Literature Review

Pagey (1981) in this study states that most organization allocate very little amount for the
training program. One of the reason that was identifies was the low return on investment. Also
in his study Pagey developed a rational and quantitative approach to measure the return on
investment on training. According to him higher the return on investment on training more
effective the training would be. Viramani B.R (1984) in his articles pointed out the importance
of evaluating and measuring management training and development. In spite of the growing
need there is a lack of systematic approach on the evaluation done. The study gives importance
on the qualitative and quantitative approach for the evaluation based on the knowledge, skills
and attitude. It also highlighted the identification of those factors that might influence learning.
Mc Evoy and Buller (1990) in their research identified five levels of issues in the training
evaluation. The extent to which the training programme is an attempt to improve work
performance, also pointed out those training programmes was not intended to improve
performance in the traditional sense. It was also noted that the outcome of the programme
was done by a structured measurement of performance after the programme. They also
pointed out the limitation of the self-rating. Bramley (1990) defined training as a system with
clear inputs as the programme and the subjects of the training programme the reaction of the
programme as the behavioral changes of each individual and output as the changes that
happened to the trainees. He also proposed three stages evaluation process where the
evaluation would start in the pre-training stage continued in the training stage and would end
with post-training. Coffman (1990) in his research pointed out that a process manager will be
able to understand the changes on an employee through training impact assessment. This also
can be considered as a road map to eliminate uncertainties. The problems with IT industries are
that the executives and managers have limited time to do this process and hence the
assessment can’t be done in a structured way. Sackett et al., (1993) states that the text book
treatment of training evaluation only focuses on formal design as a mechanism for controlling
threats and assumes the training intervention would produce the changes observed.
Garavagalla (1993) says that the HR department has to allocate proper plans and budget to
ensure the proper training. This study also states that the effectiveness of the training can be
measured by a comparative study on a group of individuals who has not received any training.
This study proposed the use of experimental and control group. Webster and Martocchio
(1993) in his study tried to link the task labelling and age of the employees. He in fact divided
the entire training programme as play and work. In his paper he states that the young
employees took the play programme much better than he old once and no significant
difference was observed for the training programme labelled work. This has led light to the
attitudinal difference of people and the change of attitude with age. Ahrens and Sankar (1993)
this research defines about the two tutors who industrialized a technique to impart these skills
to end users. Empirical comparison of the tutors verified the teaching value of the facilitators.
The study could point out certain gaps between skills required and skills learned by end users to
be eligible to take up the training programme. Martocchio et al., (1994) in his research tested
whether performance feedback on past performance factors within trainees’ control, would
result in heightened software efficacy, goal commitment, positive mood and learning compared
to feedback on past performance factors outside trainees’ control. Feedback that attributes
performance to factors outside trainees’ control was related to a decrease in software efficacy.
Generally, feedback is to correct the previous faults or otherwise a corrective measure. As only
the feedback from an employee can mold a better organization, it is mandatory to receive
feedback from the employees regarding their training sessions so as to improve it in the future.
Thornhill (1994) in his study reveals the various difficulties of evaluating training and suggests
what is required to make it more effective. He also discusses the reasons for the absence of, or
ineffective practice of evaluation and he wants to identify the evaluation in the context of the
nature and meaning of organisational culture from a practical point of view. Facteau et al.,
(1995) checked whether trainees’ general beliefs influenced training on pre-training
motivation. 967 managers and supervisors completed a questionnaire that assessed 14
constructs. LISREL VII (Linear Structural Equation) indicated that the overall reputation of
training, intrinsic and compliance incentives, organisational commitment and three social
support variables (subordinate, supervisor and top management support) were predictive of
pertaining motivation. Webster and Martocchio (1995) conducted a field experiment of 143
employees and explored the effects of realistic versus optimistic computer training previews on
trainee learning, satisfaction and post-training reactions. They argued that optimistic previews
would result in enhanced outcomes during the training programme, while realistic previews
would result in enhanced post-training reactions. The effects of relevant individual differences
(i.e. cognitive playfulness and software efficacy beliefs) and mediating factors (i.e. attention to
one’s performance evaluation and flow) were also examined. The results showed some support
for trainee.

