CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

LECTURE 1: Introduction to Structural Engineering

1.1 The analysis and design process;
1.2 Structural forms/Classifications;
1.3 Nature of loads; and
1.4 Building materials

LEARNING OUTCOME (LO):

LO 1: Classify different types of structure based on their forms; and
LO 2: Identify the different nature of loads.

DISCUSSION/PRESENTATION OF THE LESSON:

The word structure has various meanings. It depends upon the perspective of an
individual and/or upon the contexts. A general definition of structure is the arrangement of
and relations between the parts or elements of something complex. Considering engineering
perspective, a structure is something constructed or built. The structures of concern to
Structural Engineers are bridges, buildings, dams, walls, and towers. These structures are
composed of one or more solid elements so arranged that the whole structures as well as their
components are capable of holding themselves without appreciable geometric change during
loading and unloading.

Structural Theory deals with the principles and methods by which stress, shear and
bending moment, and deflection (translation/displacement) at any section of an element of a
structure may be calculated.

1.1 The Analysis and Design Process

Structural analysis is a mathematical algorithm process by which the response of a
structure to specified loads and actions is determined. This response is measured by
determining the value of internal forces or stress resultant and displacement (deformations)
throughout the structure. The basic methods of structural analysis are flexibility and stiffness
methods. The flexibility method is also called force method and compatibility method. The
stiffness method is also called displacement method and equilibrium method.
Structural Design is the process of determining the safest dimensions and/or other
parameters of any member of a structure subjected to the given loadings and it is based on the
structural analysis utilizing the maximum calculated values for stresses, shear and bending
moment, and deflection, and to proportion the members in accordance with the allowable
stresses of the material and other requirements for the purpose of the structure. In the
Philippines, we design structures based on the National Structural Code of the Philippines
2015 edition.

To design a structure involves many considerations among which are two major
objectives that must be satisfied: (Hsieh, Yuan-Yu, Elementary Theory of Structures 2nd Ed.)
a. The structure must meet the performance requirement, and
b. The structure must carry loads safely.

The design process of a structure can be summarized using this outline:

a. Developing a general layout
• Consider the purpose for which the structure is to be built.
• Selection of structural type and materials.
b. Investigating the loads
• Determine the loads for which a given structure should be designed.
c. Stress analysis
• Determine maximum possible stresses in each member being considered
based on the loads. (Principles and methods will be the main topics of this
subject)
d. Selection of elements
• Selection of suitable dimensions of the member based on the analysis and
codes.
• At trial-and-error approach may be used in the search for a proportioning of
elements that will be economical, adequate, and safe.
e. Drawing and detailing
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 • Preparing of the technical drawings/plans and specification of the structure.

1.2 Structural Forms/Classification

Basically most structures may be classified as beams, trusses, or rigid frames, or
combinations of these elements. A beam is a structural member subjected to transverse loads
only, and completely analyzed when the values of shear and bending moment are determined.
A truss is a two-force member subjected to axial forces only, it is also a structure composed
of members connected by frictionless hinges or pins. The loads are assumed to be concentrated
at the joints, it is completely analyzed when the stresses in all members (bottom chord, top
chord, and web members) are determined. A rigid frame is a structure composed/built of
members connected by rigid joints and subjected to bending moment, shear, and axial forces.
It is completely analyzed when the stresses in all members have been determined due to the
loads. A combination of these elements (beam, truss, rigid frame) is called composite
structures.

FIGURE 1: Beam

FIGURE 2: Truss

FIGURE 3: Frame

FIGURE 4: COMPOSITE STRUCTURE- a combination of a beam and a truss

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 In order to analyze a structure, it is necessary to make an idealized model representing
the structure either in 2-dimensional (2D) or in 3-dimensional (3D) forms. Consider the
structures below.

