Sect

ionA

THEPHYSI
CALWORLD

Thest
ruct
ureoft
heear
th

1page

Theear
thi
smadeupoft
hreemai
nlay
ers

 Thecrust
 Themantle
 Thecore

Crust-l
it
hosphere Mantl
e- Cor
e-bar
yshper
e
mesospher
e
Thi
ckness I
ts thi
ckness I
tis2900km t
hick Outer -
2175km
vari
esf r
om place t
hick
t
opl ace

Temper
atur
e Cool Ov
er2000ْᵒ
c About5500º
C

Mineral
cont
ent Continents- Ir
on, magnesi
um Ir
on and ni ckel
grani
te( SI
AL) andsil
ica coll
ect
ivel
ycall
ed
Oceans - basalt NiFe
rocks(SIMA)
Posit
ion Outermostl ay
er Mi ddl
el ay
er I
nnermost
Stat
e Soli
dr ocks Semi-
li
quid I
nnercor e-sol i
d
(molt
en) thi
s i s due t o
pressure exer
ted
oni tbytheother
#lay er
s

Out
ercor
e-l
i
qui
d

1
THECRUST
 Makesupconti
nent
sandoceansfl
oors
 Itconsi
stsoft
wopartsthatis grani
te(
SIAL)andbasal
trocks
(SI
MA)

CONTINENTAL( Sial
) OCEANI C(Sima)
Thi
ckness 35to70km onav erage 6to10km onav er
age
Ageofrocks Veryoldr
ocksofov er1500 Very y oung rocks of
af
terdeat
h under200mi l
li
ony ear
s
Wei
ghtofr
ocks Li
ghterwit
hanav erage2.6 Heavier-aver
ageof3. 0
Nat
ureofr
ocks Li
ghtincolour Darkincolour
Numeroust ypes Fewty pes
Grani
te basal
t

CONTI
NENTALDRI
FTTHEORY

Itwaspr oposedbyAl fr
edWegneri n1912.Hebel i
evedthatabout300
mill
i
ony earsago,allexi
sti
ngcont
inentswer eonesupercontinentcal
l
ed
PANGEA.I tlaterbr
okeinto2hemi spheres,t
hatis,thenort
hernandthe
souther
nhemi spher
e.Thenort
hernhemi spherewascalledLAURASIAand
thesouthernwascalledGONDWANALAND.

10l
i
nes

EVI
DENCETOSUPPORTTHETHEORY

 Dif
f erentcoastlinesontheopposi tesi
desofcont
inentsf
itl
ikea
j
ig-saw puzzl ewhenputt ogethere.geaster
ncoastofNor t
h
Amer i
caandwest er
ncoastEurope
 Simi l
arr ockt y
pesandst ruct
urear efoundinBrazi
landWest
Africa
 Rocksoft hesameagear efoundal ongthewesterncoastof
Afri
caandEast erncoastofSout her
nAmer i
ca
 Remai nsofdeadpl ant
sandani malsofthesamet y
peandage
aref oundal ongt heeaster
ncoastofAmer i
caandwestcoastof
Afri
ca.

2
PLATETECTONI
CTHEORY

Itwasformulat
edinthe1960sbyanumberofsci
ent
ist
swhost
udi
ed
ear
thquakesandvol
cani
cact
ivi
ti
es.

Thet heoryisbasedont hepr emisethattheear th’scr ustconsi stofa

seriesofpl ates(conti
nent
alandoceani cplates).Thet heoryi saboutt he
mov ementofpl atesandittr
iedt oexplai
nt hecont inentaldriftt
heor y.It
suggest st hatthe conti
nent
s and t he ocean f l
oor s are constant l
yi n
mot ionsucht hattheymov et owardseachot her( converge/colli
de)by
forcesofcompr essi
onorawayf rom eachot her( diverge)byf or cesof
tensi on.Theseplatesaremov edbyconv ecti
oncur rent sproducedbyt he
heati nthemant le

7l
i
nes

Theconti
nentalpl
ates(SI
MA)carryconti
nent
swhil
eoceanicplat
es(SIAL)
car
ryoceans.Accordingt
othetheoryther
eare10pl
ates.Theseare:

12l
i
nes

Thediversi
onandcol
l
isi
onofpl
atesr
esul
tsi
nthef
ormul
ati
onofsome
feat
uressuchas:

 Zonesofsubduct ion
 Trench
 Mid-oceani
cridges
 Foldmountains
 Volcani
cmount ainschai
nset
c

8l
i
nes

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofmar
ginsf
ounddur
ingpl
atemov
ement

 Constr
uctive
 Destr
uctiv
e
 Conservat
ive/t
ransf
orm/
passi
ve
1page

FOLDI
NG

3
 I
tref
erst
othebendi
ngofr
ocksduet
opl
atemov
ement(
compr
essi
on)
.

Plat
emov ementwillr
esulti
nrocklayer
shav i
nganupf ol
dedpar
t
call
edananti
cli
neandthedownfol
dedpartcal
l
edsy
ncl
ine.

Thesi
desofaf
oldar
ecal
l
edl
imbs.

10l
i
nes

TYPESOFFOLDS

8l
i
nes

1.Simpl efold– f ormedwhent her

eiscompr ession(al
mostof
equal str
ength)f r
om bot hsi des.
2.Asy mmet ri
calf old– i tf ormswhent her
ei smor epr essure
exertedonel i
mb.Thepr essureresultsinonel i
mbbecomi ng
steeperthant heot herduet othecontinuedcompr essi
on.
3.Ov er
fold–mor ecompr essioncont i
nues,r esulti
ngi nonel i
mb
beingpushedov ert heother
4.Ov er
thrust/t
hr ustf aul
t– t hereis mor e and mor e pressure
resulti
ngint her ockcracki ngordev elopingacr ackandoneof
thelimbsi spushedt ot
allyov ertheotherone.

FORMATI
ONOFFOLDMOUNTAI
NS
Ther
ear
e2way
sinwhi
chFol
dMount
ainscanbef
ormed.

1.Cont
inent
alandoceani
cpl
atecol
li
sion/
conv
ergence

 Oceanicandcont i
nent alplatescol
li
deduet ocompressional
for
ce
 Oceanicplatesinks( becausei tisdenser)andcont i
nental
overr
ides(thi
shappensatt hesubducti
onzone)
 Atrench/geosynclinedev elopsbetweenthe2plate
 Sedimentsareer odedf rom t heconti
nentalpl
ateandf i
lli
n
thetr
enchlayerafterlayer
 More sediments accumul atei nt he t
rench (
as thereis
conti
nuederosion)

4
  Sediments are compressed and become compact ed
toget
hertofor
m sediment
aryrocks
 Conti
nued compressi
onalforce t
he r
ocks t
o be upl
ift
ed,
crumpled,
squeezedandstanduptofor
m Fol
dMount ai
ns.

2.Conti
nent
aland conti
nent
alcol
l
isi
on (
e.g Eur
asi
an pl
ate and
Afr
icanpl
ateconv
ergi
ngtogiv
eAt
lasMount
ains)

 2cont i
nent alpl
atescol l
ideduet ocompr essional
force
 Neitheroft heplatessi nkast heyar eofthesamedensi t
y
 Duet oforcesofcol l
ision, t
rench/ geosyncl i
nedevelops
 Sediment saccumul atesi nt het renchandduet othewei ghtof
thesediment sthecont inental fl
oorsubsi desdownwar ds
 The wi dt
h oft he t rench decr eases as t hereis cont i
nuous
compr essioncausi ngt hesedi ment stoincrease
 Sediment sarecompr essedandbecomecompact edtogetherto
form hori
zont alsediment aryrocks
 Cont i
nued compr essi onalf orce t he r ocks to be upl if
ted,
crumpled, squeezedandst andupt of or
m Fol dMount ains.

Exampl
esofFol
dMount
ains

Old Young
Caper anges(Sout
hAf
rica) Atl
as( N.Afri
ca)
Appalachians(N.
Amer
ica) Al
ps( Europe)
Ural
s Rocki
es( N.Ameri
ca)
Welsh( U.
K) Himalayas (Asi
a)( col
l
isi
on of I
ndo-
Austr
alianandEurasi
anplat
e)

CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFFOLDMOUNTAI
NS

 Theyhavesteepslopes
 Theyareofgreatverti
calhei
ght
s
 Theyhaveseveralpeaks
 Theyhavevall
eys
 Theyhaveparall
elranges
 Theyhavelakes

5
  Theyareicecapped
 Theyhavesaddles
 Theyusuall
yforest
ed

DI
FFERENCEBETWEENOLDANDYOUNGFOLDMOUNTAI
NS

Old Young/old
Theyarel
ow Theyarev er
yhigh
Theyhaveabroadpeak Theyhav eashar p/narrowpeak
Theyhaveagentleslope Theyhav esteepslopes
Haveshall
owvalleys Form deepnar r
owv al
leys
Theyarespar
selyforest
ed Theyaredensel yforested
I
cecappedt op

POSI
TIVEI
MPACTOFFOLDMOUNTAI
NSONHUMANACTI
VITI
ES

FEATURE HUMANACTI VITIES

Scenicbeauty Tour i
sm
Presence ofmi neral(i
n case of Mining
volcani
cerupti
on)
Densef or
ests Lumber ing
Rangelands Pastoral f
arming
Presenceoflakes Arableandpast oralf
arming
Windwar dsl opeinfl
uenci
ngrel
ief Agricult
ure
rai
nfall
Presenceofpeaks Satell
it
e i
nstal
lat
ion f
or
communi cat
ionpurposes

OTHERI
MPACTSOFFOLDMOUNTAI
NS

Posit
ive
 Theyactaswindbreakers
 Theycanusedfordefence

Negat
ive
 Infl
uencescol
dtemper
atur
esbecauseoft
hei
rhei
ght
s
 Theirsteepsi
desr
esul
tint
hinsoi
ls
6
  Theyar
ecli
maticbar
ri
ersastheinf
luencel
essrai
ninthelee-war
d
si
de
 Theyar
ebarr
ier
stoconstr
uct
ionofcommunicat
ionli
nkse.
gr oads

DI
STRI
BUTI
ONOFFOLDMOUNTAI
NS

Theyar
efoundwher e:
 Pl
atesconverge
 I
ndestruct
ivepl
atemar
gins

FAULTI
NG

Fractur
ing ofear
th cr
ustdue t
o compr
essi
onal
,tensi
onaland l
ater
al
forces

Ty
pesoff
aul
ts
7l
ines

1.Nor malf ault– itoccur swhent ensionalf orcesact sonar ock

resultingi nonepar toft her ockdi spl
acedupandt heot herone
throwndown.I tmayr esultint hef ormat i
onofar iftval l
ey.An
escar pmentmaybe f ormed.An escar pmenti sa st eep slope
formedont heraisedbl ockofanor mal f
ault.
2.Rev ersef ault– i toccur swhencompr essi
onalf orcesact sona
rockcausi ngonebl ockt obepushedupov ertheot herbl ock.It
mayr esultinblockmount ains/horsts.
3.Tearf ault– i toccur swhent ensionalf orceact sont hecr ust
resultinginhor i
zont aldisplacementoft hecrust .
4.Thr ustf aul
t–i toccur swheni nt
ensecompr essi onalforcesacton
ar ockr esulti
ngint her ockcr acking.

FORMATI
ONOFRI
FTVALLEYS

Therearetwotheori
esthatat
tempt
edt oexpl
ainthef
ormat
ionofr
if
t
val
ley
s.Oner el
iesonthetensi
onalfor
cesandt heot
heroneonthe
compressi
onalf
orces

Compressi
onal Tensional
4li
nesTheearthcr
ustexper
iences 4linesTheear
thcr
ustexper
iences

7
mov ementduet ocompr essional mov ementduet otensi
onal
4 l i
nes Two par al
lelf aults will4 l ines Two par all
elf aul
ts will
develop dev elop
4l i
nesThebl ockonei thersi deof 4 l ines The bl ock in bet ween
fault
sispushedup/ r
aises sinks/ subsi
des
4linesAlowlyingdepressioncal l
ed 4l inesI tf
ormsadepr essi
onl i
ke
ar if
tvall
eyisf ormed.Ther ai
sed featur e call
ed a rif
tv all
ey.The
blocksfor
msbl ockmount ains raised bl ocks f orms bl ock
mount ains

CASESTUDY:THEGREAT RI
FT VALLEY OFAFRI
CA/EAST AFRI
CAN
RI
FTVALLEY

I
tist
hel
argestr
if
tval
l
eysf
oundar
oundt
hewor
ld.

FEATURESOFTHEGREATRI
FTVALLEYOFAFRI
CA

 I
thaspar all
elfaults
 I
thassteepsl opes
 I
tis7200km l ongwi th5600km i
nAfr
ica
 I
tisbetween30- 100km wide
 I
thas2mai nbr anches
 I
thassev erallakes. gLakeMalawi
,Tangany
ika,Tur
kana,Ny
asa,
Al
bert
,Rudol f
 I
thasvolcani cmount ains
 I
thasrivere.gWhi t
eandbl ueNi
le
 I
thasdeepv all
ey s
 I
thasblockmount ai
ns

I
MPACTSOFRI
FTVALLEYSONHUMANACTI
VITI
ES

FEATURES HUMANACTI VITIES

Greatscenicbeauty majort ouri
statt
racti
on
Containlakesandri
ver
s greatsourcesofwat erf
ori
rr
igat
ion
Oftenhav eri
chvol
cani
csoi
l
s goodf orarablefarmi
ng
Hav edenseforest
s goodf orlumbering
8
Volcani
cactiv
iti
es i
nfl
uencemini
ng
Theyinf
luencereli
efr
ainf
all goodforf
armi
ng

NEGATI
VEI
MPACT

FEATURES HUMANACTI VITIES

Steepslopes I
nfl
uencessoilerosi
on
I
tsreli
ef I
s a bar ri
er to const
ruct
ion of
i
nfr
astr
ucture

VULCANI
CITY

I
tisapr ocesst hroughwhichmagma,ashesandgasesar
eforcedoutto
thesur
faceoft heear t
h.Themagmacanappearasf l
owi
nglav
a,volcani
c
bombs,fragment sofrocksashanddust
.
Magmacanr eacht hesurf
acethr
ougha
o Vent(hole)
o Fissure(crack)

Whenmagmaemer
gesatt
hesur
facei
tlosesi
tsgasesandi
tiscal
l
ed
l
ava.

