5.12 STANDARD SIZES FOR SHAFTS, 6. COTTER JOINT AND KNUCKLE JOINTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS COTTER JOINT 6.1 COTTER; 6.2COTTER JOINT: 6.3 TYPES OF COTTER JOINTS: 64 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF COTTER JOINT; 6.5 SOCKET AND SPIGOT COTTER JOINT, 6.6 SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT; 67 KNUCKLE JOINT; 68 KEYS; 69 TYPES OF KEYS; 6.10 STRESSES INKEYS; 6.1L STRENGTH OF SQUARE KEY:6.12 LENGTH OF KRY: 6.13 SPLINE [FIG6.15]; 6 14 PINS[ROUND KEYS|; 6.15 COUPLING; 6.16 MUFF OR SLEEVE COUPLING; 6.17 MARINE TYPE, FLANGE COUPLING; 6.18 FLANGE COUPLING (PROTECTED OR UNPROTECTED ‘TYPE); 6.19 PIN OR BUSH TYPE FLEXIBLE COUPLING; 6.20 OLDHAM'S COUPLING 399-474 7, RIVETED AND WELDED JOINTS 475 - 597 7.1 RIVET; 72 RIVETING: 7.3 CAULKING AND FULLERING; 7.4 RIVETHEADS; 7.STYPE OFRIVETED JOINTS; 7.6TERMINOLOGY, 7.7 FAILURE OF RIVETED JOINTS; 78 STRENGTH OF JOINT; 7.9 EFFICIENCY: 7.10 RIVETED JOINT FOR BOILER OR PRESSURE VESSELS: 7.1 | PRESSURE VESSEL OR BOILERJOINTS; 7.12STRUCTURAL JOINTS; 7.13 RIVETEDBRACKETS, 7.14 WELDEDJOINTS; 7.13 TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS; 7.16 STRENGTH OF BUTT-WELD; 7.17 STRENGTH OF LAP OR FILLET WELDS: 7.18 AXIALLY LOADED UNSYMMETRICAL WELDED SECTIONS; 7.19 WELDED JOINT - ECCENTRIC LOADING 8. POWER SCREWS 8,L INTRODUCTION; 8.2 MECHANICS OF POWER SCREW; 8.3 EXPLAINSELF LOCKING AND OVERHAULINGIN POWER SCREWS; 84 EFFICIENCY OF SELF LOCKINGSCREW,; 8.5 COLLAR FRICTION; 8.6 ANGULAR THREADS - ACME AND TRAPEZOIDAL THREADS; 8.7 STRESSES IN POWER SCREW; 8.8BEARING PRESSURE, 8,9 SHOW THAT EFFICIENCY OF SELFLOCKING SCREW IS LESS ‘THAN FIFTY PERCENTAGE (50%); 8. 10 EFFICIENCY VS HELIX ANGLE (LEAD. ANGLE) Additional VTU Problems VTU 2006 Batch Question Papers VTU 2010 Batch Question Papers 598 - 655 656-709 710 - 737 738-7571 INTRODUCTION 1,1 MACHINE DESIGN Machine design is the art of developing new ideas for the construction of machines and expressing those ideas in the form of plans and drawings. Design Procedure : The procedure for designing a machine usually involves the following important steps. | i, Statement of problem | ii Analysis of the problem i. Selection of mechanism, materials and stresses iv, Preparation of the preliminary design . Revision of design vi, Making the final drawings j. Statement of problem Involves writing down all the data and also whet is required. This information will indicate the nature of the problem and purpose of the design.Design of Machine Elernents -| Analysis of the problem {tis the analysis of all extemal and internal forces acting on the machine part. The various forces are, @ Forces or load due to the energy transmitted by the paris Gi) Forces due to dead weight (iii) Forces due to frictional resistance (iv) Inertia forces due to changes in velocity (~) Centrifugal forces due to changes in the direction of motion (vi) Forces due to changes of temperature (vii) Forces due to procedures in manufacturing (viii) Forces due to the shape of the part etc, Assumptions, sketches, direction of forces, magnitude, point of application of the forces ete must be considered while analysing the problem Selection of mechanism, material and stresses, ‘The most important part in designing a machine is to select the proper mechanism, material and allowable stresses. ‘Mechanism : While selecting a mechanism importance must be given to strength, accuracy of motion, efficiency and cost ‘Material : While selecting a material consideration must be given tothe life of various pars, availability, application and cost. Stress : The selection of proper allowable stress while designing a machine element requires the working knowledge of matcrials. The selection must be based on the analysis of load variations, stress distribution due to abrupt changes in sections and other working conditions. iv. Preparation of preliminary design ‘The purpose of the preliminary design is to determine the probable dimensions of all the parts. While deciding the dimensions strength, rigidity and resistance to wear must be considered. ‘The shapes decided upon in the preliminary design must be drawn on paper in the form of free hand skezches, Also in preliminary design all calculations must be completed as faras possible and noted in a neat legible form, y. Revision of design Before working drawings are made from the sketches of the preliminary design, these sketches must be revised to take into account of al practical requirements such as manufacturing requirement, ‘operation requirement, assembly requirement etc.rc Intocluction: 3 Manufacturing Requirements ‘The first step in revision is to consider the problems of manufacturing such as those involved in the making of patterns, methods of forging, machining etc. Operation requirements ‘The second step in revision is to consider the problems in operation such as provision for lubrication, safety problem, holéing the part, adjustment for wear ete, Assembly Requirement ‘The last and final siep in revision begins when the designer starts to make assembly drawings, Here ease of assemblying, dismantling and maintenance should be considered. ‘The assembly drawing should give, all the dimensions and information needed for assembly and installing the machine, vi Making final drawings Once the assembly drawings are ready, all possible revision has to be taken into account while preparing the working drawings. ‘A working drawing must be clear, concise and complete. It must have enough views and cross-section to show all the details. Every dimension must be given, so that there will be no scope for guess work, ‘A working drawing must give all the information needed for the men in shops working on it for such as making the pattern, mould, cast the piece, welding, machining, heat treatment etc. Bill of material + When the design of a mechanism and the assembly of a machine is completed, a bill must show the details of components or parts, number of parts and the material in which the parts are made etc., the bill of material must also contain details of all standard parts such as bolts, nuts, ‘washers, cotters, pins eic. 1.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL : Classification of Engineering Materials: ‘The engineering materials are mainly classified as: () Metals and their alloys such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium etc, (i) Non-metals such as glass, rubber, plastic ete. ‘The metals may be further classified as : (a) Ferrous metals and (b) Non-ferrous metals. ‘The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituent such as cast iron, ‘wrought iron and steel. ‘The non ~ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc ete.4 Design of Machine Elements - | Choice or Selection of Engineering Material ‘The choice of materials depends upon the following factors. Availability of the materials Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service ‘The cost of the materials ‘The important properties which determine the usage of the materials are physical, chemical and mechanical properties, Physical Properties of Materials ‘The important physical properties ofthe materials are lustre, colour, size, shape, density, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and melting point. Mechanical Properties of Materials[VTU, Dec.2011] ‘The important mechanical properties of the materials are: (i Elasticity (ii) Plasticity (ii) Ductility (iv) Brittleness (v) Malleability (vi) Toughness (vii) Hardness (vii) Strength (ix) Stiffness (x) Resilience (xi) Creep Elasticity tis the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is removed. If a body regains completely its original shape, it is said to be perfectly elastic. In Fig |.1, the specimen is loaded only upto point A, well within the | clastic limit E. When the load, corresponding to point A, is gradually removed the curve follows | the same path AO and the strain completely disappears. Such a behaviour is known as the elastic | behaviour. This property is desirable for materials used in tools and machines. Steel is more clastic | than rubber. | Plastic strain (¢) = Pig. Ld Plasticity Itis the converse of elasticity. It is the property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forging. stamping images on coins and in ornamental work._ 5 bhtoduction Ductility It is the property of a material which permits a material to be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced scction under the action of tensile force. A ductile material must be strong and plastic. The ductility is usually measured in terms of percentage elongation or percentage reduction in ‘fs area of the test specimen. The property of ductility is utilised in wire drawing. The commonly used ductile materials are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead, , lack of ductility, A material is said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out by tension to smaller section. In a brittle material failure takes place