Sundararajan S. (2000) states that in the current competitive business environment, the
demand of the organisations compel Indian Industry to rethink on their Vision and Mission
about HRD practices through T&D. Changes are inevitable everywhere i.e. in our personal life,
social life, work life, in nature, in the society, in the universe, etc. We cannot avoid changes, but
we can adjust and adapt to such changes for betterment through Training & Development. The
managements of these organisations realised the necessity of training for better performance
from the employees’ point of view towards competitive business environment. Employees are
motivated to attend the training programmes through self-development as well as
organisational development. Prasad R.M. (2000) viewed that Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is a
strategy, approach, process and methodology which draw on the strength of individuals in an
organisation or social systems. AI enables the organisation development practitioners and HR
specialists to look beyond traditional problem-centered methods currently being employed
such as participatory problem and need analysis, SWOT analysis, etc. AI can be effectively
deployed as a capacity-and partnership-building process. The success of the use of AI in training
in the organisational context depends on the expertise and experience of the trained
facilitators. The facilitators should have positive attitude and should possess process and
context skills, besides the ability to inspire the employees of an organisation. Dasari (2000) lists
out the problems faced by the software employees such as working in odd or night shifts
particularly in call centers, marital discords due to men’s suspicion about their working spouses,
problem in securing a work-life balance and carrying employers’ displeasure for prolonged
leave due to postnatal problems. Therefore, the industry has to make special efforts to make
women’s stay in work places secure, convenient and in a non- discriminated way. In this way, as
most of the HR practices focus on their organisational goal rather than the employee’s personal
imbalance.

Chidambaram P. (2000) reveals that talented and well-respected leadership is essential in

software industry, as always in other industries with world class systems. Methodologies and
processes are required to continuously deliver in a competitive environment in which quality
has to be achieved in minimum time. ‘Recruit, Retain and Retrain’ would be the ‘mantra’ for an
effective HR paradigm in this software industry, where people provide the critical competitive
advantage. A manageable acquisition strategy is required to realise the benefits of adequate
vigilance in the industry and to evolve strategies for adopting and learning new technology and
business models. Sastry (2000) describes two alternate models for future growth of top Indian
firms: MBG (Manpower-Based Growth) and KBG (Knowledge-Based Growth). In the first model,
revenue growth is fuelled largely by growth in manpower. In the second model, the firm
penetrates value-added market segments and growth is fuelled by increasing the revenue per
person. He says that the Indian software service providers are in an enviable position due to
unprecedented market growth, overseas shortage of manpower, access to high quality and
low-cost manpower within the country. It is due to this fact that a proper work climate and
various kinds of training facilities are provided to the employees.

Goel O.P. (2000) states that ‘Training and Development’ efforts of organisations have positive
impact on their performances. While each industry comprises of skilled, semi-skilled and
unskilled employees, there seems to exist a possibility of bridging these gaps through informal,
on-the-job training by skilled employees. Such training efforts, prima face, look to be
economical both in terms of money and time required. Future research could endeavor to find
out as to what extent informal training can help in bridging these skill gaps, thereby reducing
the load on ‘structured training efforts’. Hashim and Junaidah (2001) in their paper addressed
the issues of training evaluation practices in general and examine the training evaluation in
Malaysia through a case study. Training evaluation is a systematic process of collecting and
analyzing information for and about a training programme, which can be used for planning and
guiding decision-making as well as assessing the relevance, effectiveness and the impact of
various training components. Training institutions may conduct evaluation for the purpose of
maintaining training. Evaluation practice is one of the major dilemmas faced in the field of
training because it receives much criticism. In many organisations, evaluation of training is
either ignored or approached in an unconvincing or unprofessional manner. The article
concludes that the government, client and economic situations have influenced the evaluation
practice in a positive direction.

