REPORT OF LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE TOPIC

– ‘SAFETY AT MID-BLOCKS’

An ‘Intelligent Transportation System’ assignment completed during

M.Tech.

in

Transportation Engineering and Management

By

Anindya Bandyopadhyay

(203122004)

Under the guidance of

Dr. S. Marisamynathan

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
TIRUCHIRAPALLI-620015

APRIL 2023

1
 Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Evaluation of safety effectiveness of the existing measures, causes of accidents at Mid-Blocks .......... 4
Different measures that can be adopted to enhance safety at mid-block ................................................ 7
Inferences .............................................................................................................................................. 10
References ............................................................................................................................................. 12

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Introduction:

The safety of pedestrians and vehicles has always been a significant concern for city planners
and policymakers. Mid-block crossings are often considered as challenging locations for
pedestrians to cross due to a lack of signalized crossings, resulting in higher risks of accidents.
On the other hand, the vehicles face hinderance to smooth unhindered flow due to unpredictable
vehicular and pedestrian behaviour at these locations. In recent years, there has been a growing
interest in studying the safety of mid-block crossings to better understand the factors that
contribute to pedestrian safety.

This literature review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the existing research on the
topic of “Safety at mid-blocks”. The review includes an analysis of 25 research papers that
were selected based on their relevance to the topic and the quality of the research. The papers
were published between 2016 and 2022 (except a few important papers which were published
before), and they cover a range of aspects related to pedestrian and vehicular safety at mid-
block crossings, such as infrastructure design, traffic flow, pedestrian behaviour, and safety
interventions.

The complete study has been divided into two parts – (i) Evaluation of safety effectiveness of
the existing measures, causes of accidents at Mid-Blocks, and (ii) Different measures that can
be adopted to enhance safety at mid-block. The findings of the papers have been presented
under these two headings based on their research areas with brief mention of the methods
followed.

Overall, this literature review aims to provide a better understanding of the current issues and
the steps being undertaken worldwide to mitigate them in the field of safety at mid-block
crossings. The report's insights and recommendations could be useful for policymakers, city
planners, and researchers to develop effective interventions and solutions to improve pedestrian
safety at mid-block crossings.

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Evaluation of safety effectiveness of the existing measures, causes
of accidents at Mid-Blocks:

Various research works that have been conducted to evaluate the safety issues of the mid-
blocks, the effectiveness of the existing safety measures, the behavioural aspects of drivers
and pedestrians that causes hazards at mid blocks are discussed in this section.
(Avinash et al., 2019) conducted a study to evaluate pedestrian safety at mid-block crosswalks
in India. The data extracted from the videos were analysed using correlation analysis, bivariate
analysis, and multiple linear regression (MLR) technique. The major findings of the study
include: (i) safety margin increases with an increase in pedestrian speed and vehicular gap,
while it decreases with rolling behavior while crossing the street; (ii) vehicle speed, pedestrian
speed, and vehicle gap were found to be the most influential variables, while pedestrian age
and platoon size had the least effect; (iii) vehicle type influences pedestrian safety, and
pedestrians are more likely to cross the road by maintaining the least marginal vehicular gap
with respect to light vehicles compared to heavier vehicles; (iv) driver yielding behavior
significantly influences pedestrian safety; and (v) safety margin against pedestrian speed and
vehicle speed increases with an increase in the vehicle gap size, and PSM against waiting time
decreases as the vehicle gap increases. The researchers used AVS video extractor software and
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 16.0) for their analysis.
(Xu et al., 2013) aimed to evaluate the impact of access management techniques on the safety
of mid-block segments in urban areas. To address the interdependency between safety and
mobility for heterogeneous mid-block segments, they used simultaneous equation models. The
study found that access management techniques, such as mid-block segment length, driveway
density, and median opening density, significantly influence safety on mid-block segments.
Furthermore, the study found that a longer distance between signals, driveways, and median
openings results in fewer potential crashes. Lastly, commercial land use types also affect the
safety of mid-block segments. The authors used the Durbin-Wu-Hausman test to examine
endogeneity and corrected it using the 2-stage least squares (2SLS) method with STATA
software.
The article by (Babić et al., 2020) provides a systematic review of academic studies to date on
the influence of road markings on driver behavior and road safety. The findings suggest that
road markings have a positive impact on road safety, but the impact on driver behavior varies.
The presence of road markings impacts both lateral lane position and driving speed, and wider
markings reduce vehicle crashes. Different road marking designs, such as transverse lines,
herringbone and dragon teeth patterns, and optical circles, prove to be a positive measure for
speed reduction and compliance. Flat and rumble transverse lines are the most effective in
reducing speed prior to curves, intersections, and rural-urban transitions, while markings in a
herringbone pattern reduce driving speed along curves and influence the lateral position of the
vehicle.
(Chaudhari et al., 2021) aimed to evaluate pedestrian safety at urban midblock crosswalks using
different surrogate safety measures such as vehicle crossing speed, post encroachment time