HOW VOLCANOESAREFORMED
12LI
NES
- Ther ei spl at
emov ement ,eit
herdi ver
genceorconv ergence( thi
s
l
eadst ozonesofi nstabili
ty)
- Thecr ustdev elopsfaultsorcr acks
- Pr essur eisreleasedandmagmaf rom themantl
ewi l
lrisethrough
thefault
- Thi sr esultsi n eruptions accompani ed byashes,ci
nder s,
broken
rocks(er upti
onscanbev eryexpl osi
veifmagmahast oomuchgas)
- Onr eachingt heear t
hsur face,themagmal osesitsgasesandi s
call
edl ava.
- Thel avaaccumul atesandf eaturessuchaspi pe,dykes,conel et
s
areformed.
- Aconeshapedmoundwi l
lbef ormedandt husavolcano.

9
 EXAMPLESOFVOLCANOESI
NAFRI
CA

- MountKi
limanjar
o–Tanzani a
- MountKenya–Keny a
- MountCamer oon–Camer oon
- MountDrakensburg-Sout
hAf r
ica
- MountNyir
agongo–Democr at
icRepubl
i
cofCongo

STAGESOFVOLCANOES

Av
olcanogoest
hrough3st
agesi
nit
sli
fecy
cle:

1.Act i
ve-whenav olcanoi sactiveanderuptsfrequently
.Thereare
about700 act i
v ev olcanoesar ound t
he world e.g MountEt na,
MountStHel enint heUSA, mountCamer oon.
2.Dor mant/sl eepingv olcano-thesearev ol
canoest hater uptl
ess
frequent
lyoraf teralongt i
me.E. gMountRaini
er( USA)
3.Extinct
/deadv olcano-v olcanoeswhichhasnoter uptedintheir
knownhi st
oryort hoset hatlongereruptse.gMountKi l
imanj
aro
(Tanzania),
Snowdon( Wales)

DI
STRI
BUTI
ONOFVOLCANOES

Thi
srefer
stoar
easwher
evol
canoesar
emost
lyf
ound.Thesei
ncl
udet
he
fol
l
owing:

- Al
ongpl ateboundar i
es
- Atthepaci fi
cringoffi
re
- Areasofweaknessi nthecr
uste.gwher
efaul
ti
ngoccur
s
- Al
ongmi d-oceanicri
dges
- I
nv olcanicisl
andse.gMadagascar
- West er
ncoastofSout hAmerica
- AttheGr eatRiftVal
leyofAfr
ica
- Ont heNor thEastofAsia
- I
nt heCar i
bbeanI sl
ands

I
NTRUSIVEANDEXTRUSI
VEVOLCANI
CFEATURES
12LI
NES

I
NTRUSI
VEFEATURES
10
Thesear
ev olcani
cfeatur
eswhicharefor
medwithi
nthecrust
.Theyare
for
medwhenmagmacool sandsol
i
dif
iesi
nthecr
ustbef
orereachi
ngthe
ear
thsur
face.Examplesare:

1.Batholit
h
Theyar ef ormed when magma accumulat
es and cool
s bef
ore
reachingthesurfaceoftheear
th.I
tnormall
yfor
mst hebaseofa
mount ain.Duetoer osi
on,t
hebathol
i
thsmaybeexposedt othe
surfacee.gNyikaBathol
othi
nMalawi

2.Laccol
ith
Theyform whenmagmasoli
dif
iesal
ongthecrustf
ormingaf l
at
based,
roundt
oppedf
eat
uref
edbyapipee.
gElkoubOupinAlger
ia

3.Li
pol
it
h
Magmasoli
dif
iesal
ongthecr
ustfor
mingasaucer
-l
ikedepr
essi
on
e.
gBushv
eldregi
oninSout
hAfri
ca

4.Dyke
Magmafindsitswayandcutsacrosst
hecr ustandformsawal
l
-
l
ikef
eat
urealongl
ineofweaknesse.
gDolor
it
ei nLesot
ho

5.Sil
l
Magmapenetrat
eshori
zontal
l
yalongthecr
ustandsoli
dif
iest o
for
m asi
l
l.E.
gThreeSi
ster
sintheCapePr
ovi
nceofSout
hAfrica

EXTRUSI
VEFEATURES

Thesearevol
cani
cf eat
ureswhi
chareformedwhent hemagma,ashes
andgasesr
eachestheeart
hsur
faceandl
osesi
tsgasestobecomel
ava.

EXAMPLESOFEXTRUSI
VEFEATURES

Vol
canicmountai
ns
Lav
aplateau
Cal
dera
Geyser
s
Hotspri
ngsetc

11
 TYPESOFLAVA

BASIC/FLUID ACI
D/VI SCOUS
o hi ghlyflui
d o hi ghlyviscous
o dar kcol oured o lightcol oured
o lowsi l
icacontent o hi ghsili
cacont ent
o er upts f r
equently and l ess o er upts l ess f r
equently and
explosive violentl
y
o f orm gent l
eslopes o f orm steepslopes
o t akesal ongerti
met ocooland o cool s and sol i
difi
es f ast
soli
difyt herefor
ef l
ows longer therefore f l
ows v ery short
distances distances
4LINES 4LI NES

FEATURESOFVOLCANOES

o Pipe-t hechannel throughwhi chl av ari

ses
o Crat er-ashal lowdepr essi onf oundatt hetopoft hev ol
cano
o Vent -t heopeni ng/ holeont hegr oundt hroughwhi chmagmai s
release
o Conel et s– t he smal lpar asiti
c cones t hatbui ld when magma
escapesont hesi desoft hev olcano
o Gey ser s– whensuperheat edwat erunder groundshoot s/erupts
expl osi velyof tenf orminganat uralf ountaine. gatt heYell
owst one
Nat ional Park( USA)
o Cal der a–t hisi sanenl argedcr ater.Canbef ormedi nt woway s,
through
- av iolenter upt i
on(whenmagmaer uptsv iol
entlyandt hecr ateris
blownawayr esultinginav erywi dedepr ession)
- Subsi dence-whent hemount ainbecomest oot allandcol l
apses
formi ngawi dedepr essionatt het op.
o Cal der a/ cr
aterl ake-f ormswhent hecr at
erorcal deraisfill
edwi th
wat erandbecomesal akee. gLakeBasumt wiinGhana( caldera),
Ngor ongor oi nTanzani a( crater )
o Plug– f ormswhenmagmahar denswi thinav entonanact i
ve
volcano.
o Dome– f ormswhenv iscousl avaer uptssl owsandsol idif
iest o
form ar oughlyci rcularmoundshapepr otrusion.

TYPESOFVOLCANI
CCONES

12
 1.Lavacone-itismadeupofl av
a.Itsslopedependsonwhet herthe
l
avai sfl
uidorv i
scous.Fl
uidlav
af ormsgent l
esidedslopesand
vi
ciousformssteepsidedsl
opes.E.gNy amlagi
ranearLakeKivuin
DRC( f
lui
dlava)andHoggarmountainsinAlgeri
a(vi
scous)

2.Compositecone-itisformedofal ter
nati
nglayersofl avaandash.
Thev ol
canobeginseacher upti
onwi thgreatv i
olencef or
minga
l
ayerofash.Astheer upti
onpr oceeds,t
hev i
olencest opsandlava
poursfor
mingal ayeront het opoft heash.Ithasal argecrat
er
whichsmall
erdevelops.Coneletsmayalsoform ont hesidesofthe
mainconeE.gMtKi li
manjaro
7LINES

3.Ashandci nder–i sformedwhenl av

ai sblowntogr eathei
ghts
whenitisvi
olentl
yej
ectedandi
tbreaksintosmallf
ragmentswhich
fal
lbacktoearthandbuil
duptofor
m ast eepsi
dedcone.

5LI
NES

I
MPACTSOFVOLCANOESONHUMANBEI
NGS

Posi
ti
ve/
adv
ant
ages

FEATURE HUMANACTI VITY

Fert
il
ev ol
cani
csoi
ls Arabl
epr oducti
on
Greatsceni
cbeaut
y encourages t our
ism e.
g Mount
Kil
imanjaro

Pr
esenceofmi
ner
als encour
agesmi
ning

Gi
ver i
setoimpor
tantcal
der
aand Domesti
c and i
ndust
ri
al wat
er
cr
aterl
akes suppl
y

Gi
ver i
setoimpor
tantcal
der
aand Fishing
cr
aterl
akes
Gi
ver i
setoimpor
tantcal
der
aand I
rrigati
on
cr
aterl
akes
Hotspri
ngs formedi cal
pur
poses

13
 Geyser
s Forgeo-
thermal
power
Thi
ckforest
s forl
umbering

Negat
ive/
disadv
ant
ages

o Danger /destr
uct i
onofhumanl if
eandpropert
yduri
ngerupti
ons
o Verycol dbecauseofgr eatheight
s
o Somehav esteepslopehencehav ethi
nsoil
sforagri
cul
turetobe
carri
edout
o Dest r
oyst hevegetati
on
o Causesenv ir
onment alpollut
ion i
nt heform ofdustand gases
(carbonmonoxi de)
o Peoplecanbecomei llbecauseofbreathi
nginashandpoi sonous
gases.
o Presenceofl ahar(mudf l
owwhi chisami xt
ureofashandwat er
)
whichbl ocksr oadsandr ail
wayl i
nesalsomakingcommuni cat
ion
diff
icult

NEGATI
VEI
MPACTSOFVOLCANOESONTHEENVI
RONMENT

 Causespolluti
onwi thvolcani
cgasesanddust
 Tri
ggersearthquakes
 Destr
oysthev egetation
 CausesTsunami s/t
idalwav eswhichleadst
ofl
oodswhi
chdr
ownsand
kil
l
speopledest r
oypeopl e’spr
operty
 Causesacidicandt hinsoil
FI
SSUREERUPTION

Iti
sahugeupl andwhi
chisfl
atatthetopwi
thsteepsi
des
Iti
susuall
yveryqui
et
Thelavacomesoutthroughfi
ssur
esorsmallcr
acksintheear
th’
scr
ust
Thelavaspreadsoutovert
hesurroundi
ngar
eal ay
eruponlay
ertof
orma
lav
aplatea
6l
i
nes

WHYSOMEVOLCANOESERUPTVI
OLENTLY.

14
 Magmacontai
nsgases,whichareundergreatpr
essure.I
nsome,ther
ei s
asuddendecr
easeinpressureintheri
singmagmaandt hi
scausest he
gasesi
nitt
oexpandveryrapi
dly
.Thesuddenexpansioncancausevi
olent
expl
osi
ons.

WHYSOMEAREASI
NAFRI
CAEXPERI
ENCEVOLCANI
CACTI
VITY

 Someareasarenearareasofinst
abil
it
y/plat
eboundar
ies
 Someareasexper
ienceearthmov ementsduetotensi
onandcompr
essi
on
for
ces
 Someareashavecracksorareexperi
encingfaul
ti
ng
 Someareasexper
iencetremors/eart
hquakes

EVI
DENCEOFVOLCANI CACTIVITYINAFRICA
 Presenceofv olcani
cmount ai
ns
 Lowl akes/calderas
 Associatedv olcanicfeat
ures-
int
rusi
vefeat
ures(bat
holi
ths,l
accol
it
hs,si
l
ls,
dykes)andext r
usivefeatur
es(hotspri
ngs,l
avaplat
eaus,geyser
s,cr
ater
s)

WHYSOMEVOLCANI CSLOPESARESPARCELYPOPULATEDWHI
LESOMEARE
DENSELYPOPULATED

SPARCELY DENSELY
- Stil
lact i
v e - Aredor mant/extinct
- Hav est eepslopes - Hav egentl
esl opes
- Aret oocol d - Wat ersupplyfrom lakes
- Hav et hin/i
nfert
il
esoil
s - Hav efert
il
esoi l
s
- Rarefiedai r - Hav ecleanair
- Litt
lerainfall - Hav eadequater ainfall
- Prone t
o - Presenceofpast ures
di
seases/ pests/epi
demics
- Acidr ain - Ancestr
alconnect
ions
- Employment oppor t
unit
ies in
hotel
sfortour
ism
- Avail
abi
li
ty of f orest
s f or
l
umber i
ng

15
EARTHQUAKES

Ear
thquake:Thev
ibr
ati
on/
shaki
ngorsuddenmov
ementoft
heear
thcr
ust
.

Sei
smol
ogy
:thest
udyofear
thquakes

Sei
smol
ogi
st:
asci
ent
istwhost
udi
esear
thquakes

Platecoll
isi
onalsoresul
tsi
nthef aul
ti
ngoft hecryst
alrockstherebycreat
ing
fract
uresorcrackst
hroughwhi
chmagmacanescape.Whenv ul
canici
tyoccurs,
theearthcrustisboundtoshake,thus,ear
thquakesandv ol
cani
cact i
onsand
oftenassoci
ated.