under the load without significant deformation. This property is usually undesirable. Examples of brittle materials are cast iron, high carbon steel, concrete, stone, glass, ceramic materials etc. Glass is an ideal brittle material in which stress-strain curve in tension is essentially a straight line, Malleability lis the property of a material which permits the material to be extended in all dircetions without rupture. (ie, to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets ), A malleable material possesses ahigh degree of plasticity but not necessarily great strength. This property is utilised in forging, hot rolling, drop stamping etc. The commonly used malleable materials are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and luminium. Toughness Ttis the property of a material which enables it to absorb energy without fracture (ie, to resist fracture due to high impact loads). This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock ard impact loads. Toughness is measured in terms of energy required per unit volume of the material to cause rupture under the action of gradually increasing tensile load, Fig 1.2 shows the stress-strain curves for mild steel as well as high carbon steel. The toughness is represented by the area under the stress-strain curve for the material. High Carbon Steel Unit stain —> Fig. 1.26 Design of Machine Elements «| Hardness Itis the ability of material to resist indentation or surface abrasion. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, seratching, deformation and machinability etc. Tests on hardness may be classified into (i) Scratch Test (ii) Indentation Test ‘The Scratch test consists of pressing a loaded diamond into the surface of the specimen and then pulling the diamond so as to make a scratch, ‘The Indentation test consists of pressing a body of standard shape into the surface of the test specimen, Example Brinell hardness test, Rockwell hardness test and Vickers hardness test. Strength This is the most important property of a material from design point of view. Itis the ability of material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking or yielding. ‘The load required 0 cause fracture divided by the area of the test specimen is termed as the ultimate strength of the material and is expressed in the unit of stress. Stiffness Itis the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stifiness in axially loaded members Resilience Itis the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads. It is ‘measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit. This property is important for spring materials. Creep When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a longer period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered in designing LC. engines, boilers and turbines, 4.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Based on the circumstances and the need, quite a number of characteristics must be considered in designing a part. Some of the important characteristics are as follows : (a) Strength (ii) Safety (ii) Stiffness (iv) Surface finish (v) Shape (vi) Size (vii) Styling (viii) Utility (ix) Reliability (x) Cost (xi) Life (xii) Wear (xiii) Corrosion (xiv) Weight (xv) Noise (avi) Flexibility (xvii) Control (xviii) Lubrication (xix) Maintenance (xx) Liability (xxi) Volume (xxii) Friction (xxiii) Processing (xxiv) Thermal Properties. 1.4 CODES AND STANDARDS [VTU, DEC.2011) Code isa set of specifications forthe analysis, design, manufacture and construction of something. ‘The main purpose of code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency and quality. Standard is the set of specifications for parts, materials or processes intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency anda specified quality.Introduction: 7 ‘The organisations and societies listed below have established specifications for standards and safety or design codes. ‘Aluminium association (AA) ‘American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFT) British Standards Institution (BSD American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Institution of Mechanical Engineers (1. Mech. E) National Bureau of Standards (NBS) American Welding Society (AWS) International Standards Organisation (ISO) American Society of Metals (ASM) Antifriction Bearing Manufacturers Associstion (AFBMA) American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standardisation Standardisation aims at establishing mandatory or obligatory norms or standards to which the different types, grades, parameters such as length, diameter, etc, quality characteristics, test methods, rules of marking, packing, storage of finished items, raw materials and semi-finished articles should confirm, The main purpose of standardisation is to minimise variety. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has @ (i Gi) iv) w) ) wo ii) iv) standardised a number of items for the benefit of designers, They are: Rules for preparing drawings Symbols and notations for mechanical quantities and their units. Engineering materials, their chemical composition, mechanical properties, method of heat treatment and methods of mechanical testing. Dimensions and preferred sizes of various machine components, Fits and tolerances for various machine elements from assembly considerations. ‘The advantages for the standardised parts are ; Standardised products have better quality and are more reliable. As the standardised parts are easily available for replacement, maintenance is easy. Service life for the standardised parts is higher. ‘Time and effort required to manufacture a new machine is less with the use of standard components.8 — —— evsign of Machine Elements «| 4.5 DISCUSS FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF A SUITABLE MATERIAL FOR A MACHINE ELEMENT [B.U. Feb. 96, Feb. 97, VTU, May/June 2010] ‘All materials have certain inherent characteristies which must be considered for the selection of particular design, ‘The factors to be taken into account are stengih (yield and ultimate}, stiffness or rigidity, ducility, toughness, resistance, fatigue resistance, ductile to britle transition, creep resistance, ‘wear resistance, oxidation and corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical conductance, friction characteristics, hardenability, castability, formability, weldability, machinability and specific weight etc, The material selected should be readily available in required quantity. Sometimes multiple choice may be possible and the cost and maintenance of the finished product decides the final choice. The broad classification of the engineering materials are given below. From this study the basic characteristics of each metal and select the proper one : Engineering Materials ae Metallic Non-Metallic (plastic, rubber, leather, wood, (=——s4 glass, ceramic & carbon ) Ferrous (iron and its Non-Ferrous alloys such as cast iron, carbon sieel and alloy steels ) Copper alloys Light weight metals and White metals their alloys (Zn, Al, Mg (Ni, Silver and and their alloys) theiralloys) [others (Rare metals ‘Anti-fictionalloys and theiralloys) Bearing metals ‘Aferselecting a proper material, the final selection of a material for the design is based on the ‘most economical production method. The following chart gives the brief account of various ‘manufacturing process from the designers point of view.soatsoupy “8 ‘urpjom sose| pure vag u01D31g °L Suysuy ‘Suresg, paw SurpurIg “> pue Suuspjos “9 — Summnopeayy, “¢ Suipmuunoyy -¢ — SuMMoswa “7 “spo TUES Burne penne Supjom sey “> “o19 ‘Sumays Suiasep Sehees cic 3p Suuyseu — Suplawasiog -¢ Bume0iq, ‘ors Bunseo wounsenuy “E jeuompen-uoy -z Spam ‘damm — Furjorse yons a Atom = HUEISISY 7 “Buoys "Guy = BuEYOMPOD “Z_—SuRIGJalq "7 © plnow quouruLiag 7 sepaiog “| Suppmory | “SumyupSmumy, | — FuPpomyoH *| SuRsy MUS “| Senses pars “] SUAHLO ONINIOL /SNINTHOWIN| =| ONTWHOd| | ONTONOA SNLISVD I I I I I ] | Sporpayy Surmpeynuepy RR eeDesign of Machine Elements -| 10 4.6 STRESS, STRAIN, HOOKE’S LAW, STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS & DEFINITIONS 1.6.1 Load I is defined as any extemal force acting on a machine part. The following four types of loads are important, they are {@) Dead or Steady load : A load is said to be a dead or steady load when it does not change in ‘magnitude or direction. Gi) Liyeor Variableload : A load is said to bea ive or variable load when itchanges continually. (ii) Suddenly applied or Shock load : A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load ‘when itis suddenly applied orremoved, (iv) Impact load : A load is said to be an impact load when itis applied with som« ial velocity. 