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(PET), yielding compliance of driver and pedestrian, and conflict rate. They found that
conflicts increased as the average vehicle crossing speed increased, smaller vehicles had lower
PET values compared to heavy vehicles, and yielding compliance varied by location and
demographics.
(Kadali and Vedagiri, 2016) evaluated pedestrian safety at unprotected mid-block crosswalks by
considering the proactive safety measure as a pedestrian safety margin (PSM). They found that
pedestrian behavioural characteristics such as rolling behaviour and speed change conditions
significantly reduce the PSM values and the probability of avoiding conflict with an
approaching vehicle at unprotected mid-block crosswalks.

(Uzondu et al., 2022) conducted a study to understand the perception of stakeholders regarding
road safety in Nigeria and to identify measures and strategies for improvement. The study
involved three focus groups with participants from various transport ministries and agencies
involved in road safety in Nigeria. The study found that poor road design, inadequate
implementation of road safety legislation, road user behavior, and inadequate research were
identified as challenges to improving road safety in Nigeria. Public education and information
campaigns were rated as very effective and easy to implement among the road safety measures
discussed. The study aimed to provide evidence-based recommendations to design and develop
integrated road safety policies and sustainable implementation strategies in Nigeria and other
developing countries. Data were analyzed using Deductive Content Analysis (DCA).
The research by (Soathong et al., 2022) investigated the effects of conformist behavior on
pedestrian road crossing behavior among adolescents and adults at unprotected mid-blocks.
Video cameras were used to observe pedestrians at three locations in Auckland City, New
Zealand. The study found that group dynamics can reduce individuals' attention to road
crossing regardless of age and gender. The presence of others affects the safety margins
selected by pedestrians, and differences in safety margins for groups of adolescents and adults
were largely influenced by the relationship among group members rather than the number of
people. Techniques used include t-tests, Kruskal-Wallis test, and binary logistic regression.
(Pande and Abdel-Aty, 2009) presented a novel approach to analyzing severe crash patterns that
occur on mid-block segments of multilane highways with partially limited access. The study
found that severe lane-change related crashes may primarily be attributed to exposure, while
single-vehicle crashes and pedestrian crashes have no significant relationship with the Average
Daily Traffic (ADT). For severe rear-end crashes, the study identified several significant
factors, including speed limit, ADT, K-factor, time of day/day of week, median type, pavement
condition, and presence of horizontal curvature. The research methodology involved within
stratum matched case-control sampling to model crash vs. non-crash cases and the use of a
crash-based case-control and cohort method to estimate Accident Modification Factors (AMF).
The study by (Quistberg et al., 2015) aimed to evaluate the risk of pedestrian-motor vehicle
collisions at intersections and mid-blocks in a major US city using spatiotemporal built
environment data and statistical methods. The study found that intersections with 4 segments
or 5 or more segments had higher pedestrian collision rates compared to mid-blocks. Non-
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residential roads had significantly higher rates than residential roads, with principal arterials
having the highest collision rate. Locations with traffic signals had twice the collision rate of
locations without a signal and those with marked crosswalks also had a higher rate. The study
also found that locations with a one-way road or those with signs encouraging motorists to cede