Gielen et al., (2001) is of the opinion that effective transfer will only occur if trainees have the
ability and desire to acquire new skills and the motivation to apply the training content to their
jobs. Bhattacharya (2001) identified the reason for large scale investment in continuous
training programmes. It is due to the development of competent manpower base for
companies’ operational and strategic performances. A highly pro-active and comprehensive
approach is called for analysing the task competences that are demanded by job certification
procedure. Creation and management of voluminous performance-based training database and
repetitive administrative work need IT tools for an effective and networked information system
providing workflow automation. Effective learning depends upon selection of suitable training
strategies. The strategy must be selected as per the subject matter, simplicity or complexity of
the messages, resources available, target group, competency of the trainer, etc. Berge et al.,
(2002) state that organisations find it increasingly difficult to stay competitive in today’s global
economy. Leaders in the workplace are using benchmarking, competency models and
competency studies to help HR decisions, such as hiring, training and promotions. Parikh and
Jeyavelu (2002) express that sensitivity training is considered as a means to achieve strategic
and operational objectives. The emphasis is on experimental learning and conceptual
understanding and gaining skills and competences, balancing the individual and organisation
goals and accepting and maintaining the interface between economy and changing role of the
individual, collectivity (family and organisation) and the society. “This training aims at
individual growth and development, improved emotional and social skills, better team working
and role taking, improved work climate/culture, reduced resistance to change and enhancing
enabling mindsets.” Naquin and Holton (2003) in their research paper, express that motivation
in HRD has traditionally been conceptualized as motivation to learn or motivation to train. A
higher order construct called motivation to improve work through learning can be proposed.
The theoretical rationale for this higher order construct is presented along with proposed
measures.

Kang and Santhanam (2004) emphasize that existing training strategies must be modified in
order to adequately prepare users to employ collaborative applications. The authors found that
training programmes should sensitize users to the interdependencies that exist among their
tasks and make them aware of the collative consequences of their individual actions. Users
have to engage in collective problem-solving efforts and continuously learn new and acquire
knowledge during the process of appropriation of the collaborative application. Tiga (2004) in
her research work argues that unlike the traditional ‘school’ model for training, successful
training programmes are competence-based training programmes. These aim at the growth of
the organisation and its striving for excellence. The success in harnessing competences help in
development, succession and promotion plans. Competence mode goes one step ahead than
hierarchical mode and performance pay system by potential leaders based on demonstration of
skills. Thus it reinforces a company’s corporate strategy, culture and vision-accelerating growth.
It reduces the time of functional heads by identifying performance criteria to improve accuracy
and eases learning and selection for employees. It assesses their strengths and specifies tangled
areas for professional development. However, this is an elaborate process and might not be
able to sustain the momentum of the initiative. The employees can consider this as ready
recipe for success and therefore have over expectations. This necessitated a simpler model with
use of impact-creating language to increase receptivity.

Shen (2004) has outlined the theoretical perspectives of the international T&D and how it has
been implemented by the practitioners. Cultural sensitivity, ability to handle responsibility,
ability to develop subordinates and ability to exhibit and demonstrate are to be developed
through effective international training and management development. Actually, the content,
mode of delivery and rigor are important aspects for overseas assignments. The components of
training programmes should be according to country of assignment, type of job, duration,
purpose of transfer and the time available. The quality of the training programme should have a
major impact upon the employees. Dongre (2004) opines that training is basically done
whenever the employees need to acquire certain skills or knowledge and when the
organisation has to adapt to any structural or functional change. The absence of inadequate
identification of training needs can make or mar the success of any training effort, as the
identification exercise alone provides a scientific frame work for imparting training at various
levels in the organisation. The participants due to various reasons may not attend the training
programmes. Training cards are maintained by the departments to identify these reasons.
Lastly, evaluation of the training is a process of putting value on the benefits stemming from
the training process in practical, social and / or financial terms. This in turn helps the employees
as well as the organisation. So, while implementing the schedule of the training programme, it
is essential to analyse the hurdles of the employees before- hand and the layout of the
programme shall be designed accordingly.