1.6.2 Stress ‘When a body is acted upon by external force or load, internal resisting force is set up, such a body is said tobe in astate of stress, hence stress is the resistance offered by the body to deformation. ‘The internal resistance offered against the extemal force may be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the whole area of cross section. Thus this intemal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as stress, It is denoted by 6 (sigma), A loaded member remains in equilibrium when the resistance offered by the member against deformation and applied load are equal ie., F=F' F Stress o = & = iq Whete F'= Resisting force, F'= Applied foree, A= Area of os normal to the axis or direction of applied load A i re A bef EE ress ose Resisting force (F) $ a oS a eeu hoduction ‘The following are the important types of stresses. (i) Normal siress. It is classified as (a) Tensile Stress, (b) Compressive Stress (ii) Shear Stress or Tangential Stress (iii) Bearing Stress (iv) Bending Stress (¥) ‘Twisting or Torsional Stress () Axial Load ‘The force acting along the axis of the rod is known as axial load as shown in fig 1-4 Fig. 1.4 (ii) Normal Stress ‘The internal forces and the corresponding siresses acting in the direction perpendicular to the surface is known as normal stress or direct stress. Normal stresses are of two types (a) Tensile stress and (6) Compressive stress. (a) Tensile Stress | When a load is acting in such a way that it tends to pull apart the particles of the material causing extension in the direction of application of load, then the load is called tensile load and the corresponding stress ‘tensile stress? a se BIA j Fe Paiapr Pr B Fig. 15 (0)2 $$ —_ aign of Machine Elements - Fig. 1.5(c) Fig:: 1.5 (a) shows a bar subjected to the tensile force F, Fig: 1.5 (b) shows resisting force at section AB. For equilibrium, resisting force F = Applied force F Fig: 1.5 (c) shows an element in the material which is subjected to tensile stress. Resisting force F’_ Cross Sectional Area A cs Tensile Stress 6 = + F = F where F = Tensile oad) o @ = TA Némm* ot Nim? Compressive Stress When the load is acting in such a way that it pushes the particles of the material nearer causing shortening in the direction of load, then itis called compressive load and the corresponding stress "compressive stress” 1 —13 Inhoduction ag vl Fig: 1.6 (a) shows a bar and an element subjected to « compressive load. .6 (b) shows resisting force at section AB, For equilibrium resisting force F'= Applied | | Fig | Compressive load F | Fig : 1.6 (c) shows an clement in the material which is subjected to compressive stress | Resisting force F : | 4 Compressive stress = —RessiingfoweF _ (. Fa) one ‘Gross Sectional Area A cage Bs ee es Compressive load F Hence Compressive stress 8 = (og ctional (i), Shear Stress : Shear siress is the one which acts parallel or tangential to the surface. Thus the stress induced. ina body when subjected to two equal and opposite forces which are acting tangentially across the resisting section is known as shear stress. As a result of which the body tends to shear off across the section, F FE D > ¢ po —> ic Resisting force (F") ae x-f-— +l oom - a Resisting forve A BLA B ——S <—_ F F Fig. 17 (a) Fig. 1.7(0) Fig: 1,7 (a) shows a rectangular block and a force F applied tangentially along the top face CD, Such a force acting tangentially along a surface is known as shear force. For the equilibrium of the block, the surface AB will offer a tangential reaction F equal and opposite to the applied tangential force F.14 Design of Machine Elements - | ‘Now considera section x-x parallel tothe applied force. The upper part will be in equilibrium, if, resisting forceF' = Applied force F. Similarly the lower part will be in equilibrium if, resisting force F = Applied force F. Itis shown in Fig 1.7 (b). This resistance is known as shear resistance and the shear resistance per unit area is known as shear stress which is denoted by t (tau). Since the distribution of shearing stress across the scction cannot be uniform. _ Shear resistan «~~ Sheararca A Shear stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins and rivets. Consider two plates A and B connected by bolt or rivet as shown in the Fig 1.7 (c). Now if the. plates are subjected to tensile forces of magnitude F, stresses will deyclop in the section x-x, From. the diagram, itis concluded that the shear resistance F" in the section is equal to F E . Average Shearing Stress = — where A = c/s area of the shearing portion CN xe --x L>F P| er Fig. 17(0) ‘Now consider the case shown in Fig : 1.7 (d). Here shear takes place in two planes x-x and. yy. i.c,, the bolts or rivets are subjected to double shear. From the diagrams and the portion of the bolt or rivet located between the two planes, itis F concluded that for equilibrium the shear resistance in each plane is equal 10> [v FSP4F =2F] + Aemge tie FLEE -. Average shearing ress = <2 = Fig. 1.7(d)18 Iniroduction NY C7 Bearing Stress Bolts, pins and rivers create stresses in the member they connect along the bearing surface or surface of contact. A localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members ‘of amachine part that are relatively at rest is known as bearing stress or crushing stress. Consider two plates connected by a bolt as shown in the Fig 1.8. The bolt exerts « force F qual and opposite (o the force F exerted by the plate on the bolt, The force F' represents the resultant of elementary forces distributed on the inside surface of a half cylinder of diameter ‘d and length ‘t’ equal to the thickness of the plate. Since distribution of these forces and the corresponding stresses is quite complicated, the average nominal value of o,, called the bearing stress is obtained by dividing the load F' hy the area of the rectangle representing the projection of the bolt on the plate secti F «Bearing stress. 6, where t = Thickness of plate and d = Diameter of the bolt re oe a Fig. 1816 —— _— Design of Machine Blements - 1.6.3 Strain When a force or toad acts on a body Jength is known as unit strain or simply st it undergoes deformation. This deformation per unit It is denoted by € (epsilon) or € 2s strain © == Deformation 1 = original length where } Strain is dimensionless. Strain may be Tensile strain ‘Compressive strain Volumetric strain Shear strain Superficial strain (@) Tensile Strain Let AB be the initial lengih of the bar before the application of the load and AC be the final length after the application of the tensile load F as shown in Fig 1.9 =. Extension or Change in length = AC AB = BC = Original length = 1 "The extension per unit length is defined as tensile strain. Extension of os Tensile strain € Pig. 19 Gi) Compressive strain : Consider a uniform bar AB of initial length I subjected to a compressive force F, The length f the bar reduces to AC as shown in Fig 1.10 Shortening or change in length = AB - AC =BC=6,Introduction $$ $ $ @@$ $ i @i@$ $i i$ $$ 17 Compressive strain is defined as shortening per unit length. Shortening of thebar 4+ Compressive stain © = Original length of bar A cs T r—y| ' |<———F L ba] ——— Fig. 110 Shear Strain : (Consider an element ABCD as shown in Fig 1.11 is subjected to shearing stresses on faces 'AB and CD. It undergoes deformation and this deformation is expressed in terms of the angular displacement ‘Transverse displacement ss Shear strain = Distance AD Fig, LU18 (iv) Volumetric Strain : Volumetric str is defined as change in volume per unit volume Design of Machine Elements - | by Volumeie sirain = =* (0) Superficial Strain : ‘Superficial strain is defined as change in area per unit area 3 A + Superficial str 1.6.4 Elastic limit When an extemal force acts ona body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. If the extemal force is removed the body comes back to its original shape and size. The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the deformation caused by the extemal force is within a ccervain limit, The value of the force corresponding to this limit is called limiting force. The value of siress corresponding to this limiting force is known as the elastic limit of the material 1.6.5 Hooke's Law It states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to the strain. i. the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as Medulus of Elasticity or “Young's Modulus”, “Stress e strain Stress Strain ise, constant o ile, > =F where F = Young's modulus 1.6.6 Poisson's Ratio When a body is subjected to direet stress, it undergoes deformation in the direction of load andatright angles to the direction of load. There is an increase in length in the direction of load but decrease in the lateral direction as shown in Fig 1,12, The strain in the direction of load is known as longitudinal strain and the strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. ‘The ratio of lateral strain tothe longitudinal strain is defined as Poisson's ratio and is a constant. 