CAUSESOFEARTHQUAKES
1.Col
li
sionoftectoni
cpl
atesal
ongal
i
neoff
aul
t
2.vol
canicer
uptions

REGI
ONSOFEARTHQUAKES/
DISTRI
BUTI
ON

- Al
ongpl ateboundar i
es
- Atthepaci fi
cringoffi
re
- Areasofweaknessi nthecr
uste.gwher
efaul
ti
ngoccur
s
- Al
ongmi d-oceanicr
idges
- I
nv olcanicisl
andse.gMadagascar
- West er
ncoastofSout hAmer ica
- AttheGr eatRiftVal
leyofAfr
ica
- Ont heNor thEastofAsia

NATUREOFEARTHQUAKES
12lines
Thepoi ntatwhi chanear thquakeoriginatesiscal
l
edt hefocus.Thistakesplace
severalkilometersbelowt heearth’surface.Theenergyinanear t
hquaket ravel
s
asSHOCKWAVESf rom thefocus.
Thet ypeofshockwav esknownasBODYWAVEt rav
elst hr
ought hecrusttohit
thesur faceoft heearth.Thepoi ntatwhi chthesur f
acei sfi
rsthitiscalled
EPICENTRE.
From theepi center
,shockwav estravelasSURFACEWAVESandspr eadt oaff
ect
awiderar eaoft heearth’
ssur f
ace.

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofbodywav
eswhi
char
e:

16
Pr
imarywav
e-causescr
ust
alwav
est
omov
eorshakebackandf
ort
h
7l
ines

Secondar
ywav
es–causescr
ust
alr
ockst
omov
efr
om si
det
osi
de
7l
ines

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofsur
facewav
esnamel
y:

Lovewave–causesrockstodancefr
om si
detosideatrightangl
etothe
di
rect
ionofwavemovement
Rayl
eighwaves–causesrockst
ovibr
atei
navert
icalci
rcularmovement

HOW EARTHQUAKESOCCUR

- Therepl at
emov ement /
coll
i
sionofplates
- Faulti
ng/ f
oldi
ngoccur s
- Pressure/energyi srel
easedatthefocus
- Shockwav esradiateoutwar
ds/towardstheepi
cent
er
- Vibrat
ionsar efelt
- Themi norv i
brationscauset r
emorsandmaj orvibr
ati
onscauses
eart
hquakes.

EFFECTSOFEARTHQUAKES

o Theycan dest roybui ldi

ngs,communi cati
on systemsand ot
her
i
nfrastruct
uree.gr oads, t
elephoneandel ect
ri
cpoles
o Theycancausedi splacementofoceani cf l
oorswhi chr
esul
tin
fl
oodingofcoast al sett
lement s
o Theymaydest roynat uralvegetati
onandanimal habit
at
o Cancausel ossofl ife/i
njuries
o Cancauset idalwav es/tsunami s
o Cancausemudf l
ows
o Destroytheearth’ sscener ybyopeni ngupdeepcr acks.
o Mayl eadtodispl acementofpeopl e/
rel
ocati
on
o Maycausedest ruct ionoff armland
o Maycauseout breakoff i
res

HOW THEEFFECTSOFEARTHQUAKESCANBEREDUCED

o Pr
edi
cti
ng f
utur
e ear
thquakes/
ear
ly war
ning e.
g pl
anni
ng

17
 eart
hquaker egulari
ty
o Formationofdi sasterplanse. gt r
aini
ngemer gencyser
vicessuch
asfir
e,policeandambul ancecr ews
o Constructi
onofear thquaker esi
stancebuil
dinge.guseofst eel
fr
ameswhi chcanswaydur i
ngear t
hquakes
o Evacuation/useofr escuet eams
o Educationaboutear thquakes
o Constructi
onofr oadswhi chpr ovi
dequi ckaccessforemergency
servi
ces
o Enforci
ngst r
ictbuil
dingr egulati
ons

WHYI
MPACTSOFEARTHQUAKESVARYFROM PLACETOPLACE

 Timeoft heday -duringt her

ecoul dbef ewerimpact ssi ncepeopl eare
awakeandcaneasi lyandqui cklyrespondunl i
keatni ght.
 Distancefrom t heepicenter-placesnear ertotheepi centerwillexperi
ence
mor edamaget hant hosef ar.
 Structureofther ocks–pl aceswi t
hst r
ongr ockbasemayexper i
enceless
damageascompar edt othosewi thweakr ockbases.
 Dept hoft hef ocus- t hedeepert hefocust hel esserthei mpactoft he
earthquakesandv icev er
sa.Thi sisbecauseasshockwav est ravell
onger
distancestor eacht heearthsur f
acet heylosetheirstrength.
 Strengthoft heear thquake–st rongerear thhasl argerimpact sandv i
ce
versa.
 Popul at
ionsize– pl aceswi thl esspeopl ehav el essi mpact sandv i
ce
versa.
 Distancef rom t hesea– pl acescl osert ot heseamay beaf fect
edby
fl
oodi ngandt sunami sascompar edt othosewhi char efar.

DETECTI
NGEARTHQUAKES

Theintensi
tyofear
thquakesr
eferstot
heef f
ortpr
oducedort
hest
rengt
hofan
ear
thquake.Iti
sdet
ectedbyaninst
rumentcal
ledSEI
SMOGRAPH.

Themagnit
ude(
size)ofanear
thquakei
sthet
otalamountofener
gyproduced.I
t
i
smeasuredorr
ecordedonaRICHTERSCALE,whichrangesf
rom 0t
o9.
12li
nes

Thegr
eat
ert
her
eadi
ngont
her
it
cherscal
e,t
hegr
eat
ert
heext
entofdamage

18
causedont
heear
th’
ssur
face.

WHYI
NTERI
ORSOFMOSTCONTI
NETSDONOTEXPERI
ENCEEARTHQUAKES

 I
tisfarawayfrom pl
ateboundari
es
 Theyarenoplateboundar
ies
 I
thasstablepl
ates/r
igi
dplates

WEATHERANDCLI
MATE

Weather–t
heav
eragecondi
ti
onoft
heat
mospher
eobser
vedov
erashor
tper
iod
oft
ime

Cli
mate-t
heav
eragecondi
ti
onoft
heat
mospher
eobser
vedov
eral
ongper
iod
ofti
me

Elementsofweat herneedt obemeasuredinordert oobtai

napictur
eoft he
weather.Aweatherstati
onisaplacewheret
heweat herel
ementsar
emeasur ed
andr ecor
ded.Eachweat herst
ati
onhasaStevenson’sscr
een.TheStevenson’
s
screencontai
nsfourther
momet er
s:namel
y:

- Themaximum ther
mometer
- Mini
mum ther
momet er
- Thewetbulbt
hermometer
- Thedrybul
bthermometer

14l
i
nes

CHARACTERI
STI
CESOFASTEVENSON’
SSCREEN

FEATURE REASON/JUSTI FI
CATION
I
tiswhit
eincolour Torefl
ectsun’srays
I
thaslouver
s Toall
owf reeairci
rcul
ati
on
I
tismadeofwood Woodi sabadconduct orofheat
I
tisdoubl
eroofed Toinsulat
eitfr
om thesun’sheat
I
thasasloppyroof Toshedawayr ai
nwater
I
tisrai
sed121cm abov
ethegr
ound To avoid waterand heatf rom t
he
gr
ound

19
MEASURI NGANDRECORDINGTEMPERATURE
MAXI MUM TEMPERATURE
7l i
nes
Themaxi mum t
hermomet
eri
susedtomeasuret
hemaxi
mum t
emper
atur
eof
theday.

Howi
twor
ks

Whent emperatur
eri
ses,themer curyexpandsandpushest hei ndexal ongthe
tube.Whent hetemper
aturef al
ls,themer cur
ycontractsandt hei ndexremai n
behind.Themaximum t
emper atureisreadatthebottom oft
hei ndex.
I
nt heexampleabove,t
hemax i
mum t emperatur
etober ecordedis30ᵒ C.Af ter
taki
ngt her
eadi
ngamagneti susedt odrawtheindexbacktot hemeni scus.This
i
scal l
edRESETTING.

MI
NIMUM TEMPERATURE

7l
i
nes

Themini
mum t
her
momet
eri
susedt
omeasur
ethemi
nimum t
emper
atur
eoft
he
day.

Howi tworks
Whent emperat
uresfall
,alcoholcont r
actsandpul l
stheindexdownabov et he
tube.Whenthetemperaturerises,al
coholexpandsbuttheindexremainsbehind.
Themi ni
mum temperatureisobt ai
nedorreadbyr eadi
ngthescaleatt heendof
theindexwhichwasi ncont actwi t
ht hemeniscus.Theinstrumentisresetby
shakingi
t.
Intheexampleabove,
themi nimum t emperat
uretoberecordedis15ᵒC.

SIX’STHERMOMETER
ItisUshapedandhasar oundbulbandaconicalbul
b.Theroundbulbont helef
t
sideisf i
l
ledwit
halcohol(measur
esmi ni
mum temperatur
e),theconicalbul
bon
therightsidei
sfi
ll
edwithmercury(measuri
ngmaximum temperatur
e).
25l i
nes
Howi tworks

 Whent
emper
atur
eri
ses,al
coholont
hel
eftexpandsandt
hiscausest
he

20
 mercurytof l
owont heleftsi
de.
 Asmer curyf l
ow upwar ds,i
tpushesupt hemetalindex,thusr
ecordi
ng
maximum t emperatur
e.
 When temper atur
edr ops,alcoholcontr
act
sand flowsont hereser
ve
dir
ect
ionf orci
ngthei ndexont heleftt
ogoupt husr ecor
dingmini
mum
temperat
ur e.
 Thereadingonbot hsidesoft hetubesi
stakenonthebot t
om si
deofthe
metali
ndex.

TEMPERATURESTATI
STI
CS

 MEAN DAYTEMEPRATURE–t hi
si st
heav er
agedaytemper
ature.I
tis
cal
cul
atedbyaddi
ngt
hemi
nimum temper
atureoft
hedayanddivi
dingby
2.

e.
g. max 19
mi
n 17

Cal
cul
atet
hemeanf
ort
heday

 MEANMONTHTEMPERATURE–t hi
sistheav
eragetemper
atur
eofthe
month.I
tiscal
cul
atedbyaddi
ngthemeandaytemper
atur
esanddiv
idi
ng
byt
henumberofday si
nthatmont
h.

 MEANSANNUALTEMPERATURE–t hisi
stheav
eragetemper
atur
eofthe
year
.Iti
scal
cul
atedbyaddi
ngt
hemeanmontht
emperatur
esanddiv
idi
ng
by12.

 DAILY RANGEOFTEMPARATURE– i ti
sobtainedbysubt
ract
ingt
he
minimum r
eadi
ngf
rom t
hemaxi
mum r
eadi
ngoftheday.

E.
g. max 22
mi
ni 20

Cal
cul
atet
hedai
l
yrangeoft
emper
atur
e

 MONTHLYRANGEOFTEMPERATURE–i tisobt
ainedbysubtr
acti
ngthe
l
owestmeandayt
emper
atur
efr
om t
hehi
ghestmeandaytemperat
ure

 ANNUALRANGEOFTEMPERATURE–i ti
sobtai
nedbysubtract
ingt
he
l
owest mean mont
h t
emper
atur
e f
rom the hi
ghest mean month

21
 t
emper
atur
e.

DESCRI
BINGTEMPERATURE

Temper
atur
e Descr
ibi
ngwor
ds

Bel
ow-
10 Ver
ycol
d

-
10t
o0 Col
d

0t
o10 Cool

10t
o21 War
m

21t
o30 Hot

Ov
er30 Ver
yhot

FACTORSI
NFLUENCI
NGTEMEPTRATURE

1.Cloudcover–lowersthedaytimetemper
aturebyr
educi
ngt heamountof
i
ncomingsol
arradiat
ion,keepi
ng t
henightwarmerbyreduci
ngl ossofout
emit
tedr
adi
antheat
.

15l
i
nes

2.Lat
it
ude

Low(
Equat
or) Hi
gh(
Pol
ar)

Sunal
mostdi
rect
lyov
erheadr
esul
ti
ng Sun’sheatrecei
vedatobli
queangl
es
i
nhight
emper
ature resul
ti
nginl
owt emper
atur
es

Sol
arr
ayst
rav
elshor
terdi
stance t
o Ray
str
avell
ongdi
stancesr
esul
ti
ngi
n

22
equat
orr
esul
ti
ngi
nhi
ght
emper
atur
e heatl
osst
husl
owt
emper
atur
es

Heatconcent
rat
edoverasmall
erar
ea Heat concent
rat
ed in lar
ge ar
ea
r
esult
ingi
nhightemper
atur
es r
esul
ti
nginlowtemper
atur
e

10li
nes
3.Alti
tude
Thisrefer
stotheheightofr el
i
efabov esealev
el.Wat erv
apouranddusti ntheair
preventheatfor
medatt hesur f
aceoft heearthfrom rapi
dlypassingbacki nt
o
space.Athighalti
tudese. gont hetopofmount ains,theairisraref
iedandi t
containsl
essdustandwat ervapour.Theheatfr
om t heeart
h’ssur
facet her
efor
e
rapi
dlyescapesandtheai rremainscold.
10lines

4.Di
st ancefrom thesea
Summer Winter
Seaabsor bsheatslowly Sealosesheatslowly
Landabsor bsheatslows Landl osesheatqui
ckly
Coastalareasaf f
ectedbycoolbr
eeze Coastalar easaff
ectedbywarbr
eeze
fr
om thesea fr
om t hesea
Conti
nent sarehot Continentsarecol
d
15li
nes

5.Aspect
Aspectisthedi recti
oni nwhi cht helandfaces.Sl
opes,whi
chf acet
henor t
hin
thesouthernhemi sphere,willreceivemoreheatinwint
ert
hanthosefaci
ngsouth.
10li
nes
6.Oceancur rent
s
Warm currentsraiset het emper aturei
ncoastalareaswhi
lecoldcurr
entsfrom
oceansdecr easetemper aturesofcoast alar
eas.Thetemperat
ureismodif
iedby
coolseabreezeorl andbr eeze.
10li
nes

MEASURI
NGANDRECORDI
NGHUMI
DITY

HUMI DI
TY
Thi
sr efer
st o wat
ervapourint he ai
r.Theinstr
umentused f
ormeasur
ing
humidit
yisthehygr
ometerorwetanddrybulbt
hermometer
s.