Madhumita and Sujatha (2005) opine that despite the fast growth in the BPO industry, players
in India still have not reached a stage where they truly handle an entire business process. Apart
from the regular HR functions, every HR manager has to rethink on the human resource
strategies involved in identifying skilled personnel, to motivate, retain, develop and elevate the
employees. The fact that though entry-level recruitment has not been a problem for the HR
manager with the fresh graduate in the labour pool readily available with language skills, the
industry has been facing a fast rate of labour turnover in this category. Attrition signifies not
only the loss of talent but also includes the cost of training of the new recruits. The cost for
training the new recruits not only at the entry level but also at every interval is significant.
Mahanti R and Mahanti P.K (2005) observe that software is omnipresent in today's world. India
is a hub to more than 1000 software companies. The software industry is a major employment-
providing industry in India. As a wholly intellectual artifact, software development is among the
most labour demanding, intricate and error-prone technologies in human history. Software's
escalating vital role in systems of pervasive impact presents novel challenges for the education
of software engineers. This paper focuses on the current status of software engineering
education in India and suggestions for improvement so as to best suit the software industry's
needs. As software industry is the major employment providing industry, it is essential for the
employees to remain in the industry and meet the demands. Thus training alone can give them
a stand in the industry. In line with these findings of the study, the present study seeks to build
a knowledge base on the various kinds, benefits, need and effectiveness of the training
programmes.

Beecham et al., (2007) present a systematic literature review for motivation in Software
Engineering. The objective is to report on what motivates and demotivates developers and how
existing models address the motivation. The majority of studies find Software Engineers form a
distinguishable occupational group. Results indicate that Software Engineers are likely to be
motivated according to their 'characteristics' (e.g., their need for variety); internal 'controls'
(e.g., their personality) and external 'moderators' (e.g., their career stage). Models of
motivation in Software Engineering are disparate and do not reflect the complex needs of
Software Engineers in their different career stages, cultural and environmental settings. Bearing
these findings in mind, efforts have been taken in the present study to help and motivate the
employees through the conduct of effective training programmes based on their needs and
aspirations. Rajeswari Sharma (2007) highlights the findings of NASSCOM (National Association
of Software and Services Companies) which has conducted a study among the trade bodies of
the IT software and services industry in India. Some of the top companies identified in the
survey include: Corbus India Pvt. Ltd, RMSI Pvt. Ltd, Hytech Professionals India Pvt Ltd, Nagarro
Software Pvt Ltd and V Customer Services India Pvt. Ltd. The survey says that several best
practices followed by the small companies may not seem to be necessary from a broader
human resource viewpoint but are important in building ties with employees and also for the
future growth of the company. People practice is the biggest differentiator in today’s job
market; organisational and employee development have to go hand in hand for companies to
grow. HR practices need to come from the top to be effective. The key lies in practicing what
the employers preach. The top employers, according to the survey, feel their companies need
to create a sense of ownership among its staff and look at employees as customers and
partners. It clearly indicates that the support and encouragement of the management and the
working environment are the essential elements to enhance the working practices and culture
of the employees.

Dwivedi and Purang (2007) say that training means the planned and organised activity to
impart skills, techniques and methodologies to employers and their employees to assist them in
establishing and maintaining the employment. The Need Analysis identifies discrepancies
between desired and actual behaviour/performance. Conducting the training and its evaluation
are to see the effectiveness of the selection, adoption, value and modification of the
instructional activities. Then, it is important to understand the training needs identification and
evaluation process by developing a case study on the training needs identification and
evaluation system in 6 different Indian organisations and then comparing it with the available
models proposed by the various researchers in Western and Indian contexts to arrive at and
propose a comprehensive model of Training Needs Identification and Evaluation. The present
study includes all these aspects of training to arrive at fruitful findings with regard to the need,
expectation, hurdles and the effectiveness of the training programmes as a macro level
research attempt.