1 is normally denoted by“ or for v(nu). The value of m for most of the material lies between 3 and 4,9 Introduction ig, 112 Possion’ rato = = —estetal st * Posstons ratio = = Jongitudinl strain (8) i Decrease in depth =D—d Decrease in width =B—b Increase in length ) 1 (2) ined El on LE) spectively 1.6.7 Stress-strain diagram [VTU, June/July 2011, June/Suly 2014) ‘The mechanical properties are commonly determined froma standard tensile test, The testing machine is called universal testing machine (UTM). The test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen of a material and noting the corresponding values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures. The load is applied and measured by a testing machine, The stress is determined by dividing the load values by the original cross sectional area of specimen. The elongation is measured by determining the amount that two reference points on the specimen are moved apart. The original distance between the wo reference points is known as gauge length, The strain is determined by dividing the elongation values by the gauge length. ‘The values of the stress and the corresponding strain are used to draw the stress-strain diagram of the material tested. The Fig: 1.13 shows the stress-strain diagram for mild steel. The various, properties of material are discussed below. 120 —$ $$ Dosa of Machine Eiemen's «| ‘Nominal or Conventional ot Engineering stress-strain curve Stes o Sain Fig, 1.13 (New DDHB Fig 1.1) 1. Proportional limit From Oto the curve is a straight line, ie, stress is directly proportional to strain. Therefore it is clear that Hooke's law holds good up to the point P and this point is known as proportional limit, Itis defined as a point at which the stress begins to deviate from the straight line, 2. Elastic limit Up to the point E the material will regain its shape and size, when the Toad is removed. It ‘means that the material has elastic properties up to the point E. This point is known as elastic limit. 3. Yield point Ifthe material is stressed beyond the point E, the plastic stage will seach ie, on the removal of load, the material will not be able to recover its original shape and size. ‘Atpoint Y, there is an increase in strain without appreciable increase in load, Thus the curve drops downto the point Y,_. Then again withthe increase in load the strain increases and is practically constant up to the point Y. This phenomenon of inereasc in strain without any appreciable increase in load is called yielding. The point Y,, is called upper yield point and the point Y, is called lower yield point. In practice the lower yield stress is more important and hence this point is called yield point. 4, Ultimate stress Between the points Y and U the ductile extension takes place. Here the relationship between stress and strain depends upon the rate of loading also. During the extension the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly all over the length such that the volumeremains constant. At he point U, the stress attains its maximum value which is known as ultimate point. The stress at this point is known as ultimate stress. It is defined as the maximum stress obtained by dividing the maximum value of the load reached to the original cross-sectional area of the test specimen.er Introduction: 2 5. Breaking stress ‘After the maximum load is reached, local yielding takes place and a neck or waist is formed AAs the cross-sectional area decreases considerably the load carrying capacity of the specimen reduces and hence in the portion UB the strain increases for decrease in stress. Even though the nominal stress is decreasing, the actual (true) siress which is equal to the load divided by actual cross-sectional area at neck will be continuously increasing. At point B the specimen breaks. The stress at this point is called breaking stress and the corresponding load is called breaking load. The nature of fracture for mild steel will be in the form of cup and cone, 1.6.8 Stress — strain curves for other materials Fig 1.14 shows stress ~ strain curves for steel having carbon content varying from 0.12% to 1%, From these, it is concluded that with high carbon content it is similar to brittle materials even though the ultimate stress is much greater. 0 1260! 1120) oe) 840 E 700 560 420) 280} 0% ag o.S96C. stress (Nim) KC | o 16 2030 40 Percentage Strain Fig, Ld4 Fig: 1.15 shows typical stress ~ strain diagram for common materials such as high carbon steel, nickel-chrome steel, mild steel, wrought iron, cast iron, copper and cast aluminium. From these itis noticed that for steel and wrought iron proportionality exists almost unl yielding takes place. For copper, cast aluminium and high alloys, no clearly defined limit of proportionality, elastic imitor yield point. Cast iron behaves like a brittle material which fails without any visible elongationDesign of Machine Elements - 22 High Wipught ixon Chop ‘Catahim 0 0 20 30 w ———» Percentage strain Fig. 11S Fig : 1.16shows siress- strain diagram for aluminium alloy. It exhibits considerable ductility, though it does not have clearly definable yield point. 280 ny) £ [ s | 149 70) 0005 01015 02 O25 strain Fig. 116 Fig : 1.17 shows stress - strain diagram for hard rubber and soft rubber. The curve for hard rubbers linear up to very large strains, Soft rubber continue to stretch enormously without failure. Stress (N/mm’) a sain —> Fig. LITeC Ie }oq $$ — imi ———______________—. 2 Fig: 1.18 shows the stress ~ strain curve for brittle material. Itis seen from the diagram that thedeviation from Hooke’s law begins very early and fracture occurs suddenly with very small deformation and without necking, The stress ~ strain diagram for brittle material does not exhibit theyield point, Examples of brittle materials are concrete, stone, cast iton, glass & ceramic materials te, Glass isan ideal brittle material, exhibiting almost no ductility Stress = airga > Fig, 1.18 (New DDHB Fig 1.2) Note; 1, Materials with more than 15% elongation are usually considered ductile, 2. Materials with less than 5% elongation are considered as brittle 3. Many ductile materials have the same yield point in tension and compression. 4, Most brittle materials have a higher value for ultimate strength in compression than that for tension. 5, Percentage elongation is the percentage increase in length of the gauge length. :. Percentage elongation here L., = Original gauge length L, = Final length between gauge marks 6, Percentage reduction in area is defined as the ratio of maximum change in the eross-seetional AWA sea to original cross sectional area, expressed in percentage reduction in area = —*,—" where A, = Original cross-sectional area of the test specimen A,= Area of cross-section in the waist at fracture For ductile material percentage reduction in area is 50 to 70,24 ——_ Bioticn of Matin lerments =| 4.7 STRESSES INDUCED DUE TO NORMAL AND SHEAR LOAD In actual practice at any point in a strained material combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses ie., different stresses may act on planes, Heace it is necessary to find the resultant ‘stesses which may be greater than the applied ones and also the planes on which they act. The systemsin which direct stresses and shearing stresses act simaltancously are called combined stresses ‘or compound stresses, Here the study is limited to two dimensional stress system only. 1.7.1 Methods for determining stresses on oblique section (i.e., Inclined plane) ‘The stresses on oblique section are determined by the following methods. (@ Analytical method (ii) Graphical method ‘The following three types of stressed conditions in an element are considered. (i) Uniaxial stress. (i) Bi-anial stress, (ii) General two dimensional stress system, To find the stresses acting on an inclined plane in @ stressed material, consider a plane inclined ‘at an angke 9 (o the known plane and then find the normal and tangential (shear) stresses on this plane. 1.7.2. Sign Convention (i) Tensile stress is considered as positive. (ii) Compressive stress is considered as negative, (Gii) Angle 0 is considered positive when itis in the anticlockwise direction. (Gv) A shear stress acting on the positive face of an element is considered positive and negative if it gets in the negative direction of the axes. i., shearforce acting x - face giving rise to ccw couple is treated as positive and ew couple is treated as negative. ey i «face w-face + ie <———lasa ed yiace ytace Positive shear stress Negative shear stress Fig 1.19 {y) 6, is positive in tension. (vi) 6;is positive when it tends to produce counterclockwise rotation of the element and negative when it tends to produce clockwise rotation of the element,hntloduction 1.7.3 Principal stresses and Principal Planes Principal planes are the planes oa which only normal siresses will act with zero shear stress ‘The normal stress across the prineipal plane is known as principal stress. 