RELATI
VEHUMI
DITY

23
Thi
sistherat
iobet
weenthecont
entofwatervapori
nt heai
randthemaximum
amounttheai
rcanhol
datagiv
entemperat
ure,
expressedasapercent
age.

HOW AHYGROMETERWORKS
15l
i
nes

 Ahygr
omet
erconsi
stsoft
woordi
naryther
momet
erswhi
char
ethe
dr
ybul
bandthewetbul
bther
mometers.

 Thewetbulbt
her
momet
eri
swr
appedwi
thamusl
incl
othwhi
chi
s
at
tachedt
oawick.

 Thewicki
sdippedi
nasmal
lcont
ainerofdi
sti
l
ledwat
ert
okeep
t
hebul
bwet.

 Thereadi
ngoft hewetbulbt
her
momet erisalwayslowerthant
hat
ofthedrybulbbecausewhenev apor
ationt akesplacei
tcauses
cool
ingandcont ract
ionoft
hethermomet ersoi tshowsalower
temperat
ure/
readi
ng.

 Whentheairi
sdr
y ,t
herewil
lbehi
ghev apor
ati
onf
rom t
hecl
oth
andt
hether
mometerwil
lshowlowr
eadi
ngs.

 When the ai
risv er
y humid,the ev
apor
ati
on i
slow so t
he
t
emperatur
eisnoti
nfl
uencedver
ymuch.

 Thedrybulbt
her
momet erdoesnothav
eamusl
i
ncl
othandi
t
measur
esthet
emper
atur
eofdryai
r.

Thereadingsofthetwot hermometer
sareusedtocal
cul
atetherelat
ive
humidit
y.Thedi
ff
erencebetweenthereadi
ngsoft
hetwothermometersis
cal
ledthewetbulbdepression.Whenthewetanddr
ybulbther
momet ers
havethesamereadingwesayt heai
rissat
urat
ed.

READI
NGTHERELATI
VEHUMI
DITY

TABLEOFRELATI
VEHUMI
DITYVALUES

DRYBULB WETBULBDEPRESSI
ON
0 0.5 1 1.
5 2 2.
5
20 100 80% 79% 74% 69% 67%

24
 21 100 80% 75% 73% 69% 65%

22 100 80% 76% 73% 67% 64%

23 100 80% 75% 71% 67% 60%

1.Fi
ndthedi
ffer
encebetweent
hewetbul
banddr
ybul
breadi
ngt
o
gett
hewetbul
bdepressi
on

2.Ref
ert
other
elat
ivehumi
dit
ytabl
e/v
alues

3.Fi
nd the coor
dinat
ing poi
ntoft
he dr
ybul
b and t
he wetbul
b
depr
essi
on

4.Readt hefigur
eatt
hecoor
dinat
ingpoi
ntast
her
elat
ivehumi
dit
yin
percentage.

N.B -whent hedif

ferencebetweent hetwor eadi
ngsiszero,r
elati
ve
humi
dityi
s100%/ai
rsat ur
ated.
-Whenthedif
ferenceissmallorli
tt
le,
rel
ati
vehumidi
tywil
lbehigh
-Whenthedif
ferenceisl
arge,
r el
ati
vehumidit
ywil
lbelow.

CALCULATI
NGRELATI
VEHUMI
DITY

WETBULBREADING 21ᵒ
C
DRYBULBREADING23ᵒ
C
(Dot
hecal
cul
ati
ons)

RAINFALL
Rainfal
lrefer
st otheamountofwat erdropl
etswhichfal
lfrom theskywhen
cl
ouds become sat urat
ed with water par
ti
cles.Rai
nfal
li s one for
m of
preci
pit
ation.Otherformsar esnow,hail
,foget cRai
nfal
lismeasuredbyan
i
nstrumentcalledaraingauge.

10l
i
nes
HOW RAI
NFALLISMEASUREDANDRECORDED
 Theamountofr
ainf
all
iscol
l
ect
edi
nthecol
l
ect
ingj
ar.

 Thecoll
ect
edr ai
nfal
list
hencar
eful
l
ypour
edi
ntoameasur
ing
cyl
i
ndermarkedinmil
li
met
ers

 Thecy
li
nderi
sthenpl
acedonaf
latsur
face

25
  Ther eadi
ngi
stakenf r
om thebott
om par
toft
hemeni
scusand
recor
dedinmi
ll
imeter
safterev
ery24hr
s

POSI
TIONI
NGOFTHERAI
NGAUGE

1.Awayfr
om bui
l
dingst
oav
oiddest
ruct
ionsandr
unof
ffr
om r
oof
tops

2. Awayf
rom t
reest
oav
oiddest
ruct
ionsf
rom t
het
reel
eav
es.

3.Itmustbeputatleastonemet erabovethegroundtoprevent
spl
ashesgoi
ngi
ntothegaugeandtoavoi
dheatf
rom thegr
ound.

4.Thegroundaroundt
herai
ngaugeshoul
dpr
efer
abl
ybegr
assyt
o
avoi
drai
nsplashi
ngi
ntot
hefunnel

5.I
tmustbepl
acedupr
ightt
ocol
l
ectt
her
ain

TYPESOFRAI
NFALL

Rel
ief/
orographi
crai
nfall
Rel
iefref
erstotheshapeoft
hel
andscape.Rel
i
efr
ainf
alli
sinf
luencedbyhi
gh
l
andscapese.gmountains

HOW I
TISFORMED

15li
nes
WINDWARDSIDE
 I
toccurswhenon-shorewinds(
windsfrom theseat
oland)car
ry
warm moi
stur
ewit
ht hem upamountai
nslope.

 Asai
rri
ses,
itexpandsandabsor
bsmor
emoi
stur
e

 Theai
rbecomessat
urat
ed

 I
tthencool
sandcondensest
ofor
m cl
ouds(
ti
nywat
erdr
opl
ets)

 Whenthewaterdropl
etsbecometooheav
yandcannotbehel
din
t
heatmospher
e,theyf
allasrai
n.

Ther
earetwosi
desofthemountai
nthati
s,theleewardandthewindwar
dside.
Thewindwar
dsi
dereceiv
esmorerai
nthantheleewardsi
de.Thisi
ssobecause

26
 WINDWARD LEEWARD
War m moistair Cooldr yai
r
Haslessdensi t
yandri
ses Hashi ghdensit
yanddescends
Expands Contracts
Pressuredecreases Pressureincr
eases
Aircools Airwar ms
Condensation Nocondensat i
on
Airascends Airdescends

COVENCTI ONALRAINFALL
Itoccurswhenairimmediatel
yabov ethegr oundsurfaceisheat edsot hat
convect
ioncurr
ent
saresetup.Thewar m ai
risli
ghteri
ndensi
ty;theref
oreitwil
l
expandandr i
se.Thewarm moistairwillbecooledandget ssaturated. The
moistur
econtai
nedint
heaircondensestofor
m cloudswhichwil
lfall
asr ai
n.
15li
nes

1.Sol
arr
adi
ati
onheat
stheai
rabov
ethegr
ound.

2.Theairset
supconv
ect
ionalcur
rent
s,expands,
ri
sesandabsor
bs
moist
ure

3.Theai
rbecomessat
urat
ed

4.Atcondensat
ionl
evelt
hemoi
stur
eint
heai
rcondensest
ofor
m
cl
ouds

5.Whenthewaterdropl
etsbecometooheav
yandcannotbehel
din
t
heatmospher
e,theyf
allasrai
n.

6.Cool,dr
yairwhichi
sheav
ierdescendst
orepl
acewar
m ai
rsot
hat
thecycl
econti
nues.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofconvecti
onalrai
nfal
l
- Fal
linthelat
eafter
noon

- I
ntenseorheav
yrai
nfal
l

- Accompani
edbyt
hunderandl
i
ght
eni
ng

- Br
oughtbycumul
oni
mbuscl
ouds

- Suddendownpour
s

- Hasl
argedr
ops

27
FRONTAL/
CYCLONI
C/DEPRESSI
ONRAI
NFALL

 I
toccurswhent woai rmassesconv er
ge( meet)intheat
mosphere.
 Coldairwhi chisdenset endstobedi spl
aceddownwar ds(i
.e.it
descendsorf al
ls)whi l
stwar m ai
rwhi chisli
ghtt ur
nstori
seov er
thedescendingcoldair.
 Therisi
ngwar m airexpandsandabsor bsmoi sture.
 Itgetscooledandcondensedt oform clouds.
 Whent hewat erdropletsbecomet ooheav yandcannotbeheldi n
theatmosphere,theyfallasrain.

15l
i
nes

Thel i
neofsepar ati
onbetweenthetwoairmassesiscall
edthef r
ont.The
partofaf r
ontisaheadoft hewarm massiscal
ledthewarmf r
ont( ).
Thepar tofthefrontaheadofthecoldai
rmassi scal
ledcol
dfront( ) .
Thear eabet weent hewar mf r
ontandt hecoldf r
ontiscalle’
’
’warmm
sector.Thet woai rmassesar edi
ffer
entintermsoft hei
rtemperature,
densityandmoi stur
econtent.

CLOUDS

Cloudsaremadeupoft i
nywat erdr opletsori cepart
icl
es.Theshape,
heightandmov ementofcloudscani ndi
cat ethetypeofweat herthatmay
occurint her egion.Thelinesdr awnt hroughpl aceshavingt hesame
amountofcl oudscov erar
ecal l
edi sonephs.Cl oudcoverisnotmeasur ed
yani nstr
umentbuti tisestimatedbyobser vinginoktas( eight
s).One
oktasrepresents1/ 8oftheskycov eredbycl ouds.Thesy mbol sareas
fol
lows:

14l
i
nes

Cloudsareclassi
fi
edaccor
dingtothei
rappearance,for
m andheight.
Therearef
ourmai ngr
oupsofcl
oudsandsev
eraltypesofcloudst
hatf
all
i
ntothesegroups.

15l
i
nes

28
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
eroot
sandt
ransl
ati
onsoft
henamesoft
hecl
ouds:

Ci
rro–curlofhai
r,hi
gh
Str
ato–layer
Al
to–mi d
Nimbo–r ai
n,pr
eci
pitat
ion
Cumulo-heap

GROUPS,
TYPESANDCHARACTERI
STI
CSOFDI
FFERENTCLOUDS

HI
GHCLOUDS

Theyoccurabov e6000met er
sabov esealevelandaregi
ventheprefi
x
“cir
ro”
.Duet ocol
dtemper
aturesattheselevel
s,t
hecl
oudsarecomposed
oficecr y
stal
s.Theyar
eoftenthin,st
ripedandwhit
e.Themaintypesof
highcloudsare;
1.Ci r
rus

- Composedofi
cecr
yst
als

- Whi
tei
ncol
our

- Fi
brousl
ooki
ng

- Feat
her
-l
ikei
nappear
ance

- Areoftenthefi
rstsi
gnofanappr
oachi
ngwar
mfr
ont(
ast
hey
thi
ckenint
oci
rr
o-st
rat
us)

2.Ci
rr
o-cumul
us

- Appearassmal
l
,roundedwhi
tepuf
fst
hatappeari
nlongr
ows

- For
mthi
ncl
ouds

- Composedofi
cecr
yst
als

- Seeni
nwi
nterandi
ndi
cat
efai
rbutcol
dweat
her

3.Ci
rr
o-st
rat
us

- Sheet
-l
ikehi
ghcl
oudst
hatof
tencov
ert
heent
ir
esky

29
 - Thinwhi
te-al
mostt
ranspar
entt
hatt
hesuncanbeseent
hrough
them

- Usual
l
ycome12-
24hour
sbef
orear
ainorsnowst
orm

MIDDLECLOUDS
Theyaregi
v enthepr
efi
x“al
to”andappearbet
ween2100and6000met
ers
abovesealevel.
1.Alt
o-strat
us

- Composedofwat
erdr
opl
etsandi
cecr
yst
als

- Usual
l
ycov
ert
heent
ir
esky

- Theyof
tenf
orm aheadofst
ormswi
thcont
inuousr
ainorsnow

2.Al
to-
cumul
us

- Composedofwat
erdr
opl
ets

- Appearasgr
eypuf
fymasses

- Usual
l
yfor
mingr
oups

- For
msaheadoft
hunder
stor
ms

- Heap-
li
kei
nappear
eance

LOW CLOUDS
Arenotgi
venanypref
ix,
alt
houghthei
rnamesar
eder
ivedf
rom “
str
ato”or
“cumul
o”dependi
ngonthei
rchar
acter
ist
ics
1.Str
atus

- Gr
ayi
shcl
oudst
hatof
tencov
ert
heent
ir
esky

- Resembl
efogt
hatdoesn’
treachgr
oundl
evel

- Br
ingsmi
stordr
izzl
e

2.St
rat
o-cumul
us

- Puf
fyandgr
eyl
ooki
ng

- Mostf
ormi
nrowswi
thbl
ueskyv
isi
blei
nbet
weent
hem

30
 - Rai
nrar
elyoccur
sbutt
heycant
urni
ntoni
mbost
rat
uscl
ouds

3.Ni
mbo-
str
atus

- Dar
kgr
ey

- Associ
atedwi
thcont
inuousl
yfal
l
ingr
ainorsnow

- Of
tenpr
oducepr
eci
pit
ati
ont
hati
susual
l
yli
ghtt
omoder
ater
ain

- Denseandshapel
ess

- Thi
ck

CLOUDSOFGREATVERTI
CALEXTENT
1.Cumul
us

- Whi
te,
puf
fycl
oudst
hatl
ookl
i
kepi
ecesoff
loat
ingcot
ton

- Of
tenassoci
atedwi
thf
air
-weat
her

- Hasf
latbaseandt
het
opofeachcl
oudhasr
oundedt
ops

- They gr
ow upwar
d and can dev
elop i
nto gi
antcumul
oni
mbus
cl
ouds

2.Cumul
o-ni
mbus

- Whi
teorbl
acki
ncol
our

- Summi
tli
ket
ower
sandmount
ains

- Of
teni
ndi
cat
econv
ect
ional
rai
nfal
lwi
tht
hunderandl
i
ght
eni
ng

WINDS
Windisai
rinmotion.I
thasbothdi
rect
ionandspeed.Whenleavesf
all
,
t
reesswayanddustpar
ti
clesmov
eupwer eal
i
zethatwindi
sbl
owing.