the right-of-way to pedestrians had fewer pedestrian collisions. Multilevel, mixed-effects
Poisson regression was used to estimate the association between factors of interest and the
number of pedestrian vehicle collisions. The best-fitting model was found using Akaike’s and
Schwarz’s Bayesian information criteria (AIC and BIC, respectively).
The study by (Das et al., 2019) aimed to analyze the effect of crash, geometric, and
environmental characteristics on bicycle-involved hit and run crashes using FFT heuristics
algorithm. The research team extensively used R package ‘FFTrees’ to perform the analysis
and data visualization. Results from FFT heuristics revealed that crash severity, collision type,
and highway type were the most important predictors of bicycle involvement in hit and run
crashes.
The paper by (Pawar and Patil, 2015) aimed to investigate pedestrian temporal and spatial gap
acceptance for midblock street crossings. Field data were collected using video camera, and
six utility models were developed using binary logit analysis. It was observed that the
probability of accepting a spatial gap decreases with the increase in the approaching vehicle
speed. Pedestrians in India are more aggressive, and their 50th and 85th percentile gap values
were smaller than that reported in other studies.
The study by (Mohan et al., 2017) aimed to report the influence of road type and junction
density on road traffic fatality rates in U.S. cities. The Fatality Analysis Reporting System
(FARS) files were used to obtain fatality rates for all cities for the years 2005–2010. The higher
number of junctions per road length was significantly associated with a lower motor- vehicle
crash and pedestrian mortality rates. A city with higher proportion of wider roads and large city
blocks will tend to have higher traffic fatality rates, and therefore in turn require much more
efforts in police enforcement and other road safety measures.
In the study titled "Pedestrian Safety at Midblock Crossings on Dual Carriageway Roads in
Polish Cities" by (Szagala et al., 2022), the authors conducted an analysis of road user behavior
and evaluated the effectiveness of safety measures at pedestrian crossings on dual carriageways
in Polish cities. The study found that the safety treatments analyzed were less effective than
traditional safety measures and should only be temporary, ultimately replaced with traffic lights
or grade-separated solutions.
The study by (Zegeer et al., 2001) aimed to determine whether marked crosswalks at
uncontrolled locations are safer than unmarked crosswalks under various traffic and roadway
conditions and offer recommendations on how to provide safer crossings for pedestrians. Data
from 5 years of pedestrian crashes at 1,000 marked crosswalks and 1,000 matched unmarked
comparison sites were analyzed using Poisson and negative binomial regression models. The
presence of a marked crosswalk alone at an uncontrolled location was associated with no
difference in pedestrian crash rate, compared with an unmarked crosswalk on two-lane roads.
On multilane roads with traffic volumes above about 12,000 vehicles per day, having a marked

6
crosswalk was associated with a higher pedestrian crash rate compared with an unmarked
crosswalk. Raised medians provided significantly lower pedestrian crash rates on multilane
roads.
The study conducted by (Oviedo-Trespalacios et al., 2019) aimed to explore the impact of
roadside advertising signs on driver behavior and road safety. A literature review was
conducted using a systematic classification scheme to synthesize the available literature. The
study found that roadside advertising signs can be considered as environmental clutter that adds
additional demands to the driving task and impairs eye movement patterns of drivers.
Moreover, young drivers invest more attentional resources in interacting with roadside
advertising, which suggests a lower capacity to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant
driving information. The study also proposed the Task-Capability Interface (TCI) model to
explain crash risk.