25 ‘Atany point in a strained material, under three dimensional stress system, there are three such planos mutually orthogonal to each other, which carry direct stresses only and no shear stress. Out Of these, the plane carrying the maximum normal stress is called the major principal plane and the ‘normal stress acting on that plane is called the major principal stress. The plane carrying the minimum normal stress is known as minor principal plane and the corresponding normal stress acting on that plane is called the minor principal stress. In a plane stress or two dimensional stress system, the third principal stress is zero. 1.7.4 Member subjected to direct stress on one plane [i.e., Uniaxial stress] Consider an element subjected to direct uniaxial stress or load as shown in Fig, 1.20 Fig 1.20 Consider a rectangular member ABCD of uniform ero: subjected to uniaxial tensile load as shown in Fig. 1.21 ectional area with unit thickness o oF c SS al |—_———F A E B Fig 121 Let F = Axial tensile force acting on the member. A = Axea of cross-section. Consider a plane EF which is perpendicular to the line of action of the force. ‘Area of cross section EF = EF x 1=A Axial te ‘Area of ¢/s EF Pi Stress on plane EF, 9,26 Design of Machine Elements -| ‘The stress on plane EF is entirely normal stress and there is no shear stress. Now consider & plane £G at an angle@ with the normal plane EF as shown in Fig. 1.21. Angle 6 being measured in anticlockwise direction, EF A Area of cross section EG = EGx1= EG x1=—>x1=—— cos ' ~ cos® ‘The applied force F is parallel to the axis of the member and not normal to the plane EG. Since all the parts of the member have the same axial strains, the stresses acting on the plane EG are uniformly distributed as shown in Fig, 1.22(a), The resultant force due to these stresses will be a force, equal in magnitude to the axial force F. This resultant force F acting on plane EG may be resolved into two components as shown in Fig, 1.22 (b) G E (a) : (o) Fig, 1.22 ()) Nommal force F, acting normal to the plane EG. i) Tangential force F, acting tangential to the plane EG. Normal force F, = F cos 0 ‘Tangential force F, = F sin @ Normal force Fy __Feos® Fos" «+ Normal stress across the plane EG. 6,= eof secon EG = AleoxO = A ~-2.10 (Old DDHB) 2.13 (New DDHB) Tangential force F ‘Area of section EG ‘Tangential stress (ie., shear stress) across the plane EG, t, Fsind _— F sin 8 cos 8 Alcosd | A 2 sine cos@=— Ss sin29 2.11 (01M DDHB) 2A 2 2.14 (New DDHB) ‘Negative sign indicates that t, tends to produce clockwise rotation of the element, ‘Normal stress 6, is maximum when © + Maximum normal stess 6, = 0, cos? 0= 6, ~2.12 (Old DDHB) 2.15 (New DDHB)Ea Infteduction Minimum normal or principal stress 0, = 0 when = 90° Tangential stress 1, ‘The maximum positive value of, is obtained at maximum when @= + 45° (5° or 135° and the maximum negative value of ¢, is obtained at @ = 45° %. “, +; Maximum shear stress ty, = ~ Se sin (2 90%) = ---2.13 (Old DDHB) 2.17 (New DDHB) Hence all planes inclined at 45° to the axis of pull are subjected to maximum shear stress Ito SE equal:o Fig. 1.23 shows the variation of, and t,, as 8 varies from — 90° to + 90" ‘When @ =0, plane EG becomes a .gge cross section EF and hence the graph gives 6,= 0, as @ increases and when @ 90°, 6,= 6, =0 indicating that there is no normal siress on a plane parallel tothe longitudinal axis, Similarly on Fig. 123 planes where 6 = ©, t, = 0 and also on longitudinel sections where ® = + 90°, x, = 0. When @ 45°, maximum positive value of t, is obtained and when 0= + 45°, maximum negative value of ty is obtained as shown in Fig. 1.23 ‘The resultant stress may he found out from the relation 6, = Jog + 73- The relation holds 2000 for compressive stress also. 1.7.5 Member subjected to direct stresses on two mutually perpendicular directions. [Bi-axial stress] Consider a rectangular block ABCD whose thickness perpendicular to the plane of the paper is unity. The bar is subjected to to direct tensile stresses or two principal tensile stresses as shown mE EEo————— oe emi ce Elements Solution : 6, 2354 jnmum allowable ncemal st58 Guy = 11.7 mm? Maximum all SHO Ca FOS =D Nem . Maximum shear ste58. 7, MET « S885 Nam! From Figure 4.22 (Old DDHB); Fig 4.18/4.18A (New DDHB) for 1, itm, = Em Toom - sass uate ee =i vas kK aaa wa oO Ol i M dt Fig, 4.22 (Old DDB); 2 4.18/4,18A (New DDHB) © where J= 2 a4 J 32 9530 10° % = 9550% 10" ve f= 297916661 Nom 397916567 4) Bye AB za 2 sd = 37.1 mm say 37.5 mm = Diameter of shaft atthe groove " Example: 241 A stepped shaft of circular cross set (o,,=431.5 MPa), Determine the value of ‘a’ and the fillet radins, so that the maximum stress will Ingited toa ratlocorresponding toa factor of safety of 5 (VTU, Dec 07/5 Data: FOS = 2.5, F=30KN=30x 10° N 50, = 431.5 Mpa = 431.5Nim! Solution : 15 *. Maximum allowable normal stress 6, 172.6Nimmn?28 Design of Machine Elements -| Let BE be the oblique plane inclined at an angle @ on which the stresses are to be calculated, Leto, = Major tensile stress or principal stress on face AD and BC Minor tensile stress or principal stress on face AB and CD Tensile force on section BE duc to 6, =, BCx 1 = 0, x BC Tensile force on section BE due to 6, = 0, x ECX 1 = 0, EC Resolve the forces perpendicular to BE and along BE as shown in Fig. 3.6 (a) and (b) xEC=F, F sina 0,XBC=F, (al 8 b) 8 Fig. 1.25 «. Total force perpendicular to the plane BE, F, = F, cos 0 + F, sin @ ie, 6, %BE = (6,x BC) cos 6 + (6,x EC) sin ® BC cos +0, ®C sind BE BE 6,,c0s 0 cos 8 +0, sin 6 sin 9,cos* 0+6, sin’ 9, 2 9, = (+ c032.6)+ >" (1 cos 20) 26 (Old DDHB) 6, +0, c =, . Normal stress on plane BE. a, } cos 20 2 2 2.28 (New DDHB) “Total force tangential to the plane BE, F; =~ F, sin 0+ F, cos @ i.e.,1,x BE = - (6, x BC) sin 0+ (0, x EC) cos @ ie, ty = -0, FC sino +0, cose BE "BE = ~6,cos 9 sin 6 +, sin Acos ® | = ~(0,-6,)sin 6 cos 0 | 6, -3, | + Tangential stress on plane BE, sin2@ 2.27 (OM DDHB) 2.29 (New DDHB) _29 Intoduction ‘4,8 negative since it tends to produce clockwise rotation of the material. ‘The resultant stress on plane BE, = {[e.cos? 040, sin?0) +(-(0, ~2,)sind cone)? Pa fs ee ne Da Ba = 0; cos"@ +6; sin* 8+26,6, cos" Asin” 8+ (62 +0; -20,0,)sin’ cos’ 0 = [a7 cos*@(cos" 6 + sin® 6) + 0; sin A(sin® + cos’ 8) (Fatppetante. «+ Resultant stress on plane BE, 6, = [07 cos” +c; sin’ 8 ‘The angle that the line of action of the resultant stress makes with the normal stress is called the angle of obliquity. Angle of obliquity @ = ar(2) On principal planes, t, must be equal to zero. ie, -( =| sin20 2 ‘When =0 ‘Major principal stress 6, ] cos 0= 0, ‘When @ = 90° Minor principal stress. 6, Jn 290 =6,Design ot Machine Elements - “Thus, there are two principal planes at right angles to each other, one of which carvies the ‘maximum direct stress and the other the minimum direet stress, These principal planes do not carry any shear stress Shear or tangential stress on plane BE is maximum when 20 = 90° or 26 = 90° or 270, iue,, 0 = 45° or 135°, When @ = 45° maximum negative value of 7, is obtained and when @ = positive value of t, is obtained. 30 39° maximum -~-2.29 (Old DDB) ‘When. 45°, Tyan == ( ) sin 90= 2.31 (New DDHB) when @= 135°, Tau. = -( ) sm 210 Hence there are two mutually perpendicular planes along which the greatest shear stress ‘cours. These planes are at angles of 45° and 135° with the principal plane carrying principal stress 5, When the biaxial stresses 6, and 6, are not alike ie. if @, is tensile and , is compressive stress, 2 2 i 1.7.6. Stresses induced by state of simple shear ‘The rectangular block ABCD shown in Fig. 1.27 isin D fa state of simple shear under the action of shear stress intensity €,,. Let the thickness of block normal to the plane of paper is unity, Now, consider any sectional plane BE. inclined atan angle@ with the normal cross-section as shown in Fig. 1.27. Let the normal and tangential stresses on the plane BE beg, and t, respectively. a Resolving the forces perpendicular to BE, Ot esas 6, x BE = (t,x BC) sin@ + (t,, x EC) cos 0 Fig. 127 c3i ae HOG BE BE C08 ®. sin + t,, sin 8 cos 8 = t,,2sin 8 cos 0 Ce ty.t) sin O47, x x 2.20 (Old DDHB) z. Normal stress on plane BE, 6,~,, sin 2 2,22 (New DDHB) Resolving the forces along BE, 14% BE = (t,x BC) cos 8 (t,x EC) sin ® BC EC fet, = 4% pp C08 0-4, Be sin D = sin 6 sin@ me ®) 4) 2.21 (Old DDHB) 2.23 (New DDHB) For the principal planes t, must be equal to zero. ie, t,,cos 26 = 0 ive.. 26 = 90° or 270° ie, 6 = 45° or 135° Hence the two principal planes are at 45° and 135° with respect tothe plane BC. The principal planes are also at right angles 10 each other. The two principal stresses are 6, = 1, sin(2x45)=+4,, .22.(Old DDHB) 24 (New DDHB) 1, sin (2 x 135) ‘Thus on one principal plane there will be tensile stress and on the other there will be compressive stress. These principal stresses are called diagonal tensile and diagonal compressive stresses. For maximum shear or tangential stress, cos 28 = + | ie, 28 = Or 180°, -. 