Wi
nddi
rect
ion

Ani
nst
rumentt
hati
susedt
oindi
cat
ethedi
rect
ionofwi
ndi
scal
l
edwi
nd

31
 v
ane.Awi ndv aneneedstobeerect
edinanexposedposit
iontogett
he
r
ightdi
rect
ion.Iti
smadeupoftwopar t
s.Oneparti
sanarr
ow/vanewhi
ch
i
sfreetomov ewithprev
ail
i
ngwinds.Theotherpar
tist
hecompasspoint
t
oshowt hedirect
iont
hewindi
smov ingfr
om.

Pr
evai
l
ingwi
nds–commonwi
nds

14l
i
nes

Windr ose
Awi ndroseisusedforrecordingthedirect
ionofpr ev
ail
i
ngwindsofaplaceover
aper i
odofamont h.Itconsistsofanoct agonwi th8compasspoint
s.Eachof
thesmal l
rect
anglesrepresentsthedate/di
rectioni
nwhichthewi
ndcomesf r
om.
Thoseday swhicharest il
larerecordedint heboxofcal msandthenumberof
calm daysisi
ndicat
edint hecentreoftheoct agon.
7lines

Windspeed
Windspeedismeasuredwithaninst
rumentcal
l
edcupanemomet
er.I
tconsi
sts
of
:
1.foursemi
-ci
rcul
arcups

2.hor
izont
alspokes/
arms

3.v
ert
ical
shaf
t/mast
/spi
ndl
e

4.speedmet
er/
dial

Thesemici rcularcupsareattachedt
ot heendsofthehorizont
alarms,mount
ed
ont hevert
icalshaft.Whenthereiswi
ndt hecupsrot
ate,sothestr
ongerthewi
nd
thef ast
ert
her otati
on.Thenumberofr otat
ionsi
srecordedonthemet ergi
vet
he
speedofwi ndinkm/ h.
7lines

SYMBOLSUSEDTODESCRI
BEWI
NDSPEED

15l
i
nes

SUNSHI
NE

The amountofsunshi
ne a pl
ace r
ecei
ves dependson t
he seasons,f
act
or

32
deter
mi nebyl ati
tudeandbythepositi
onoftheearthinitsrevolut
ionaroundthe
sun.Att hemet eorol
ogi
calstati
on,sunshi
nedurati
on( l
ength)isr ecor
dedbya
sunshiner ecorder.Itconsi
stsofagl asssphereatt
achedt oamet alf
rame.
Underneatht hisglassspher
ei sasensiti
sedcard,whichisgr aduatedinhours
andmi nutes.
7li
nes
Howi twor ks

 Whent hesunshines,
theglasssphereisfocusedontothecard.
 Asthesunmov esacr
osst heskyfr
om eastt owest,atr
aceofburn
devel
opsont hecard.
 Thetraceofburncanonlybeseenwhent hesunshines.
 Aft
er24hrst hecardist akenoutandt helengthoft hetr
aceis
consi
deredandconv ert
edi nt
ohoursandmi nut
estof i
ndoutthe
tot
alamountofsunshineforaparti
cularday.

ATMOSPHERI
CPRESSURE

Ai
rismadeupofgasesandt
her
efor
eithasawei
ghtwhi
chexer
tsmor
epr
essur
e
ontheear
thsur
face.

FACTORSI
NFLUECI
NGPRESSURE

ALTI
TUDE

Si
nceai rexertsadownwar dforceont heear t
hsur face,itspressurewi l
lbe
greatestneartheearthsurfaceandloweratahi gheralti
tude.Thi
si sbecauseat
l
owerar easai rhast o supporta great
erwei ghtofai rthan athigh areas.
Thereforeairpressur
eincreaseswithdecreasi
ngalti
tude.Whenai rdescendsits
pressureincreasesandwhenai rri
sesi
tspressuredecreases
10lines

TEMPERATURE

Temper at
urei ncr
easeswi t
hdecr easingpressure.Whent emperatur
er i
ses,the
airexpandsandi tsmol eculesmov ewi deapart
,thereforepressureoftheairwil
l
decrease.whenai riscool edi tcontractsandwhent hishappenstheout ward
pressureoft hemol eculesi sspreadov erasmal l
erar ea.Thi
smeanst hatthe
pressureoftheairincreases.Thepr essureofairincreaseswheni t
stemper at
ure
fall
s.

33
10l
i
nes

EARTHROTATION
Whentheear
throtat
es,theairmolecul
esatthenor
thandthesouthpol
eswillbe
thr
ownawaytotheequat or
.intheoryt
hisshoul
dresul
tinai
rpil
i
ngupal ongthe
equat
ort
omaket hepressureattheequat
ortobehigh.

10l
i
nes

Buttemper aturet endstomaket heprocessabi tcompl i

cated.Thi sisbecause
l
owt emper aturesatt hepol
escauset heairtocontract–highpr essuredevel
ops.
Hightemper aturesalongequatorcauseairt oexpand-lowpressur edevel
ops.
Ai
rpr essur
ei smeasur edbyaninstr
umentknownasbar ometer.Itismeasuredin
mill
i
bar s(mb) .Ther ear et
wot ypesofbar ometers,ananeroidbar ometeranda
mercurybar omet er.

ANEROI
DBAROMETER

Itconsi
stsofamet alboxwit
hai
rcompl
etel
ydr
awnoutsot
hatt
her
eisno
pr
essureact
ingi
nsi
dethebox.
12li
nes

HOW I
TWORKS
 When pr
essur
eincr
eases,t
he met
albox l
i
d col
l
apses/
mov
es
i
nwar
ds

 Themov ementoft
heboxact
ivat
est
hel
eversy
stem/
thel
ever
syst
em moves

 Thepoi
nter
/di
almov
est
other
ightwhenpr
essur
eishi
gh

 When pressur
e decr
eases t
he met
al box l
i
d spr
ings
upwar
ds/
outwar
ds

 Thedi
al/
poi
nterwi
l
lmov
etot
hel
eftt
oregi
sterl
owpr
essur
e

MERCURYBAROMETER
15l
ines
I
tconsi
stsofmercur
yinacontainerandaglasst
ubeplacedintot
hemer cur
y.
 Atsealev
eltheairpressur
esuppor
tsthelevelofmercur
yatabout
760mm high

34
  When airpr
essur
eincr
eases,i
tpr
esseson t
hesur
face oft
he
cont
ainer

 Whenai
rpressurer
educes,
ther
eislesspr
essur
eonthemer
cur
yin
t
hecont
aineral
lowi
ngthemercuryt
of l
owdownthet
ube

 A scal
eplacesagai
nstthetubehel
psr
ead t
heamountofai
r
pr
essureact
ingont
hesur
face.

N.B:anyreadi
ng bel
ow 1000 meansl
ow pr
essur
e,whi
let
hatabov
e1000
meanshi
ghpressur
e

THEDI
STRI
BUTI
ONOFWORLDPRESSUREBELTSANDPLANETARYWI
NDS

Airpressur ehassomei nfl

uenceont hedi r
ecti
onofwi nds,t
huswi ndstendto
bl
owf rom ar easofhi ghpressuret othoseofl owpressur
e.Thewi ndsarenamed
aft
erthedi recti
ont heyblowf r
om.
Prevail
ingwi nds/ pl
anetarywinds
Thesear ewi ndst hatblow often.Theear throtati
oncausest hewindst obe
defl
ectedt ot her i
ghtinthenor thernhemi sphereandtotheleftinthesouther
n
hemispher e.Thef orcethatmakest hedeflectionisknownastheCor i
oli
sforce.
20li
nesf ordi agram
Therear e3maj orwindtypesineachhemi sphere

NORTHERNHEMI
SPHERE

1.Nor
thEast
erl
yPol
arwi
nds

They bl
ow from pol
arhi
gh pr
essur
e ar
eas t
olow pr
essur
e
temper
atebelt
s
2.SouthWester
lywi
nds

Bl
ow from subtr
opi
calhigh pr
essur
e bel
tst
otemper
atel
ow
pr
essur
ebelts
3.Nort
hEaster
lyTr
adewinds

Blow fr
om the sub-
tropi
calhi
gh pr
essur
e bel
tst
owar
ds t
he
doldr
ums(al
ongtheequator
)

SOUTHERNHEMI
SPHERE

1.Sout
hEast
erl
yPol
arwi
nds

35
 Bl
owf r
om thepolarhi
ghpr
essur
ebel
tst
owar
dst
het
emper
atel
ow
pr
essurebel
ts
2.Nort
hEasterl
ywinds

Bl
owf r
om thesub-t
ropi
calhi
ghpr
essur
ebel
ttot
het
emper
atel
ow
pressurebel
ts
3.SouthEasterl
yTradeWinds

Blow fr
om t
he sub-
tr
opi
calhi
gh pr
essur
e bel
tst
owar
ds t
he
doldr
ums.

I
NTERTROPI
CALCONVEGENCE

Thecli
mat
eofAfricai
sgreatlyinf
luencedbythemov ementofairmassesi
.e.
mari
ti
me(windbl
ownfrom t
hesea)andt hecont
inent
al.Thepoi
ntwher
etheair
massesmeeti
scal
ledI
nter
tropical
Conv er
genceZone(ITCZ).

TROPICALCYCLONE
Tropi
cal cyclonesoccurwher et
wot ropical ai
rmassesmeetal ongtheITCZfront
.
Thisareaisanar eaofintensepressur e.Thei sobarsarecloselyspacedandthey
form aci r
cularshape.St rongwi ndsspi r
alt owar dsthecenterrushingupwards
withgreatf orceinareacal ledvortex,whi chsur roundsthecentreoft heey
eof
thecyclone.Ther api
dr ai
singairgi v
esr iset ot orr
enti
al/
heavyrainsandstrong
windwhi chcausedamaget obuil
dingandv egetati
on.

15l
i
nes
HOW ATROPICALCYCLONEDEVELOP
Therearet
hreeconditi
onsnecessar
yfortr
opi
calcy
clonestodev
elop.
 A suffi
cientsourcesofmoi stai
roft emperat
uresofabout27
degreesCelsi
usneartheseasurf
ace

 Theairmustbeblowi
nginwar
dsandri
singr
api
dlytogreathei
ghts
to gi
ve cl
oud ofgreatver
ti
calext
ends whi
ch are capabl
e of
provi
dingr
ain

 Ther
emustbeanout
war
dfl
owofai
ratt
heupperl
evel
.

LANI NA
I
ti saweat hercondit
iont hati
si nfl
uencedbyexcessivecooli
ngoft he
tropicalPaci
ficOcean.Itresul
tsintocoldcondit
ions.Whenairr
isesover
thecont i
nentsduri
ngsummer ,coolermoistairf
rom theseamov esinto
replace it
.The airwhi ch movesawayov erthe cont
inent
sev ent
uall
y

36
descendsov erthesea.Asi tdescendsi taccumulat
esmoi stureand
creepsbacki nt
ot hecont
inents.Theci
rcul
armov ementofairbetweenthe
cont i
nentsandoceansdescribedaboveisknownast hewalkercircul
ati
on.
Thewi ndswhichbl ow f
rom ov ertheseasknownast het radewi nds,
bringsinmoistureandrai
nt otheconti
nent
s.