Franklin et al., (2008) in their empirical work state that the human resource arena is fast-
changing due to the advent of the dynamic, volatile and employee-oriented BPO industry. The
challenge of effective human resource management haunts every business process outsourcing
managerial executive. Madhani (2008) reveals that India has achieved remarkable success in
the software industry. The purpose of this study is to discuss the resources, including technical
skills and cost competency that have contributed to the competitive position of the Indian
software industry. In accordance with the RBV (Resource-Based View), the main source of the
market performances of a range of firms lies on the specific nature of their resources and their
accumulated competences. This study discusses the Indian software industry and its resources
and analyses the case using the RBV of strategy. From this study, it is understood that if the
software industries are able to invest more and more resources, they can spend more for the
training and development of the employees. The outcome of the study is that real growth of
the industries lies in developing the skills of the employees who in turn contribute for the
sustainability of these organisations.

Upadhya and Vasavi A.R. (2008) focuses on outpost of the Global Economy, to ask and answer
fundamental questions about the nature of work in the IT industry, the manner in which the
work begins to shape the subjectivities of IT employees and finally how this shaping plays a role
in defining the new emergent middle class in India. Employment in the IT industry has grown
from a few thousands in the eighties to about two million in 2008. This represents a shift not
only in the number of persons employed but also in the nature of the work they perform and
most crucially, the salaries they draw and the lifestyles they can afford. Never before in India
have such a large number of college graduates been hired by companies that offer above-
average salaries and assure foreign trips. These jobs offer a vastly different perspective on life
and work than was lived by the middle-class before. Thus, the researcher is curious to pictures
the demographic profile of the employees working in IT/ITES industry, their job-related
information. Ahmad and Din (2009) who conducted a study, point that there are many reasons
which emphasise the need to evaluate the T&D; particularly demand of executives against the
amount spent and hours consumed along with the impact of the training on organisation.
Economic slump in the global market is another reason for evaluation, which has increased
competition for scarce resources. Top executives are also concerned about the congruence of
training and organisational goals and development of new tools and techniques, which has also
highlighted the need for evaluation.

Vijaya Mani (2010) in his research indicates the need to prepare the trainees mentally before
holding training sessions. They need to be oriented about the importance of training and its
usefulness and motivated to work hard to gain the desired skills and knowledge. In conclusion,
the researcher recommends some avenues for future research. Based on the feedback given by
the employees the training programme can be enhanced by improving the delivery of subject
through expert’s training and practical exercises can be increased as it is expected as a better
way of learning by most employees. Practical demonstration and constant practice during the
training session, makes the on-job application easy for the employees. Baranwal (2010)
describes the ways as to how training can be a win-win situation for both executives and the
BPO organisations. Training BPO executives is a technical process which involves transferring
management and execution skills to the new and existing executives for better understanding
of the business processes. Training is important for reducing business costs and the increasing
turnover of executives.