FIGURE 5: A Bridge Truss in reality

FIGURE 6: Idealized Model of the Bridge Truss in 2D

FIGURE 7: Idealized Model of the Bridge Truss in 3D

1.3 Nature of Loads

Basically, the loads on structures consist of dead load, live load, and impact effects of
the live load. Dead loads also refer as gravity loads, includes self-weight of the member and
all permanent elements attached to the member. Live load is the loading to be supported by
the structure, it is based on the purpose of the structure. Generally, live loads are classified
as movable loads and moving loads. Movable loads are loads that may be transported from
one location to another on a structure without dynamic impact such as people, movable
furniture, and goods in a building floor. Loads that move continuously over the structure are
considered as moving loads such as tracks or railway trains on a bridge, wind on a roof or
wall, and hydrostatics pressure on an abutment. The dynamic forces generated by
earthquakes, and the centrifugal and longitudinal forces induced by the acceleration of
vehicles are moving loads applied suddenly to the structures. Other loads to be considered are
rain load, water current, lateral forces, buoyancy force, earth or soil pressure, thermal forces,
erection forces, and straining forces.

Generally, loads can be described in loading standards or idealized for the purpose of
analysis as follows:
a. Concentrated Loads
These loads are applied over a small area and are idealized as point loads.

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 FIGURE 8: Concentrated Load, P

b. Line Loads
Loads are distributed along narrow strip of structure such as the wall load or
self-weight of member. Neglecting width, load is considered as line load acting along the
axis of the member. These loads can be uniformly distributed (rectangular load) or
uniformly varying load (triangular or trapezoidal load).

FIGURE 9 (a): Rectangular or Uniformly distributed Load

FIGURE 9 (b): Triangular Load

FIGURE 9 (c): Trapezoidal Load

c. Surface Loads
Loads are distributed over an area. Example: Basic floor load of 1.9 Kpa.

1.4 Building Materials

Structural behavior is dependent upon material characteristics such as elastic
constants which describe the stress/strain relationships and the geometry of the cross-
section of individual members. Structural members can be made out of reinforced
concrete, timber, steel, and/or composite materials. For Beams (reinforced concrete,
timber, steel, and composite materials; for trusses (steel and timber); and for rigid frame
(reinforced concrete, timber, steel, and composite materials).
The properties of materials to be considered in the analysis of structure specially
in computing deflection are modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 of the material and the moment of
inertia,𝐼 of the section of the member.

REFERENCES:
A. BOOKS
• Hibbler, R.C., Structural Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
• Rajan. S.D., Introduction to Structural Analysis and Design, John Wiley &
Sons, 2001

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 • Hsieh, Yuan-Yu, Elementary Theory of Structures 2nd Ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
2982

SELF-CHECK ACTIVITY NO. 1:

Direction: Do as required.

Situation I. Identify the following structures whether it is a beam, truss, or rigid frame.

1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Situation II. Classify the following loads as concentrated load, line load, or surface load.
1. A 3-meter high concrete hollow blocks (CHB) wall lay in 4-meter length wall-
footing.
2. A 4-meter planted reinforced concrete column at the mid-span of a floor beam.
3. Stock pile of Portland cement in a 3m x 3m floor.
4. A 132 lbs man standing in the scaffolding 6m above the ground line.
5. A fan suspended in the ceiling.

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ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK ACTIVITY NO. 1

For Situation I:
1. Beam. The structure in the item no. 1 is a foot bridge, its flooring is supported
by horizontal member called beam.
2. Rigid Frame. A guard tower is a structure classified as frame because it
resists both bending moment and axial forces.
3. Truss. A Warren truss is common design for both real and model bridges. It
uses equilateral triangles to spread out the loads in its members.
4. Truss. The structure in item no. 4 is a simple truss, very common design for
roof trusses intended for residential buildings.
5. Frame. The idealized model of the sign board can be simplified as frame which
can resists bending moment and lateral force.

For Situation II:

1. Line load. Concrete hollow blocks (CHB) arranged or laid in a footing formed
a uniformly distributed load which is considered as gravity or dead load and
classify as line load.
2. Concentrated Load. The weight supported by the column and its self-weight
classified/ idealized as concentrated load.
3. Surface load. A load over an area idealized as surface load such as a stock
pile of Portland cement and exerted same pressure over the area covered.
4. Concentrated Load. The weight of the man is idealized as concentrated load
acting downward or towards the Earth’s surface.
5. Concentrated Load. Any suspended object from ceiling can idealized as
concentrated load.

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