ENVI
RONMENTALI
MPACTS

- I
tbr
ingsf
loods

- I
tcausessoi
ler
osi
on

- I
tcausesl
eachi
ngoft
hesoi
l
s

- Fi
eldsbecomewat
erl
ogged

- Dest
ruct
ionofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

SOCI
ALI
MPACTS

- Leadst
ost
arv
ati
on

- Cancausel
ossofl
i
fe

- Causesdamageofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

- Cancausedi
seasessuchasmal
ari
a

ECONOMI
CIMPACTS

- Decr
easescr
oppr
oduct
ion

- Causesr
isei
npr
ices

- Causesl
ossofj
obs

EL-
NINO

I
tisaweat hercondit
ionthatisinfl
uencesbyexcessivewarmi ngoft he
tr
opi
calPaci f i
cOcean.Itresult
sintodr ought
sandl ow cropy i
eldsin
Sout
hernAf rica.
Duri
ngElNi ñoperi
odst hewalkercircul
ati
onischanged.Insteadofai r
mostl
yr i
singabov ethecont i
nentsinsummer ,itr
isesabov et heseas.
Whyt hi
shappensi snotexactlyknownbuti tisbel
i
evedthattheheat ing

37
aff
ect
sofvolcani
cerupt
ions,whichcausethetemperatureoftheseato
ri
secausei
t.Ther
isi
ngairovert
hesear ev
ersesthewalkerci
rcul
ati
on.

THEHI STORYOFELNI NO
 Itwasdi scoveredin1567
 Thename‘ ELni no’comesf r
om Per uvianfishermenwhowerefi
shing
alongt hewester nshoreofSout hAmer ica
 Theynot i
cedthatnor mal l
ycoldwat erthatf l
owedfrom t
henort
ht o
thesout hbecamewar m.
 Thewat erther
eforewasnotgoodf orf i
shing
 Att hesamet i
me,t hisbr oughtal ongper iodofdroughtandl
ackof
fishandsomet imest orrenti
alrainst hatswi pedoutallt
hecr
opsi n
sout hernAfri
ca.
 Ther eforet
hef i
shermennamedi tEl ni
no,whi chisaSpani
shwordfor
‘
littl
eoneorChr i
st’
schild’

ElNi
noevent
scomeev eryt
hreet
osevenyears.Theseev
ent
scanl
astf
or
manymonthsorper
sistf
ormorethanamonth.

I
MPACTSOFEL-
NINOONTHEENVI
RONMENT

- Resul
tsi
nver
yhi
ght
emper
atur
es

- Causesl
ackofr
ainf
all

- Cancausev
eldf
ir
es

- Resul
tsi
nwar
m wi
nter
s

- Canr
esul
tindr
ought
s

- Resul
tsi
nlowcr
opy
iel
ds

EFFECTS OF ELNI NO ON HUMAN ACTI

VITI
ES I
N BOTSWANA AND
SOUTHERNAFRI CA
 cropfail
ure/shortageoffood
 animals/l
ivestockdie
 migrati
ont ourbanar eas
 l
ossofi ncome

EFFORTSMADEBYTHEGOVERNMENTTOREDUCETHEI
MPACTSOF
EL-NI
NO

38
 - Obser
vingt
het
ropi
cal
paci
fi
czone

- Av
ail
i
ngweat
herf
orecastt
othepubl
i
cinadv
ance

- Educat
ingpeopl
eaboutt
hei
mpact
s/danger
sofel
nino

- Pr
edi
cti
onofel
nino

Theref
oretheabil
it
ytoanticipatehow thecl
i
mat
ewil
lchangefrom
yeartoy earwil
llead t
o bet t
ermanagementofagr
icul
tur
e,water
suppli
esandfi
sheri
esi
nSout hernAfr
ica.

CLI
MATI
CREGI
ONSI
NAFRI
CA

Thewor ldintoseveralcl
imat
icregi
onsofzones,eachwi t
hit
sowncl imat
ic
charact
eri
sti
cs,
rel
atednatur
alv
egetat
ionandassoci
atedhumanact
ivi
ti
es.
Skiphal
fapage

EQUATORI
ALCLI
MATE

LOCATION
I
tisl
ocatedi
nthel
owlandbet
ween5ᵒCnort
hand5ْᵒCsouthal
ongtheequat
or.
Thi
stypeofcli
matei
sexperi
encedi
ntheCongobasi
n,southwest
ernNiger
ia,
Sout
hwester
nGhanaandthesout
her
npartoft
heI
vor
yCoast.
10li
nes

CLI
MATECHARACTERI
STI
CS

 I
tishot , wetandhumi dthroughoutthey ear
 I
tliesalongt hedol dr umsl ow
 I
thas l ittl
ev ari
ation i n mean mont hlyt emperat
ure with an aver
age
mont hlyr angeofabout3° C
 I
tr eceivesheav yrainf al
lsthroughoutt hey earduetolow pressurecel l
s
l
y i
ngov ert her egion.
 The r ainfallt ype recei ved is convectionalwhich is accompanied by
thunderst orms, li
ght ningandhai l
.
 Ther ainf al
lsmost l
yi nt heafter
noons
 Thereoneuni form season
 Meanmont hl
yt emper aturesarearound27° C
 Thickcl oudsandhi ghhumi di
tyarepresentmostoft heti
me( theyprevent
dayt emper aturesfrom r i
singtoohighandni ghttemperatur
esf al
li
ngt oo

39
 l
ow

E.
g

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temp 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 30 30 26 26 26
i
n°C
Rai
nin 230 220 250 200 150 60 50 25 30 80 150 175
mm

8l
i
nes

WHYTEMPERATURESDONOTRI
SETOOHI
GHI
NTHEEQUATORI
AL
 Thickcl
oudcover
 Highhumidi
ty
 Denseveget
ati
on

NATURALVEGETATI
ON

The cl
imatic condit
ion ofthe abundantrainfal
land unif
orm temper
ature
thr
oughoutthey earfav
orstr
eegr owth.Tr
eesaret al
landbr
oadleavedmaking
upaforestcal
ledequatori
alr
ainf
orestortr
opi
calgreen.

10l
i
nes

Descr
ipt
ionoft
her
ainf
orest

1.Thet
reesf orm 3l ayers
 t opl ayer-consistsoft al
ltr
ees,whichgrowupt o45m t al
landform
acont inuoust hickcanopy
 mi ddlelayer-consi stsoft hi
ckstemmedt rees,whichgr ow upto
30m t alle.
gpal mt rees,f
ernsetc
 Bot t
om l ayer-consi st
smost l
yofherbaceouspl antswhi chgrow
from stemsofot hertr
ees.Thelayergr
owsupt o18m t all

40
 2.Mostt r
eesar ebr oadl eav edandar eev ergr
eene. gmahogany,greenheart
,
ebonyandr osewood
3.Plantsbearf ruit
sandf lowert hr
oughoutt hey earbecausetherear eno
seasons.
4.It has a v ariet
y of pl ants speci es whi ch i ncludes
creeper s,f
erns,
her bs,shrubset c
5.Thet alltreesform acont inuouscanopywhi chhinder
sthegrowthofshor t
plantsandgr ass
6.Mostpl antshav edr i
pt i
pswhi chenabl esthem toshedexcesswat er
7.Thegr asst hatisav ailablether eisthet al
lgrasswhichisnotnutr
iti
ous
8.Veget ationnearr iversorcl ear i
ngs,wher esunl i
ghtcanpenet rat
e,has
denseundergr owt h

HOW VEGETATI
ONHASADAPTEDTOTHECLI
MATI
CCONDI
TIONS

Havedrip t
ipst
oshedawayexcesswater
Theyhav e st
rai
ght,br anchl
ess t
osuppor
tthet
all
bigtrees
tr
unkswithlar
gebuttressroot
Theygrowverytal
linanef for
t togetsunl
ight
Theyhavebroadleaves to catch sunlight and l ose
excess water thr
ough
tr
anspir
ati
on
Thel
eaveshavewaxysur
face toshedtheheavyr ai
nfall
Pl
ant
s l eaves have many f
orincr
easedtranspir
ation
st
omata

Pl
ant
shav
eleat
her
yleav
es for pr otecti
on agai nst str
ong
sunlight
Pl
ant
shav
eshal
l
owr
oot
s aswat eriseasi l
yav ail
ablefrom
thesur face
Theplant
shavebutt
ress rootst osuppor ttheirheight
Theyhavethi
ntr
unks as t herei s no need t o store
wat erintrunks
Pl
ant
sar
eev
ergr
een because t her
ei s no seasonal
change
Plants f l
ower and f
rui
t duet o abundantsunshi neand
throughoutt
heyear high amount of r ai
nfal
l
throughoutt hey ear.

41
HUMANACTI
VITI
ES

TheEquat
ori
ali
sgener
all
yspar
sel
ypopul
ated

 Cultivation- mostadv ancedonespr acti

ceshi f
ti
ngcul ti
vati
on.Manypar ts
of the forests are cleared for culti
vat
ion of
yams, mai ze,bananas, cocoa,cof f
ee,tobaccoet c
 Gat hering- Vegetative f ood i s abundant i n t he f orm of wi ld
fruit
s,nut s,leavesandot herv eldtproducts
 Hunt ing- Ther ainforesti shabi tatforav ari
etyofwi l
dani malswhichar e
hunt ed
 Fishing- heev er-
f l
owi ngr i
verspr ovideal argesuppl yoff ishandot her
mar ineani mals
 Lumber ing-peopl ecutdownhar dwoodt r
eesi ntheforestsforti
mber
 Indust r
ialact i
viti
es–t imberpr ocessingindustri
esuset i
mberasar aw
mat erialt opr oducef urnit
ure,boat s,productsforconst r
uctionofhouses,
rail
way ssl eepers.Pl antati
onsal sohav ethei
rindustr
ies.
 Hy dro-elect ri
cpowerpr oduction-becauseofabundantwat er

PROBLEMS ASSOCI
ATED WI
TH EVELOPI
NG LAND I
N THE EQUATORI
AL
REGI
ON.

 Excessi
veheattendstolimi
tphysicalabi
l
ityofcar
ryi
ngoutwork.I
talso
resul
tsi
nlossofenergyandexposespeopletothedanger
sofheatst
roke
andskincancer
.

 Humidit
yalsoli
mit
sphysicalabi
li
tyofcar
ryi
ngoutwor
k.I
tmayr
esul
tin
di
seasessuchasyel
lowfeverandmalar
ia.

 Rapiddet
eri
orati
onofsoi
l-becauseoft
oomuchr
aint
hesoi
l
slosehumus
thr
oughsoil
erosi
onandleaching

 Thef actthattheplaceisaj ungl

e-makesconst ruct
ionofr oadsand
rai
lwaysdiff
icul
tandexpensi
ve.Itisalsodangeroussi ncepeoplemay
encounterwil
danimal
s,poi
sonousrept
il
esandinsects.

 A di
ff
icul
tyi
nli
vest
ockf
armi
ng-past
oralf
armi
ng i
shi
nder
edbyt
he

42
 absenceofgrass.Thegr assavail
abl
eistalland notnutri
ti
ous.The
l
ivest
ock can al
so be at
tacked by t
set
se-
fl
y which causes sl
eepi
ng
si
ckness.

 Prevalenceofpests-t
hehotandwetcl
imateencour
agesthespreadof
diseasesand pests.Ger
msand bact
eri
a ar
emor eeasil
yt r
ansmit
ted
throughmoist
ure.

TROPI
CALCONTI
NENT/
SAVANNA/
SUDANCLI
MATE

LOCATI
ON

Iti
sl ocatedbet
ween5N and15N and5Sand15Softheequator
.Itisbest
developedinSudanwherethesummerandwi
nter
sar
emostdi
sti
nct(t
heref
ore
somet i
mescall
edtheSudancli
mate)
12lines

CLI
MATECHARACTERI
STI
CS

 I
thashot ,
wetsummer sandcool ,drywint
er s.
 Theannual r
angeoft emperatur eisabout11C
 Alt
ernatingdryandwetseasonsduet omov ementofthesun.
 Thehot testmont hisj ustbef orether ai
nyseason( OctoberinSouther
n
hemi sphereandApr i
lintheNor t
hernhemi sphere.
 Heav ysummerr ainofconv ectionalty
peaccompani edbyt hunder
storms,
l
ightningandhai l.
 I
tusual l
yrainsinthelateafternoons
 Annual rai
nfall
isofabout762mm
 Highhumi dityi
nsummerduet ohi ghtemper atur
eandrai
nfall
 I
nt henor thernhemi sphererai nisMayt oSept emberandt heSouther
n
hemi sphereisfrom OctobertoApr il
.