Different measures that can be adopted to enhance safety at mid-

blocks:

Different research works that have been carried out suggesting various safety measures
that can be adopted to make the mid-blocks safer are discussed in this section.
The research paper titled "Effects of speed humps on vehicle speed and pedestrian crashes in
South Korea" by (Yeo et al., 2020) aimed to investigate the effects of speed humps on both
speed reduction and traffic safety. The study used large-scale vehicle trajectories to validate
the distance of the zones of influence of humps and measured the degree of speed reduction.
The study also examined the effect of speed humps on pedestrian safety using frequency and
severity measures, and an ordered probit model was used to analyse the level of crash injury
severity. The findings showed that vehicles gradually diminished their speeds starting 30 m
ahead of speed humps and immediately accelerated to regain their original speeds within 30 m
after passing the humps. This speed reduction effect was substantial on both local and major
roads, with 18.4% and 24.0% reduction in speeds, respectively. Moreover, inside the zones of
speed reduction effect near speed humps, fewer pedestrian crashes per roadway distance
occurred and pedestrian injuries were less severe, compared with events outside the effect
zones. This safety improvement was greater on major roads than local roads. The study used
techniques such as the ordered probit model, Universal Medium Range Radar (UMRR),
Python, and ArcGIS.
The research paper titled "Low-cost Road marking measures for increasing safety in horizontal
curves: A driving simulator study" by (Babić and Brijs, 2021) aimed to investigate the effects