0=00r90° when @ = 0 gy ET 2.24 (Old DEB) 2.26 (New DDHB) when @ = 90° Tan =~ 1, 3.76 Thus the planes #C and CD carry the maximum shear stress intensity ",, Fig. 1.28 shows the planes carrying maximum shear stress and principal stress.32 Design of Machine Elements «| Fig, 128 1.7.7 Member subjected to two perpendicular normal stresses accompanied with state of simple shear oR MEMBER SUBJECTEDTO GENERAL TWO DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEM Consider rectangular member ABCD of uniform cross-sectional area and unit thickness subjected to tensile stresses and shear stress as shown in Fig. 1.32 “This body is subjected to, (i) Tensile stress 6, on face AD and BC Gi) Tensile stress 6, on face AB and CD (iii) Simple shear stress on face BCand AD ‘According to the principle of state of simple shear, the faces AB and CD will also be subjected to shear stress as shown in Fig. 1.32. Let BE be the oblique plane inclined at an angle @ on which the stresses are to be calculated, From the geometry of the Fig. 1.32Cc ‘ntoduetion =a -__$__$_${a_ = 38 Horizontal force acting on BC, F, = 0, BC Vertical force acting on BC, F,=*,,BC Horizontal force acting on EC, F, = 7,, EC Vertical force acting on EC, F,=0, EC Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane BE, F, = F, cos +F,sin 8 +F cos 0+ F, sin B ie, 6,x BE = (6,BC) cos 8 + (7,,BC) sin 0 + (¢,,BC) cos 8 + (0,EC) sin 0 BE cos041, 2S sind +1, 2 c0s8+0,Hesind BE ” BE "BE BE 0, cos 0cos0 +1,,c05 0 sin 0+, sin 9 eos O46, sin sin 6, cof 0+6,sin? B+ 2, sinBeos® — (1 t,,=4,) ie, = 6, : s, s, J (1 +608 20) + > (1 — ¢08:28) +, sin 26 9,46. 2 9,-9, +. Normal stress on plane BE, 6,= 4f cos 26 +1,, sin 20 2.30 (Od DDHB) 2.32 (New DDHB) Resolving the forces along the plane BE, F, = —F,sin0+F, cosO-F, sin® +F, cos @ Le, 1,x BE =~(0,.BC) sin0+(t, BC) cos @-(t, EC) sin + (6.,.£C) cos tent, =-0, 2S sina +t, 2 cos 0-1, 2 sind+0, “cos e * BE ” BE “BE ’ BE = 6, cos O sin B+r, cos @cos6-1,, sinO sin 6+0,sin BcosO = —(6,-9,) sinO cos 6 +t, (cos? B-sin*@) (1 T,=%,0) ‘1 Tangential stress on plane BE, %,=~ ) sin 20 + ¢,, cos 20 --2.31 (Old DDHB) 2.33 (New DDHB) Resultant siress on plane BE, o,= yo} +4] t ‘Angle of obliquity © = tar in For the principal plane, tansgential stress on the plane must be equal to zero. 0, - ie.,~ ) sin2 0 + 1, 6082 0=034 Design of Machine Elements -| olan 26 2.34 (Old DDHB) 2.36 (New DDHB) There are two principal planes at right angle to cach other and their inclination with the normal cross-section being @, and 8, 0 = ean( 2 nee Janae =90+8, Equation 2.34 (Old DDHB) or 2.36 New (DDHB) can be represented diagramatically by Fig. 1.33 in whieh sin20, 60520, Substituting the values of cos 28, and sin 26, in Equation 2.30 (Old DDHB) or 2.32 (New | DDEB) a ta I, - 4 43) af(c, -0,) +42, 1 = pyle. -9,) +4), 2.32 (Old DDHB) + Major principal stress 6, ~- 2.34 (New DDHB)35 Intloduction Similarly substituting the values of cos 28, and sin 26, in Equation 2.30 (Old DDHB) or 2.32 (New DDHB) 2.33 (Old DDHB) 2.35 (New DDHB) ‘+ Minor principal stress 6, = These principal stresses may be like or unlike. For maximum value of 1, differentiating wrt @ and equating to zero ay te, Fy. 9.-9, ie, -[—5—*]2c0s 20 — 1, x2 sin 28 ie, 2c, sin 20° (6, ~9,) cos 20° sega eee) 36 (Old DDHB) 2.38 (New DDHB) ie, tan 26tan 26" =—1 Hence 26' values and 20 values obtained from Equation 2.34 (Old DDHB) or 2.36 (New DDHB) for principal planes differ by 90°. In other words the planes of maximum shearing stress are at 45° to principal planes. i.e, the planes of maximum shearing stress will at 9, +45° and 8, + 135° Equations 2.36 (Old DDHB) or 2.38 (New DDHB) can be represented diagramatically by Fig. 1.34 in which eh fo, -o,y 4a, cos 26° i, Fig, 1.3436 Design of Machine Elements -| Substituting these rules in Equation 2.31 (Old DDHB) or 2.33 (New DDHB), (,-0,) +40, -— 2.35 (Old DDHB) 2.37 (New DEB) 4.8 TWO DIMENSIONAL (BI-AXIAL) STRESS FIELD IVTU, DEC.2008(JAN.09, MAYJUNE 2010, DEC.2010] In most of the cases, the machine members are subjected to combined loading, In such cases, the design is based on the principal stress. The Fig. 1.36 shows an element under a two dimensional stress field. 6, and o, are the direct normal stresses and ¢, is the shear stress. As explained earlier, the principal stresses can be obtained by the relations :Inffodetion $A $a $a $< aia __—_ — 37 6, is the maximum value of principal stress and G, is the minimum value of principal stress. As — 3 i 5 Fig, 136 6, = Direct normal stress (Tension or Compression) due to bending or sxial load or the combination of wo 4, = Direct normal stress (Tension or Compression) in a direction normal to 6, +, and t,, are the shear stresses, Since itis in static equilibrium t,,=,, Fora two dimensional stress system, the third principal stress 6, is zero. The maximum shear stress is equal 10 half of the greatest difference of any two of the three principal stresses. [ieconsidering the third principal stress which is zero in this case.] G=6; 9 > and “Tyga is the largest among the three values of 3 1.9 THREE DIMENSIONAL (TRI-AXIAL) STRESS FIELD [VTU, DEC.08/JAN.09, MAY/JUNE 2010, DEC. 2010] ‘The Fig 1.37 showsa general three dimensional stress element, The three normal stresses ©,, 6, and g, ate positive (+> Tensile) and the six shear stresses Ty, Tes Tyo Ty» Sy and T, are also positive,- Intoduction: In the absence of shear stress, 6, 6, and care the principal stresses for the element. The relationship between the normal stresses and normal strains in the x, y and z directions are, E ©, = Geieay (+E, + VE, FET 39 EB Teall tye, +E, +2] E % = Ceuta ld +e, +9, +e) y, 79", where Modulus of elasticity Modulus of rigidity Poisson's ratio, = Shear strain E G v y BIS system of Designation () Grey cast iron is specified by the symbol FG followed by the tensile strength in Nimm* (ii) Steels which are standarised on the basis of their tensile strength without detailed chemical composition are specified by two ways. (a) A symbol Fe followed by the minimum tensite strength in N/mm, (b) A symbol FeE followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/m. (ii Plain carbon steel consists of three quantities. (a) A figure indicating 100 times average percentage of carbon. (b) Lener C (©) 10 times average percentage of manganese. (iv) Unalloyed free cutting steels consists of five quaatities. (a) A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon. (b) Leter C () 10 times the average percentage of manganese. (a) A symbol S, Se, Te or P, depending upon the element present, (e) A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of the above element. (v) Alloy steel (a) A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon. (b) Chemical symbol for alloying clements each followed by the figure for its average percentage content multiplied by a factor.Design of Machine Elements -| 40 Elements Multiplying factor G,Co, NM, a Sind W Al,Be, Y,PD,Cu 10 Nb,Ti, Ta, Zt ‘and Mo PSN 100 (si) High alloy steels consits of the following quantities @) ALeterx (b) A figure indicating 100 tires the average percentage of carbon (© Chemical symbol of the alloying element followed by its average percentage content rounded value (@) Chemical symbol to indicate a specially added element to attain desired properties. Idemity the following engineering materials giving specifications, [YTU.July2012} (i) FG350 (i) FeB 300 (ii) 458, (ix) 35C12Pb16 (¥) 20C18Mo4 (vi). I6Ni3Cr2 (wil) X20Cri8Ni2 @ FG350 — Grey cast iron with an ultimate tersile strength of 350 N/mm? (i) Fee 300 — A steel witha minimum yield strength of 300 N/mm? (it) 45C8. > Plain carbon steel with 0.45% carbon and 0.8% manganese (iv) 35C12Pb16 > A free cutting steel with 0.35% carbon, 1.2% manganese and lead 0.16% (v) 20Cr8Mo4 — An alloy steel with 0.20% carbon, 2% chromium and 0.4% molybdenum, (vi) I6Ni3Cr2 — An alloy steel with 0.16% carbon, 1.0% of nickel and 0.5% chromium. (vii) X20Cr18Ni2—> High alloy steel with 0.20% carbon, 18% chromium and 2% nickel. Element subjected to uniaxial stress Example : 1.1 A tension member is formed, by connecting two wooden scantlings with glue, each ‘50 mm x 100mm at their ends, which are cut at an angle of 60° as shoven in the Fig. 1.38. The member is subjected to a pull F, Calculate the safe value of F, if the permissible normal and shear stress in the glue use are 3 Nimm? and 2 Nimm respectively. Data: 9, = 3N/mm? ih ¥ ty = 2NAnm? 9 Area, A. = 50% 100 = 5000 mm? A Solution : Angle of joint with normal, = 90-60=30° Fie 458, Normal stress on the inclined planeo,= 6, coe —2.10(O1dDDHB) ie.,3 = 0, c0s*30 2.13 (NewDDHB)~2,| 1 (Ol DDHB), 2.14 (New DDHB) sin (2x 20) [Positive since t, tends to produce cew rotation} © 6, = 4619Nimm? ‘The lesser among these two values will be the safe stress 1 Safe stress @, = 4Némm? Direct stress along x-axis 6, F Fen 4 = S000 F Safe pull, F Element subjected to biaxial stress Example A 12 in ina strained material is subjected toa tensile stress of S00 N/mm and 300 Nim? in two ‘mutually perpendicular planes, Calculate the normal, tangential, resultant stress and its obliquity on ‘a plane making an angle of 30° with the axis of minor tensile stress. Also find the maximum shear stress. 