20l
i
nes

VEGETATIONINTROPI CALSAVANNA
 Thenameoft heveget
ati
oninthisregioni scall
edtropicalgrassl
andor
savannaparkl
and.
 Veget at
ionvari
eswit
hamountofr ai
nfal
ldistri
buti
on.
 Ar eas nearthe equat
orhav e savanna woodl and vegetati
on (bi
gger
,
densertr
eesduetoincr
easedamountofr ainfal
l0

43
  Areasneart hedeserthavesavannascrub (scr
ubt
hor
nybushesand
coarseshor
tgrassesduetoadecreasei
nrai
nfall
.)
10l
i
nes

CHARACTERI
STI
CSANDADAPTATI
ONOFSAVANNAVEGETATI
ON

Descripti
on/ f
eature Adapt ation/j
usti
ficati
on
Deciduoust rees(shedl eavesinwinter
) To mi nimize loss ofwat erthrough
transpi rati
on
Longr ootedt r
ees Tor eachunder groundwat er
Treeshav esmal lleaves Tor educet ranspirat
ion
Treeshav ebr oadtrunks/thickst
ems Tost or eexcesswat erforusedur i
ng
thedr yper i
od
Treesaredi spersed Tor educecompet i
ti
onf orwaterand
nutri
ent s
Grassdi esleav i
ngr ootstol i
edormant Togr owagai nduringt hewetseason
duri
ngt hedr yseason
Umbr ell
a shapes cr owns ( y shape To pr ov i
de shade ar ound roots and
branches) trunkt ohel pconser vemoi st
urearound
thetr ee

HUMANACTI
VITI
ESI
NTROPI
CALSAVANNA

 Nomadi cpastorali
sm –t heyl argeher dsofcat tl
e,goatandsheept ograze
onsav annagr assland.Indr ierpar tstheymov eonepl acetoanot herin
sear ch ofwat erand past ur es forl i
vestock.Theykeep l ivestock for
subsi st
enceandcommer cial purposes.
 Arabl efarming/growi ngcr ops/ cropcul t
ivati
on–gr owi ngofmai ze,mill
et,
sor ghum, cott
on, tobaccoet c.theycr opsf orsubsistenceandcommer cial
pur poses
 Mi ning– di amondsi nBot swana, copperonZambi a, i
roni nZi
mbabwe, ti
n
andpet rol
eum inNi geri
a
 Indust r
ialacti
vi
ti
eswi t
hagr o- basedi ndustri
ese. gsor ghum mi ll
ing
 Tour ism –sav annahasawi der angeofwi ldl
if
esoi thasnat i
onalpar ks
andgamer eservese.gChobenat i
onal park,
 Fishing – due some pl aces hav ing dir
ectaccess t ot he sea,hav ing
per ennialri
ver
slakesanddams, peopledopr act
icefishing

44
I
MPACTSOFHUMANCATI
VITI
ESONTHESAVANNAENVI
RONMENT

 Def orestationduet o cuttingt reesf orf uelwood,cl earingofl andfor

farmi ng,vel dfiresetc
 Ov ergrazing – ov erpopul ati
on ofl ivestockand poormanagementof
grazing l and l eads to ov ergr azing and ev entually soilerosion.The
problem i swor senedbydr ought
 Pol l
ution– mi ningandi ndust ri
alact iv
iti
escauseswat er,l
andandai r
pollutionincr easingthepr oblem ofgl obal warming.
 Deser tif
icat i
on–ar easbor deri
ngt hedeser t
saret urni
ngi ntodeser t
sdue
toov eruseoft hedr yl andt hroughov ercul t
ivati
on,ov ergrazingand
def orestation.
 Lossofwi ldl i
fe–useoft oxicwast eki l
l
sbot hpl antsandani mal s.Over
hunt i
ngandpoachi ngmayr esultinext inctionofwi l
dani mal s
 Landdegr adation–mi ningcausesl andscar i
ngwi thopenpi t
sandwast e
heaps.Landsl i
desbecomeapr oblem ashugegul l
iesanddongasdev el
op
duet osoi l erosion

FACTORSAFFECTI
NGDEVELOPMENTI
NTHESAVANNREGI
ON

 Drought– l ong dr oughtper iods af f

ects both crop and livestock
farmi
ng
 Pestsanddi seases–pr esenceoft setsefl
ybr i
ngssl eepingsickness
topeopleandnaganat ocattle,locustsaffectsv egetat
ionandcr ops.
Malariai
salsov erycommonduet omosqui toes
 Deforest
ati
on–expl oi
ti
nggr assandt reesf ordiff
erentpurposese. g
forfi
rewood,thatchinggrass,leadst odeforestat
ion
 Lessf er
ti
lesoi l
s– t hi
si scaused byheav yrainswhi ch leadst o
l
eachingandsoi lerosionwhichcar ri
esawayt hetopf ert
il
esoil

HOTDESERT

LOCATI ON
Iti
slocatedbetween15and30bot
hnor
thandsout
hoft
heequat
or.
12lines
Examplesofdesertsi
nAfri
ca
1.Sahara(lar
gesti
nAfri
ca)
2.Kalahari
inBotswana

45
3.Nami
binNami
bia

Cl
i
mati
ccharacteristics
 Coolwinter( 10c)
 Hotsummer s( 29c)
 Desert
shav ev eryhi ghdayt emperaturesinsummerandv eryl
ow ni
ght
temperaturesi nwi nterduet otheabsenceofcloudcover
 Annualt emper aturer ange isv er
yhi gh,thi
si s due t
o high summer
temperaturesandl owwi nt
ertemperatures.
 Veryl
it
tleornor ainfallwhichoccursinsummer
 Annualrainfallrarelyex ceeds250mm
 I
tisofaconv ectional nature

Whyr
ainf
all
islowindesert
s
 Desert
slieacrosshi
ghpressurebel
ts(horsel
ati
tudes)
 Dryoffshorewindsbl
owacr ossdeser
ts
 Desert
sliealongcol
ddescendingcurr
entswhichhavever
yli
tt
lemoi
stur
e

N.B:insemideser
ttemperatur
esar
enotext
remeasi
nhotdeser
tsandannual
rai
nfal
lvar
iesfr
om 250mm to500mm
20li
nes
Vegetat
ion(bot
hhotandsemidesert
)

Thevegetat
ionhereisofxerophy
tict
ype(
droughtr
esi
stant
)e.
gbar
relcact
us,
deser
tsage,saguar
o,pal
mtrees

Descr
ipti
on/f
eatur
e Adapt at
ion/j
ustif
icati
on
Longrootedpl
ants To sear ch for wat er and pl ants
nutri
entsunder gr
ound
Fewornol eaves Tor educetranspirat
ion
Leav es in t hi
ck skins and waxy Tor efl
ectheatandr educet ranspir
ati
on
surfaces
Needl eshapedleaves Tor educetranspirat
ion
Thickst ems Forstoringwater
Seedsi nt
oughskinsorhar
dshel
l
s Topr otectthem thei ntenseheatwhi l
e
l
y i
ngdor mantbef or
eger minati
on/t he
rai
nyseason
Fewst omata Tor educetranspirat
ion
Umbr el
lashapedcrowns Tor educetranspirat
ionar oundroots.
46
Thor
nyl
eav
es Tor
educet
ranspi
rat
ion

15l
i
nes

Humanacti
viti
esinhotdeser t
sandsemi desert
s
 Huntingandgat heri
ng– huntwi ldanimalsandgat herwildfr
uit
sand
berr
ies
 Mining–donei nareaswithmi neraldeposit
se.ggold,oil
,di
amondsetc
 Nomadi cher di
ng–keepi ngani malssuchcamel sgoatsandsheepand
mov ef r
om placetoplaceinsear chofwat er.
 Growingcr ops–donei ncropswi thconstantwatersuppl
yalongriv
ers
(Nil
e,IndusandTi gri
s)
 Growingdr oughtresi
stantcrops–dat es,wheat,
veget
ablesandfr
uit
s

Fact
orshinderi
ngdev el
opmenti ndesert/semideser
t
 Drought–l owandunr eli
abler
ainfall
/l
ackofwater
 Poorinfer
til
esoils/l
ackofnutri
ent
 Looseandmobi lesoil
s
 Sandyacidicsoils
 Sali
ne/salt
ywat er
 Drysoil
s/lackofmoi stur
e
 Hightemper atur
e/highevapor
ationrate
 Pestsanddi seases

Mediter
raneanclimate
Iti
sfoundbet ween30and45northandsout
hoftheequat
or.E.
gCapeTowni
n
southAfri
ca,cent
ralChi
le,
Cal
i
for
nia,
Algi
ersi
nAl
geri
a.

12l
i
nes

Cli
mati
cchar acter
ist
ics
 Sunny, warmtohotdr ysummers
 Cool t
owar m wetwi nt
ers
Temperat
ure
 Moder ateofabout12C( warm summer
s)
 Winterarecool atabout10C

Rai
nfal
l

47
  Occurswhent emper at
uresarelow( wint
errai
nfal
l
)
 Rai
nfallvar
iesbetween250mm t o800mm
 Duri
ngsummert hereisnor ai
nfallast heairisdry
,heatishighand
humidit
yislow
 Recei
vescy cl
onictypeofrainf
allbroughtbyWesternwindsi
nwint
er.
20l
i
nes

NATURALVEGETATI
ON

Vegetati
onv ariesbecausetemper atureandrainvari
es.
1.Ev ergreen f or
est/woodland- occur s in t he wet test par
t of t he
Medi t
erraneanr egi
oni .
ewher erainf
allisov er650mm e. gcor ktrees,
ecucalyptus
2.Ev ergreenconiferousforests–occur swher erainf
alli
saveragee.gpines,
fi
rs,ci
der ,
3.Medi t
erranean bushes and scr ub – f ound int he dry part
s oft he
Medi t
erraneanregione.gdwar ftr
ees,shortgrasses,sweetsmell
ingherbs

Descri
pt i
on/feature Adaptati
on/
justi
fi
cati
on
Grasseswi t
heranddi eduri
ngdry To gr ow again during the wet
seasonsl eavi
ngr ootsdor mant season
Leaveshav efewst omat a Toreducetranspi
rati
on
Waxyl eavesur f
ace Toreducetranspi
rati
on
Plant
swi thlongt apr oots Toreachundergroundwat er
Plant
sr ollt
heirleavesi nsummer Toreducetranspi
rati
on
Scatt
er edthornyshr ubsandbushes Toreducecompet i
ti
onf ormoist
ure
Needleshapedl eav es Toreducetranspi
rati
on

15l
i
nes

HUMANACTI
VITI
ESI
NTHEMEDI
TERRANEANREGI
ON

 Orchardfarmi
ng–gr owi
ngofcitrusf
rui
tse.gor
anges,l
i
mes,grapefr
uit
s
etc
 Cropcultiv
ati
on–mai nl
ycereal
se.gbar
ley,
wheat,
 Vit
icul
tur
e– gr owi
ngofgr apesformakingwineandgr apesdr
iedint
o
rai
sinsandsult
anas

48
  Culti
vati
onofnuts–e.gchestnut
s.Al
monds, hazelnutset
c
 Industr
iese.
gwinemaking,fl
owermil
li
ng,
fruitcanningetc
 Tourism – thebr i
ghtsunnyweatheratt
ractt ouristmainl
yfr
om col
d
countri
es.
 Lumber ing–becauseoft
heabundantwoodlandt r
ees.

CLI
MATI
CREGI
ONSOFBOTSWANA

15LI
NES

Bot
swanahas4mai ntypesofcl
i
mat
esmai
nly
:
- Tropi
calsub-humid
- Subhumi d
- Semi ar
id
- Desertorari
dcli
mat e

Temper atur
e
Botswanaexper i
enceshotsummer swi tht hemeanmont hlyaveragesof27ᵒ c
andcoolwi nterswi t
hanav erageofabov e12ᵒc.Temper atureofov er40ccanbe
recordedonsomesummerday sespeciall
yinthewestandsout hwest ernpart
s
ofthecount ry.Thehi ghestt emper
aturesar eusuall
yr ecordedinDecemberand
January .
Wintert emper aturesrangesbet ween2ᵒ cand19ᵒ c.Lowert emperaturesbelow
thefreezingar eof t
enr ecordedbetweenJuneandJul y
.Dur i
ngwi nterthedail
y
temper atureishighduet otheabsenceofcl oudsandl ackofmoi sture.
Rainfalldistr
ibution

Rainfalli
sgenerall
ylow.Thenorther
npartsofthecountryespeci
all
yt heChobe
di
strictgetsthehighestrai
nfal
l(morethan600mm) .thesoutheaster npartor
areasar oundGaboroneandLobat segetsmoret han500mm.r ai
nfallgradual
ly
decreasesf r
om theseareatothewestandsout hwesternpart
soft hecount r
y.
Rainf al
lsmainl
ybetweenNov emberandApri
l.

Nat
uralv
eget
ati
on

Veget
ationtypesisinfl
uencedbyclimati
candsoi lcondit
ions.Therearethree
maintypesnamely:
- Deciduousforests–foundinthenort
heasternpartofthecountry(Chobe
dist
ri
ct).Thi
sar earecei
vesthehighestamountofr ai
nfal
l.Thesestree
shedtheirl
eavesduri
ngthedryseasontoreducetranspir
ati
on.E.
gMukwa,

49
 Mukusi
- Savanna v egetation – Bot swana has di f
ferent types of sav anna
vegetati
onduet ot hedi ff
er encesi ncli
mat i
candsoi lcharacteri
stics.
a.Mophanesav anna-f oundi nt heeasternandnor theasternpar tsoft he
country,whichar ef r
ostf ree.
b.treeandbushsav anna– f oundi nsemiar idregionswi thr ainf al
l
amount sof400mm t o 600mm.i tconsi stsofacaci at hornt reese. g
moloto,mokobaet c
c.Bushsav anna–f oundi nsemiar idenvironment swi t
hl owerr ainfallof
about300mm t o400mm.i tischar acteri
sedbyscat t
eredshor tertrees,
bushesandgr asses.
d.Shrubsav anna–occur si nt hedriestpartsoft hecount r
y ,
wher er ainfal
l
i
sbel ow300mm.i tischar acterisedbyt hornbushes, cacti
e.Grasssav anna–f oundatMababedepr ession, LakeNgamiandar ound
Makgadi kgadisaltpans.Gr asssav annaconsi stsmai nl
yofcoar seorwi ry
shortgrasses
- Aquat i
cv egetati
on-consi st sofwat erlovi
ngpl antslikereeds,wat erlil
ies
andpal ms.I tisf oundi nswampyar ease. gOkav angodel taandont he
banksofChobeRi ver.