7
of two low-cost road marking measures, namely red median, and horizontal warning signs, on
driver behavior (speed, lateral movement, acceleration/deceleration) before and during
dangerous horizontal curves on a rural road. The study used a driving simulator and found that
both measures, used alone or in combination with a vertical warning sign, significantly reduced
vehicle speed compared to the control condition. The use of a red median also prompted the
lateral movement of the vehicle closer to the edge line. The paper concludes by discussing the
potential use of these measures for reducing curve-related accidents. The methodology
involved repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Bonferroni corrected post hoc
comparisons and Greenhouse-Geisser correction.
The study by (Ghasemi et al., 2022) evaluated the effect of red colored pavement and portal
overhead bicycle crossing sign on safety and visibility of mid-block bicycle crossings in urban
areas. The study involved two crossings, one equipped with red pavement and portal overhead
sign and the other with standard yield signs. Eye tracking and kinematic data of vehicles were
recorded in a real road experiment. The red-colored pavement increased the visibility of the
crossing zone, and the portal overhead sign narrowed the driver's visual field, leading to a
reduction in speed and increased attention to vertical signs. The drivers' speed reduction helped
them see the mid-block crossing elements from a greater distance, with a higher fixation
duration. The study employed Univariate ANOVA for data analysis.
The article by (Rathore et al., 2021) proposes a system for real-time monitoring of city traffic
to detect driving violations, such as wrong U-turns, overtaking on central divider lines, or
yellow lines. The system uses a fog device with a camera in the car to detect violations made
by preceding vehicles and alert the authorities. The proposed algorithms use a GPU-based
video processing module for real-time video analysis, object classification, and detection
mechanisms. The system showed a high accuracy of more than 90% in detecting 14 out of 15
traffic violations, and the fog device with GPU-based capability can process real-time traffic
videos efficiently.
(Vieira Gomes and Cardoso, 2012) conducted a study to investigate the impact of low-cost
engineering measures on road safety on a Portuguese multilane road. The study employed a
methodology consisting of network safety diagnosis, safety analysis on each selected location,
selection and application of appropriate safety measures, and safety monitoring of the corrected
sites. The study found that the corrective measures resulted in a 10% reduction in the annual
number of injury accidents, a 70% decrease in the annual number of head-on collisions, and a
26% reduction in the annual number of accidents involving fatal and serious injuries. To control
for the regression-to-the-mean effect, the Empirical Bayes Method (EBM) was used in the
study.
(Guo and Boyle, 2022) used Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) to analyze naturalistic data from
the Safety Pilot Model Deployment (SPMD) program to examine driving behavior at midblock
crosswalks with Rectangular Rapid Flashing Beacons (RRFBs) and pedestrians' presence. The
study found that drivers comply with activated RRFBs when pedestrians are present. The study
also found that drivers started braking as far back as 180 m before the crosswalk and stopped
braking from 70 m before the crosswalk at an activated RRFB without pedestrians. When there
were pedestrians, drivers would start braking 20 to 30 m later but would brake more firmly and
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for longer. Finally, the study found that drivers were not likely to brake or decelerate when
RRFB was off, and no pedestrians were present. The research methodology involved the use
of HMMs to model the relationship between drivers' intention to decelerate and their actual
braking behavior as they approached a crosswalk.
The study by (SHANKAR Associate Professor and SITTIKARIYA Ming-Bang SHYU, 2006)
found that road infrastructure variables posing the greatest risk of pedestrian accidents for
elderly pedestrians in urban corridors include the presence of centre turning lanes, traffic signal
spacing exceeding 0.5 miles, and lack of roadway illumination. The study also showed that
elderly pedestrians are at a higher risk of severe injury if involved in accidents at non-
intersection locations such as mid-blocks compared to marked crosswalks. The results were
obtained using Bayesian analysis.
The research paper conducted by (Kruszyna and Matczuk-Pisarek, 2021) aimed to evaluate the
effectiveness of various devices to reduce the speed of vehicles on pedestrian crossings. The
study selected suitable locations and installed SR4 devices to collect traffic data from those
locations. The data collected and processed using software designed to operate the device. The
study found that raised pedestrian crossings were the most effective device to reduce vehicle
speed. Speed tables were observed to reduce speed along longer segments of the road. The
presence of the refugee island did not significantly reduce vehicle speed. The study also found
that similar values of the coefficient of variation were obtained for speed tables and refugee
islands, indicating a smaller impact of these devices on the change of driving style near
pedestrian crossings. The SR4 device was used to identify the basic characteristics of traffic
such as speed and volume.
In the study titled "Effects of parallelogram-shaped pavement markings on vehicle speed and
safety of pedestrian crosswalks on urban roads in China" by (Guo et al., 2016), the authors
evaluated the effects of parallelogram-shaped pavement markings on vehicle speed and crashes
at pedestrian crosswalks in China. The study found that these markings significantly reduced
vehicle speeds and speed violations but increased rear-end crashes while reducing vehicle-
pedestrian crashes.
The study by (Bhagavathula and Gibbons, 2023) aimed to develop guidelines for the lighting
of crosswalks at midblock locations that increase pedestrian visibility and compare the
effectiveness of the lighting with pedestrian safety countermeasures such as RRFBs, signs, etc.
The visual performance of five midblock crosswalk lighting designs along with two pedestrian
safety countermeasures at three light levels on a realistic midblock crosswalk was evaluated.
The study found that midblock crosswalks should be illuminated to an average vertical
illuminance of 10 lux to ensure optimal pedestrian visibility. Lighting designs that render the
pedestrian in positive contrast are recommended to increase pedestrian visibility. It is also
recommended that pedestrian-crossing treatments, such as RRFBs and flashing signs, should
be used with lighting to increase night-time visibility. Linear mixed models were used to assess
the effects of lighting design, lighting level, mannequin location, and age on detection distance,
and Tukey's honest significant difference was used for post hoc analyses.

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Inferences:

The following inferences can be drawn from the literature review –

1. Pedestrian speed, vehicle speed, and vehicle gap are important variables that influence
pedestrian safety at mid-blocks.
2. Vehicle type also affects pedestrian safety, with pedestrians more likely to cross the
road safely by maintaining a minimum vehicular gap with respect to light vehicles
compared to heavier vehicles.
3. Access management techniques, such as mid-block segment length, driveway density,
and median opening density, significantly influence safety on mid-block segments.
4. Road markings have a positive impact on road safety, but their impact on driver
behavior varies. Different road marking designs, such as transverse lines, herringbone
and dragon teeth patterns, and optical circles, prove to be positive measures for speed
reduction and compliance.
5. Pedestrian behavioural characteristics such as rolling behavior and speed change
conditions can significantly reduce the probability of avoiding conflict with an
approaching vehicle at unprotected mid-block crosswalks.
6. Poor road design, inadequate implementation of road safety legislation, road user
behavior, and inadequate research are challenges to improving road safety in Nigeria.
7. Group dynamics can reduce individuals' attention to road crossing, and the presence of
others affects the safety margins selected by pedestrians.
8. Intersections with more than four segments had higher pedestrian collision rates
compared to mid-blocks, and non-residential roads had significantly higher rates than
residential roads.
9. Crash severity, collision type, and highway type were the most important predictors of
bicycle involvement in hit and run crashes.
10. The probability of accepting a spatial gap decreases with the increase in the approaching
vehicle speed, and pedestrians in India are more aggressive.
11. The higher number of junctions per road length was significantly associated with a
lower motor-vehicle crash and pedestrian mortality rates.
12. Safety treatments analyzed were less effective than traditional safety measures and
should only be temporary, ultimately replaced with traffic lights or grade-separated
solutions.
13. The presence of a marked crosswalk alone at an uncontrolled location was associated
with no difference in pedestrian crash rate, compared with an unmarked crosswalk on
two-lane roads.
14. Roadside advertising signs can be considered as environmental clutter that adds
additional demands to the driving task and impairs eye movement patterns of drivers,
especially young drivers.
15. Speed humps are effective in reducing vehicle speeds, with a reduction of 18.4% and
24.0% on local and major roads, respectively. This reduction in speed has a positive
effect on pedestrian safety, with fewer crashes occurring within the speed reduction
zones near the humps.
16. The use of red medians and horizontal warning signs, both alone and in combination
with vertical warning signs, effectively reduces vehicle speed.

10
17. The use of red-colored pavement and portal overhead signs increases the visibility of
crossing zones and reduces vehicle speed by narrowing the driver's visual field.
18. Real-time monitoring of city traffic using a fog device with a camera in the car is an
effective method for detecting driving violations, with an accuracy rate of over 90%.
19. Corrective measures have resulted in a significant reduction in the number of injury
accidents, head-on collisions, and accidents involving fatal and serious injuries.
20. Drivers start braking well before an activated RRFB crosswalk without pedestrians, but
when pedestrians are present, they brake more firmly and for longer. RRFBs are not
effective in reducing speeds when they are off, and no pedestrians are present.
21. Road infrastructure variables, such as the presence of centre turning lanes, traffic signal
spacing, and lack of roadway illumination, pose the greatest risk of pedestrian accidents
for elderly pedestrians in urban corridors.
22. Raised pedestrian crossings are the most effective device to reduce vehicle speeds,
while speed tables are effective in reducing speed along longer segments of the road.
23. Parallelogram-shaped pavement markings reduce vehicle speeds and speed violations
but increase rear-end crashes while reducing vehicle-pedestrian crashes.
24. Midblock crosswalks should be illuminated to an average vertical illuminance of 10 lux
to ensure optimal pedestrian visibility, and pedestrian-crossing treatments should be
used with lighting to increase night-time visibility.

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Babić, D., Brijs, T., 2021. Low-cost road marking measures for increasing safety in horizontal curves: A
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Babić, Dario, Fiolić, M., Babić, Darko, Gates, T., 2020. Road Markings and Their Impact on Driver
Behaviour and Road Safety: A Systematic Review of Current Findings. J Adv Transp.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/7843743

Bhagavathula, R., Gibbons, R.B., 2023. Lighting Strategies to Increase Nighttime Pedestrian Visibility
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Chaudhari, A., Gore, N., Arkatkar, S., Joshi, G., Pulugurtha, S., 2021. Exploring pedestrian surrogate
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Ghasemi, N., Acerra, E.M., Lantieri, C., Simone, A., Rupi, F., Vignali, V., 2022. Urban Mid-Block Bicycle
Crossings: The Effects of Red Colored Pavement and Portal Overhead Bicycle Crossing Sign.
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Guo, H., Boyle, L.N., 2022. Driving behavior at midblock crosswalks with Rectangular Rapid Flashing
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2021.106406

Guo, Y., Liu, P., Liang, Q., Wang, W., 2016. Effects of parallelogram-shaped pavement markings on
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