9, = S00N/mm (Tensile) 6, = 300Nimmn! (Tensile) @ = 30° Solution Axis of minor tensile stress oa—- Axisof major 5 tensile steess//42 Design of Machine Elements -| +9 Normal suess.on plane BE 0, = “#52 500++300 + = 490m 79, ‘Tangential or Shear stress on plane BE 1, =-—>—> sin20 2.27 (ODDHB) (Negative sign indicates t, tends to produce ew rotation) 2.29 (NewDDHB) ty = 20S sin 220)=-866Ninn? ‘Resultant stress on plane BE o, = og +14 = [450° +(-866)” =49826N/mm* x 866 Resultant stress direction or obliquity @= tan"! g)- = tan 450 5 @ = 10893* (As shown in Fig. 1.39) Maximum shear 809 fg = 203 onan (Negative sign indicates 7, tends to produce ew rotation) Example 21.3 ‘The principal stresses at a point in bar are 200 Nimm(‘ensile) and 100 N/mm? (compressive). ‘Determine the normal, tangential, resultant stress and its direction ona plane inclined at 60° tothe wxis of ‘major principal stress. Also determine the maximum intensity of shear stress in the material at the point, Data: 6, = 0,=2001Nmm? (Tensile) ©, = 6, 100 N/mm? (Compressive) Figch.40 Tnclination of plane BE with normal@ = 90-60=30"{hoduc on $a i$ i i$ i iia $a $$$ 43 O, +9, Normal stress on plane BE 0, = —5—* + > cos20 ~~ 2.26 (Old DDHB) 2.28 (New DDHB) 200-100 , 200 +100 De 125 Nin? cos (2x 20) 9,-9, Shear sress on plane BE t, = - “> sin29 2.27 (Old DDHB) 2.29 (New DDHB) (Negative sign indicates t, tends to produce ew rotation) = mele sin (2 x 30) = ~ 129,9 N/mm* +05 = ¥125° +(-129.9)" = 180.28 Nim? ‘The inclination of resultant stress with the normal of the inclined plane 1299 ar! "y2g =46.1° (Asshown in Fig. 1.40) ar? Resultant stress on plane BE , 9, 200+100 2 2 (Negative sign indicates ,,, tends to produce ew rotation) 150NAum* ‘Maximum shear stress Element subjected to uniaxial stress with simpleshear Bxample: 14 point in a plate grider is subjected to horizontal tensile stress of 100 N/mm? and vertical shear stress of 60 N/mm’, Find the magnitude of principal stresses and itslocation, Data: ©, = 100N/mm? 1, = 60Nimm? Solution : > i Oy RY 52 sie nhljuvan rs cefae) ea : 100, 2) sc? «rove tem Minor principal stress. 6,4a Design of Machine Elements - | +607 = 28.1 N/mm? (compressive) Location : 60. > ~ 100 [50.194 or 180+50.194 25.097° and @, = 115,097" 8 " Element subjected to pure shear Example : 15 A point in amachine member is subjected to pure shear stress of magnitude 50 Nemm?, Determine (j) Stresses acting on a plane inclined at an angle of 30° with respect to vertical plane (ii) Principal stresses and their locations and (1il) Maximum shear stresses and its locations Data: ty = S0N/mm? Sotation: Ty i E t, —— 3 % Fig Lt (i) Normal stress on plane BE 6, = 7,8in20 ~~ 2.20(Old DDHB) = 50 sin (230) = 43.3 Nima? 2.22 (New DDB) Shear stress on plane BE 1, = 1,,c0520 ~~ 2.21 (Old DDHB) 50.c0s (2 x 30) = 25 Némm* (Positive sign indicates 1, tends to procuce cew rotation as shown in Fig, 1.41)) (ii) Primeipal stresses 2.23 (New DDHB) = 4, = 50N/mm? (Tensile) ~~ 2.22 (Olé DDHB) =, = —50Nimm! (Compressive) 2.24 (New DDHB) Location : i.e, Angles at which principal stresses act, 6, = 45° and 0, 135° —-2.23 (Old DDHB),2.25 (New DDHB)Intoduction 45 (ii) Maximum shear stress ¢,,. = 1, =+50N/mm? _—-2.24 (Ol DDHB), 2.26 (New DDHB) Angles at which maximum shear stress act 8) = 0 and 0} =90° — —-225(01DDHB),227(New DDH) Element subjected to biaxial stress with shear Example : 1.6 A point in a structural member subject to plane stress is shown in Fig. 1.42. Determine the lowing () Normal and tangential stress intensities on plane MN inclined at an angle of 45° (ii) Principal stresses and their direction (ii). Maximum shear stress and the direction of the planes on which it occurs. [V-T.U. July/Aug : 2002, Dec.08/Jan.09, June/July 2011, July 2012) Data: 9, = 40MPa; 6, = -30MPa; t, = 25MPa 8 = 45 ‘Solution : = 30 MPa 5 x 15 MPa i af * on 40 oa 3 eis % Oe M Normal stress on plane MN, «, c0s20+1,,$i128 ~-2:30(OM1 DDHB) ~2.32(New DDHB) 30 co (2 45) +25 sh (25645) = 30mm? Shear siress on plane MN, 7) = ~ sin20 + ¢,,c0s20 ---231 (OM DDHB)46 Design of Machine Elements - | oy = REE m0 2x 49) 425 cos 2245) =-35 Ninn? (Negative sign indicates 5, tends to produce ew rotation) {New DDHB) princi S28 |= } +3 2.2/0 DH) ‘Maximum stress, = + =" i | ® = z " 2M QlewDDEB) 7 ) +25* <4 0116 Nhnn® Cems) 7 ; Sitep “) +4, 2.33 (OMDDHB) Manian pracalerens 6, = 2¢*°r ( if 289400) | 5 = (222) +25? 2-38.01 16 Némm? (Compressive) Location : ‘Angles at which the principal stresses act, | 1 2¢, O83 arts. 2.4 (Old DDHB) 3 136 (New DDEB) whereO, and, are 90° apart. 1 (2x28 2. 8, = 17-760" and @, = 107.760" 1-9) (Gi) Maximum shear suesst,,, = = y{— +e astute 2.37(New DDHB) (2 et Tr z ) 4257 = +43.0116Némm* maximum shear stress act 0} = 0,445 and 03 = 06,4135 0) = 17.769+45 = 62.769? and Oy = 17,7694 13 oR 52,769" Angle at which maximum shear stress acts 0, = 1 Juan 2 = -27.231° and@ 3 =62.769" (783 = 8} +90)Arrectangular bar of section 50 mm x 2S mmis subjected to a tensile lond of 25 KN. Determine the ‘values of normal and shear stresses on a plane 30° with the vertical. Also calculate the magnitude and direction of the maximum shear stress. [VTU, Dee. 08:Jan, 2009} Data: F= 25kN=25%10°N Baw F c Cross-sectional area ofthe bar A = 50% 25 = 1250 mn Solution + 25kN <4 }30° [> 25kN ie Sureseon plane ER, ¢, == = 220 2 a E 8 1250 Fig. 1.d3 [Nora stress on the inclined plane o,= ~2.13 (DDHB) = 2xcos?30=15 Némm? Shear stress on the inclined plane't, =—S sin 20 —-2.14(DDHB) ve sign indicates 1, tends to produce ew rotation) 9, Maximum shear stress, = sin(+ 90) =4 S —217(DHB) =710N/mm? All planes inclined at 45° to the axis of pull are subjected to maximum shear stress Example : 1.8 ‘Thestate of stress at a pointina strained member isshown in Fig. 144, The tensile principal stress {sknown tobe84 N/mm?, Determine; (i) Maximum shearing stress atthe point and orientation ofits plane (i) shearing stress 1, [VTU, May/June 2010} o—— Fig. 1.48Design of Machine Elernents-1 Solution : (Shearing stress t,, Tensile principal stress 9, = ie, SMe + 5540 (852) 2 cs Shearing stwess t,, = 49.356.Niam? (i) Maximum Shearing stress and its planes } ~14,563° and 0, =75.437° (6, =90+ 0) Example : 1.9 ‘A point ina structural member subjected to plane stress is shown in Fig, 1.45. Determine, @ Normal and tangential stress intensities on plane EF inclined at an angle of 30° (ii) Principal stresses and their direction (iii) Maxirnum shear stress and the direction of the planes on which itoccurs. 90MPa D, c SOMPa 140MPa. HL. 140MPa 20 E 5OMPa SOMPa Fig. 145rc Inteduet.on —$ i i @i@@m@i@ i@$@ imi i i ___ 49 140 MPa :6, = 90 MPa, 7, = 50 MPa ;8 = 30° ot @ Normal stress on plane FF,c, 7 0820 +1,sin2@- —2.30(0Kd DDH) ie an care code 30) +$0sin(230) = 1708 Nim? —232 (New DDHB) Shear test on plane EF.t, = - ) nae 47,0828 231/04 DDH) 140-90 ; E \sin(2 x30) +50c0s(230) = +333 Némm —233 (NewDDHB) (+ve) sign indicates 4, tends to produce cew rotation z o,+ 8,-9, (i) Maximum principalstress 0, = 5+ [ ) +d, 234 (New DDHB) 2.32 (Old DDHB) snes, (05? 1709 a 2.35 (Old DDHB) --233 (New DDHB) 2.36 (New DEB) 1.72+90=121.72° (i) Maximum shear stress 1, —-2,35 (Od DDEB) ) -+50? = 2589 mn? 231 (New DDB)Design of Machine Elements - | Angle at which maximum shear stessact @=0, +45 and 6, +135 1724135 oR 166.72° Angie at which maximum shearstress acis, 138 (NewDDHB) = G, = ~13.28? and @, = 6, +90°=-13.28 +90°= 76,72 a Direct stresses of 120 N/mm’ (Tensile) and 90 N/mm? (Compressive) exist on two perpendicular planes at certain point in a body. They arealso accompanied by shear stress on the planes. The greatest principal stress at the point due to these is 150 Nrmm*, Determine, © Maguitude of shoar stress en the two planes Gi) Mima shea stress at the point Data: 6, = 120 N/mm (Tensile; Example = 90 N/mm: (Compressive), 6, = 150 N/mm? Solution : (Magnitude of shear stress Maximum principal stesso, = —234(New DEB) ie, 150 = 232(0ld DDHB) 7 ; 90 [2assey ei mr Shear stess z= 84.853 Nm? Gi) Maximum shear stress ¢,-6,)' Maximum shear stress, = +f 7 8 235 (Old DDHB) [1204-90 ) +84? ~237(New DDHB) £135 Nim?rr Fete. $$$ $a aa __$_$§—— §] Example : LU ‘The state of stress ina two dimensionally stressed body is shown in ig, 1.46, Determine, {) Principal stesses and their direction (i) Maximum shear stress and their planes. 60MPa 120MPa: Data 9,=-120MPas Solution () Principal stresses and their direction Maximum principal stesso, = am = 1 2 can 2 = ~36.754 N/mm? (Compressive) Minimum principal sesso, | F -cor — 163.246 N/mm? (Compressive) —-2.34 (New DDHB) —-2.32(Old DDHB) 34 (New DDHB) 2,32 (Old DDHB)Design of Machine Elements -1 Location: Angles at which principal stresses act 8, ) where @, and@, are 90" apart 2.34 (Old DDHB) —236(NewDDHB) 5.7825 + 90 = 125.7825" )) Maximum shear stress —- 2.35 (Old DDHB) — 237 (New DDHB) rz = = (PES) +cat /{+—F E a ai F ie ‘ompressive stress = Teasile stress o = 3. P x A= Area of cross section of member Fig.2.2 (a) Direct ahiear load Y v Single shear load Double shear load Cc (oN pe Fe 4 bey pat Ler ke Shear stress t= 7 > A= Area of c/s of rivet Fig. 2.2 (0) 2.4 COMPOUND STRESS Stresses produced by torsion and bending are termed as compound stresses, because torsion and bending produce normal and tangential stresses in the same plane simultaneously. 