Muhammad Zahid Iqbal et. al (2011) has done their research and their analysis is about the
relationship between characteristics and formative evaluation of Training. This paper
attempted to signify the use of formative training evaluation. The authors have carried out a
study at three public-sector training institutions to empirically test the predicted relationship
between the training characteristics and formative training evaluation under the Kirkpatrick
model (reaction and learning). This study explains the causal linkage between components of
formative training evaluation, the mediating role of reaction in the relationships between
training characteristics and learning was also investigated. The principal finding revealed that a
set of seven training characteristics explained 59% and 61% variance in reaction and learning
respectively. Eugen Rotarescu (2011) the topic in this article is the presentation in a succinct
and applicative manner of several decision making processes and the methods applied to
human resources training and development in environments with risk factors. The decisions
have been optimized by the human resources training and development, the decision makers
have readily available with two methods of analysis they are: (1) the decision matrix and (2) the
decision tree method. Both methods compute the alternatives based on the estimated
monetary value (EMV). Finally the decision matrix and the decision tree analyses represent two
viable, scalable and easily applicable framework analyses for selecting the optimum course of
action regarding the training and development of human resources. Pilar Pineda (2012) has
done his research and present an evaluation model that has been successfully applied in the
Spanish context that integrates all training dimensions and effects, to act as a global tool for
organizations. This model analyses satisfaction, learning, pedagogical aspects, transfer, impact
and profitability of training and is therefore a global model. The author says that training is a
key strategy for human resources development and in achieving organizational objectives.
Organizations and public authorities invest large amounts of resources in training, but rarely
have the data to show the results of that investment. Only a few organizations evaluate training
in depth due to the difficulty involved and the lack of valid instruments and viable models. Cary
Cherniss et.al. (2012) has evaluated the effectiveness of a leadership development program
based on International Organization for Standardization (ISO) principles. The program utilized
process-designed training groups to help participants develop emotional and social
competence. The study involved 162 mangers from nine different companies in a random
assignment control group design. There were nine different groups with nine managers in each
group. Each group was required to follow the identical process. Thomas Andersson (2013) this
paper investigate the struggles of managerial identity in relation to the process of
becoming/being a manager, and the personal conflicts involved within this process.
Management training tends to be based on the idea that management concerns the acquisition
of competencies, techniques and personal awareness, while managerial practice is more fluid
and contextually based. There is a challenge for organizers of all types of management training
to bridge gap between a fixed idea of what is to be a manger and how management is actually
practiced. The methodology used in this paper is a qualitative longitudinal project

Franco Gandolfi (2013) has done his research in the topic and he has analyzed that downsizing
as a restructuring strategy which has been actively implemented for the last three decades.
While employee reductions were utilized mainly in response to crises prior to the mid-1980s,
downsizing developed into a fully-fledged managerial strategy for tens of thousands of
companies in the mid to late 1980s. Since then, downsizing has transformed the international
corporate landscape and affected the lives of hundreds of millions of individuals around the
world. Cody Cox. B (2014) has done his research and has reviewed that the moderating effect
of individual differences in the relationship between framing training was examined for
technical and nontechnical content areas. Participants were 109 working age adults (Mean age
38.14 years, SD 12.20 years). Self-efficacy and goal orientation were examined as moderators.
David Pollitt (2014) has done his research and he has reviewed that in the fiercely competitive,
tightly regulated services sector, customer-facing staff must be trained to sell the right product
at the right time in a way that is fair to all. AXA sun life provides pension and investment advice
and products to millions of individuals and businesses through two UK building societies –
Britannia and Birmingham Midshires. Ensuring that its 200 employees have up-to-date skills and
knowledge falls to regulated-sales training manager Paul Ingleby and his team of four, who
operate from AXA’s Coventry head office. David Pollitt (2014) has done his research and says
that information is the lifeblood of business, the economy and most aspects of society, from
health care to legal affairs and scientific investigation to the chat by the coffee machine.
Thomson Reuters is an important source of information and news for businesses and other
organizations around the globe. Mind mapping is a graphical technique for visualizing processes
and projects using a structure that places an objective as a central image. Mind mapping plays a
central role in every aspect of our learning and development work, from the needs analysis to
brainstorming around course development and delivery, through data capture and
performance charting. D.A. Olaniyan and Lucas. B. Ojo (2014) has done their research and has
reviewed that this paper is based on staff training and development. This paper is basically a
conceptual paper. The author says that the need for improved productivity has become
universally accepted and that it depends on efficient and effective training is not less apparent.
It has further become necessary in view of advancement in the modern world to invest in
training. Thus the role played by staff training and development can no longer be over-
emphasized. Staff training and development are based on the premise that staff skills need to
be improved for organizations to grow. Training is a systematic development of knowledge,
skills and attitudes required by employees to perform adequately on a given task or job.