2.4.1 Torsional stress > ‘The stress produced in a member twisted by a couple is pure shear, but ils intensity on any fibre depends on the distance of the fibre from the center line of twisted member.a7 Design for Static andl impact Strength: 24.2 Torsional strength : Torsional strength is defined as the torque per unit maximum shear stress. M ‘Torsional strength = “+ where M, = Torque and t = Maximum shear stress 2.4.3 Torsional rigidity : ‘tis the torque required to produce unit angle of twist in a specified length of shaft. M, Torsional rigidity = ~@ 2.4.4 Torsional flexibility: Its the reciprocal of torsional rigidity, which is equal to the angle of twist per unit torque. 24,5 Polar moment of inertia ; Moment of inertia about an exis perpendicular to the plane of an area is known as polar ‘moment of inertia, ‘The general expression for torsion is M, Go fem bate ---- 2.50 (Old DDHB) J hy Mod where, M, = Applied torque in Nam amit oon ee J. Polar moment of inertia mm! = Modulus of rigidity Nim? Angle of twist in radians = Length of shaft in mm + = Radius of shaft in mm ‘<= Maximum shear stress Nim! ~o2a 0 2,51(a) (Old DDHB) 2.87(b) (New DDHB) N M, = 9550 (> where M, in N-m = 9550 x 10° x where M, in N.nm N = Power in kW n= Speed in rpm, 6 J = = d! For solid circular shaft 32 x “ i = 34041) Forhollow circular shaft68 Design of Mochine Elements -1 d= Diameter of solid shaft 4, = Outer diameter of hollow shaft d, = Inner diameter of hollow shaft ~----Table 2.1 (Okt DDHB) Jr = Je=Polar section modulus ‘Table 2.2 (New PDHB) ‘The assumptions made while deriving the general expression for torsion are, i) The material of the shaft is homogenous and isotropic (i) The twisting along the shaft is uniform (iii) The shaft is uniform circular cross-section through out (iv) Normal cross-sections of the shaft which are plane before twist remain plane after twist (v) Material of the shaft follows Hooke's law. 2.4.6 Bending stress : ‘A beam is a structural member on which a system of external loads acts at right angles to its longitudinal axis. Due to these external loads, bending moments and shear forces are setup at any point along the length of the beam. Hence the beam has to resist the action of bending moment and. shear force. The longitudinal stress produced at any section to resist the bending is known as the bending stress or flexure. 2.4.7 Simple bending or pure bending : ‘When 2 beam is bend due to the application of constant bending moment without being subjected to shear or torsion or axial loads, then itis said to be ina state of pure bending or simple bending. ‘The general expression for bending is, Mo _E Ttttk ~~ 2.52 (Old DDHB); 2.90 (New DDHB) where M, = Maximum bending momemt in Nmm I = Moment of Inertia, mm* © = Maximum bending stress, N/mm? ¢ = Distance of neutral axis from the extreme fibre in mm E. = Modulus of elasticity, Nimm? R = Radius of neutral layer or Radius of curvature in mm, ‘The product Elis called the flexural rigidity of the beam. Ec Bending stress. =“. This equation is called flexure formula. ‘The assumptions macle while deriving the general expression for bending are, G@) The beam is subjected to pure bending. (ii) The material of the beam is isotropic and homogencous.Design for Static and Impact strength (iii) Plane section remains plane even after bending. 5 (iv) The beam is initially straight and every layer of itis free to expand or contract. (¥) The value of Modulus of elasticity is the same in tension and compression. (iy The bean material is stressed within elastic Limit and thus obeys Hooke's law. (ii) The radius of curvature of beam is very large when compared to its depth, 24.8 Section Modulus I Section modulus is defined as the ratio of moment of inertia of asection about the neutral axis, to the distance of the outer most layer from the neutral axis. It is denoted by Z. 1 Z = = Table 26 (OM DDB); Table 2.7 (New DDHB) Forsolid crcularshaft, I= © d'andc= & orsolid circular shaft, I= 2d and e= 5 & gt at dy circularshait, 1 = = (4$—a# do Forhollow ctcularshat, 1 = {4(@} ~d#) and e= 2.5 WORKING STRESS : When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as working stress or design stress or allowable stress. 2.6 FACTOR OF SAFETY (F.0.S) Itis defined as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress. For ductile material, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of safety is based on yield stress. For simple tension or compression, Maximum stress FO-S = Working or design sess Yield point stress (6, HOS = Seon eee ley) "Working stress (c) For pure shear Yield point stress in shear (ty) FOS “ ‘Allowable or Maximum shear stress (Tax) For brittle material, where the yield point is not well defined, the factor of safety is based on ultimate stress,Design of Machine Elements -I 60 For simple tension Ultimate stressin tension (6,.) FOS = “Working stessin tension (0) For simple compression Uhimate stress in compression (6) FOS = Working stress in compression (6, ) ince the ultimate stress in tension and compression are not equal in brittle materials, itis necessary to have separate equations for the factor of safety in tension and in compression. 2.6.1 Discuss factors influencing selection of appropriate value for the factor of safety (VTU. March 2001, Feb 2003) ‘The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine component depends upon number of factors, They are, (Variation in material properties, (ii) ‘Type of loading and stress. i) Effect of machining or forming processes or mode of manufacture (iv) Effect of time and environment in which the device is expected to operate. (¥) Effect of size in material strength properties (vi) Effect of wear upon the functions and life of a machine member, (vii) Specific requirements for life and reliability. (viii) Effect of heat treatment upon the physical properties of material (ix) Overall concern for human safety. 2.7 ECCENTRIC LOADING An extemal load whose Fine of action is parallel but does not coincide with the centroidal axi ‘of the machine component is known as an eccentric load. It is shown in Fig 2.3. The distance from the centrodial axis of the machine component and the point of appliction of load is called eccentrcit and is denoted by ’e.. Due to the eccentric load the stresses produced in the body are, (i) Direct stress due to F Gi) Bending stress due to the bending moment or couple Ke Direct stress 6 = F(Compresive) Bending moment M, = Fe ‘Bending stress at the edge AB = —"c, (Compressive)a Design for Static ond Impact Strenath Bending stress at the edge CD. = 61 . Combined stress at AB = i + Mr (Compressive) M, F Combined stress at CD. = —*.¢y ~ (Tensile) Symbols Qunrs maxS, Force N Are of cross-section, mr? Moment of Inertia, mm¢ Polar moment of inertia, mm* ‘Working or Allowable or Design normal stress, N/mm? [Tensile or Compressive or Bending] Working or Allowable or Design shear stress, N/mm? ‘Maximum bending moment, N-mm Maximum torque, N-mm Modulus of rigidity, Nimm? Modulus of elasticity, Nimm?62, ——________________ Design of Machine Elements -! ©, — Yield point stress, N/mm’ 6, — Ultimate point stress, N/mm? ‘1, ~ Yield sess in shear, N/mm? +t, — Ultimate stress in shear, Nimm? FOS or n — Factor of safety Example : 2.1 A plain carbon ste! of rade 4SC8 (c,,= 360 MPa) is subjected 10 tensile load of 60 KN. Calculate the diameter of the rod, using factor of safety =3 Data: Load F = 60 kN = 60 x 10°N (Tensile), ROS =3;6,, = 360 N/mm? Solution + For tensile load 2. Diameter of rod d 25.23mm = 30 mm|From Table 14-6 (New DDHB)) Example : 2.2 A flat bar shown in Fig 24is subjected to a compressive load of 100 kN. Ifthe allowablestress for the ‘material of the bar is 100 Nitam*, determine the thickness of bar. Data: F = 100 KN = 100 x10" N (Compressive) 9= 100 N/mm? (Compressive) Solution : Cross sectional area A =ht = 100 7 100 kN——>| 100 KN F 100 am eT Salina Fig.24 |Desion for Static. and Impact Strength For compressive load, allowable stress 10010" 1001 Thickness of bart = 10mm Example : 2.3 ‘Two round rods are joined by means of a knuckle joint as shown in Fig 2.5. Determine the diameter of rod and the diameter of knuckle pin, if the rod carrying a tensile load of SKN and the allowable stresses for the rod and the pin are 100 Nimm! in tension and 4S N/mm in shear. 100 = Load = F = 50 KN = 50 x 10! N (Tensile) Allowable str: Allowable stress in shear 7 Solution = Fig. 25 Design of rod : The rod is subjected to tensile load ‘Allowable tensile ses in therod = er ipo 50x10" . z 4 ig + Diameter of mad D = 25°25 mm = mm [From Table [46] (New DDHB) Design of knuckle pin The kneckle pin is ubjeetdl to double shear. F ‘+ Allowable shear stress inthe knuckle pin t= 5