Humanactivi
ties
- Cropcult
ivation
- Fi
shing
- Pastor
alfarmi ng
- Mini
ng
- Manufacturingandpr
ocessi
ngi
ndust
ri
ese.
gBMC
- Touri
sm

SECTI
ONB

UTI
LISATI
ONANDMANAGEMENTOFNATURALRESOURCE

Botswanai
sblessedwi t
halotofnaturalr
esourceswhi
chneedst
obeconser
ved
forver
yonetobenefitf
rom them.Theseresour
cesincl
ude
 Wat er
 Coal
 Forests
 Rangelands
 Veldproducts
 Wildanimalsetc

50
TheconceptofSustai
nableDevelopmentcameaboutasat
oolf
orwi
seuseof
ther
esourceswor
ldwide.I
tisdef
inedas

Thewi seuseofresour
cesbythepresentgener
ati
onwithoutj
eopar
dizi
ngt
he
changesofthef
utur
egener
ati
ontousethesameresour
ces.

CHARACTERI
STI
CEOFSUSTAI
NABLEDEVLOPMENT

 Recycli
ngofresources
 Reusingresources
 Reducingamountofusage
 Povertyeradi
cati
onprogr
ammeset
c

UTI
LISATI
ONANDMANAGEMENTOFWATER

Hy
drol
ogi
cal
/wat
ercy
cle

14lines
Wateri nt heat mospher er eachest heear thmai nlyinthef orm ofrai
norsnow.
Thewat erf alli
ngont hesur facei sdistri
but edinv ar i
ousway s.Somewat errunoff
thesur f
aceasr iver
sandst reamsandempt yi nt olakesorseas.Someoft he
watersinksi ntotheground.Ther estoft hewat eront heot herhandisabsorbed
byveget ation.Wat eri
st henr eturnedt otheat mospher easwat ervapour.
Evaporat i
on – changeofwat erfrom l iquidt o agaseoussat eduet o high
temperat ure
Transpiration–t hisiswher eplantsl osewat erthr oughtheirleaves
Condensat ion–t hisisapr ocesswher ebywat erchangesf rom agaseousst ate
toal i
quidduet oaf al
lintemper ature.
I
nfil
trati
on–t hi
sisapr ocesswher ewat erseep/si nkthrough/intotheground
Precipi
tat i
on–whenwat erfallsfrom cloudse. gr ai
n,snow, hail
etc

SOURCESOFWATER

Ther
ear
etwomainsourcesofwater
.Thesear
e
 Sur
facewater
 Under
groundwater

SURFACEWATER

Thi
siswat
ert
hatset
tl
esont
heear
thsur
facee.
gdams,
riv
ers,
oceans,
lakeset
c.

51
Thecir
cul
ati
onofsur
facewat
eri
sinf
luencedbyei
therper
enni
alorseasonal
ri
ver
s.

Perenni
alri
vers
These areriv
ersthatcontai
n waterallyearround.Howeverther
e ar
ef ew
perenni
alri
ver
sinBotswana.TheseareChobeandOkav angori
ver
.Thismeans
thatmanyareasdonotdependonsurfacewater
.

Seasonalr
ivers
Theseareri
versthatcontainwat
erforashortperi
odoftimeafterheavyrai
nfal
l
s
e.
gTat i
,Motlout
se,Lotsane,Not
waneetc.apartfr
om ri
vers,
therearealsodams
whichprov
idesurfacewatersuchasGaborone,Letsi
bogo,Mopipi
,Molatedi
etc

UNDERGROUNDWATER
Thi
siswat ert
hatcomesfrom i
nfi
l
trat
ion.Thi
swateri
sfoundunder
neat
hthe
ear
thsur
face.I
tcanbest
oredinwel
lsandborehol
es.

WATERAUTHORI
TIESTHATSUPPLYWATERI
NBOTSWANA
 Wateruti
lit
ies
 Wateraffai
rs
 Localcouncil

WAYSI
NWHI
CHTHEWATERAUTHORI
ESECOURAGEWATERCONSERAVTI
ON

 Theyencouragepeopletoreusewater
 Theyi
ntroducedthepre-pai
dmet er
 Theydopublicawarenessonwat erconser
vat
ion
 Theyencouragepeopletore-cy
clewater
 Theyencouragepeopletoreducetheconsumpti
onofwat
er

DEMANDFORWATER
Therearedif
ferenttypesofwaterconsumersinBotswanae.
g
8li
nes
REASONSFORHI GH/INCREASI NGWATERDEMAND
 Incr
easingpopul ati
on
 Growthofi ndustri
ese.gmini
ng
 Incr
easei nliv
estock
 Growthoff armswhi chneedsir
ri
gati
on
 Improvedl i
festyl
ee.guseofJacuzziandconstr
uct
ionofswi
mmi
ng
pools

52
  ur
bangr owth/
expansi
onoftownsandci
ti
es
 i
ncreaseinconst
ructi
onofi
nfr
astr
uct
uree.
groads,
school
s

REASONSFORWATERSCARCI
TY

Thoughtheneed/ demandf orwat erinBot swanai sincreasing,thereisa

probl
em ofwaterscar cityduet othef ollowingr easons.
 Semi ari
dcondi tionsoft hecount ry
 Therainfall i
nBot swanai sunreliable
 Therei sl ow l ev elofunder ground wat errechar geduet o high
temperatur es
 Thereishi ghr atesorhi ghtemper ature.
 Topographyoft hecount r
yi snotf l
atmaki ngdam const ructi
on
dif
fi
cultandcost l
y
 Mainr i
versy stemsar esharedwi t
hot hercount ries,so,iti snot
easytoint erferewi t
hthem e.gChobeandOkav ango.
 Porousnat ureoft hesoi l
/sandysoi l
s
 Sali
nit
yofunder gr oundwat er
 deepwat ert ablewhi chmakei tdi ff
iculttoexpl oreunder ground
water

FACTORSTHATCANLI
MITWATERSUPPLYTODI
FFERENTAREAS

PHYSI
CAL HUMAN
- semiar
idcondi
ti
ons - too costl
y/hi
gh
i
nstall
ati
oncost
- Unr
eal
i
abl
erai
nfal
l - Vandali
zingofpipese.g
thef
tofpipes
- Lowr
ainf
all - Busti
ng of pi pes e.g
duri
ngroadwor ks.
- Porous nature of
soil
s/sandysoi l
s
- Sali
nit
y/salti
ness of
undergroundwat er
- Most l ocal r iver
s are
seasonal ri
vers
- Deepwat ertabl
e
MEASURESFORI MPROVI NGWATERSUPPLY

53
 - I
mpor ti
ngwat erfrom otherarease.gnorth-
southproject
,Molatedi
dam
- Educati
ononwat erconservati
on
- Coll
ecti
ng/harvestingrai
nwatere.gwatercatchmenttanks,wel
ls,
- I
ntroducinggovernmentschemee. gborehol
esubsidyscheme
- Desali
nizati
onofsal t
ywat er
- Useofbowser se. gcouncil

NATI
ONALWATERMASTERPLAN

NORTH-SOUTHWATERPROJECT
Thegovernmentcameupwi t
haproj
ectt
hatwastosol
vetheprobl
em ofwat
er
shor
tage.Theprojectst
art
edinst
art
edin1990andwillr
unupt o2020.I
thas
twophrases,phr
ase1and2.Theest i
matedcostoft
heproj
ectwas1.3bil
li
on
pul
a.

PHASE1
Thi
s was the f
ir
stproj
ectto be i
mpl
emented.The dam has been bui
l
tin
Let
sibogoontheMot
lout
seri
vernearMmadi
nare.

PHASE2
I
twasdi v
idedint
o2par t
s
Part1
I
tcoverstheconstruct
ionoftheseconddam whi chisl
ocatedonthel
owerShahe
ri
verataplacecal
ledPol ometsi
.Itwasexpect
edt obecompletedby2995.
Part2
Thiswil
lincl
udetheconst ructi
onofthesecondl inedur
ingtheyear
s2010and
2013.Thi
swi l
ldoublethesupplyofwaterfr
om thedams.

Adv
ant
ages
 I thelpst opr ovidewat ertot hecommuni ti
esi nthesouthoft he
country
 Hel pscr eatejobs
 Const ructi
onofdamsr esult
edi nt
odev el
opmentofi nf
rast
ruct
ure
 Wat ersupplyst i
mulateddev elopmentofindustr
ies
Adv
ant
ages
 I tdoesnotcov ertheyearsbey ond2020
 Landsui tableforagri
cultur
ei ssuit
ableforl
ayingpipes
 Veget ati
onislostduringclearingofland
 I ti
sanexpensi veproj
ect

54
WATERCONSERVATI
ON

Wat err esour

cesi nBotswanaar el imit
edandcostofdev el
opingwat er
resourcesi shighandwi l
lbecomeev enhigherwhent hecountryisfound
toexpl oitmoreremot eandlessaccessi bl
ewat err
esources.Peoplemust
theref
or e start conser
ving wat er.Conserving means consumi ng a
resourcei nsuchawayt hatthel evelofther esourceisnotl owered.
Conser vati
onimpl i
esthatar esourceisconsumedf oreverwit
houtbeing
depleted

HOW TOCONSERVEWATER
 Reusewast ewat er-pr i
vate househol dscanusewast ewaterto
wat ert heirgar den
 Recy clewat er– har vesti
ng ef fl
uent
sf rom sewagewor ksand
treat i
ngt hem t obeusedagai n
 Inst all
ationofwat ercat chmentsy st
emse. gwell
s,basementwat
er
cat chmentsy stem
 Const ructionofdams
 Publ i
ceducat iononwat erconser vat
ion
 Incr easebi ll
ingofwat er
 Reducel eakagesi nt hesy stem bymendi ngpi
pes
 Introducepr e-pay mentmet hod
 Gr owi ngdr oughtr esistantpl ants
 Fenci ng/ protect i
ngwat ersour ces
 Useofwat ertariff
s

WETLANDS

Wetlandsareal
lplacesinwhi chwaterremainsont hegr
oundper
manent
lyor
temporar
il
ythusaffect
ingthephy si
calchar
acter
ist
icofanareae.
gOkavango
delt
a,Makgadi
kgadipans,r
iver
s,dams

I
mpor
tance/val
ueofwet l
ands
 Sourceofwat erf
ori
rr
igat
ion,domesti
cuse
 Sourceoffoode.gfi
sh,waterli
l
ies
 Sourcesofr aw materi
ale.gr eedsforbui
l
ding and f
orbasket
weaving
 Att
ractstour
ists
55
  Usedforrecr
eat i
onalpurposese.
gfi
shi
ng,swimmi
ng
 Theyarehabitatforanimalse.
gfi
sh,
crocodi
les
 Theyareameansf ortranspor
t
 Theycontrol
floods
 Sourceofmedi ci
nalplants

PROBLEMSFACEDBYLOCALS/ COMMUNI
TIESLI
VINGAROUNDWETLANDS
 Fl
ooding
 Di
ffi
cult
iesintr
ansport
 Dangerfrom wil
danimals
 Waterbornediseases

HUMANACTI
VITIESTHATCOULDLEADTOTHEDESTRUCTI ONOFWETLANDS
HUMANACTI VITY DESTRUCTI ON
 i
ndustrial
izati
on  pol lution
 fi
shing  ov er fishi
ng
 agri
cult
ure  Ov erabst ractionofwater
 overst
ocki ng  ov ergr azi
ng
 basketry  ov erhar v
estingofr eeds
andt hatchgr ass
 constr
uct i
on  ov erabst racti
onofsand
 dammi ngofr iv
ers  r educe water
downst ream, di stur
bs
mov ementofmar inelife
andt heirbreeding

THENATIONALWETLANDPOLI CY
Itwasdev
elopedtoappreci
atethev al
ueofwetlandsandthethreat
sfacingit
.It
s
aimsaret
o:
 pr omotetheconservat
ionanduseofBot swana’
swet l
ands
 sust ai
nthesocialandeconomicvalueofBotswana’swetl
ands
 Mai ntai
nt he ecologi
calfunct
ions and benefi
ts ofBot swana’
s
wetl
ands.

CONVENTI
ON ON WETLANDS OF I
NTERNATI
ONAL I
MPOTANCE (
RAMSAR
CONVENTI
ON,1971)

56
The RAMSAR conv ent
ion i
s concerned wi
th conser
vat
ion and sustainabl
e
util
i
zat i
onofwet l
andsespeciall
ywat erf
low habi
tat
.Theconv ect
iondoesnot
dictate poli
cies butser v
es as for
um forfosteri
ng obj
ecti
ve di
scussion on
sust ai
nableuseoft hesourcebaseofwetl
ands.It
saimsareto:

 Stoppi
ngt heprogressiv
el ossofwetlandsnowandinfuture
 Recognizetheecologicalfuncti
onsofwet l
ands
 Recognizetheeconomi c,cult
ural
,scient
if
icandr
ecreat
ionalv
alue
ofwetl
ands.
 Encourageint
ernationalcooperati
on
 Encouragewiseuseofwet l
ands
 Encourageresearch
 Encourageswiseuseofwet l
ands

ADVANTAGESOFBOTSWANAASAPARTYOFTHERAMSAR

 Thepr i
vi
legeofpar t
ici
patingintheglobalenv
ironment
aldebat
eon
theconservati
onandwi seuseofwet l
ands
 Accesstoi nt
ernat
ionalresearchfundi
ng
 Advicefrom exper
tsonwet l
andconservati
on.

WATERASANI
NTERNATI
ONALLYSHAREDRESOURCE

Fr
om t
hewat
ercy
cle,
iti
sev
identt
hatwat
eri
sani
nter
nat
ional
resour
ce.

 River
sf l
owacr ossthegl
obef r
om onecountrytoanother
 Rainf
all across the earths’surface i
rrespect
ive of nati
onal
boundaries
 Evaporati
onandwi ndmov ementdistri
but
ewat erallovert
hegl
obe
al
thoughsomepar tsofthegl obehav emorewat ersourcesthan
other
s.


UNTI
LIZATI
ONANDMANAGEMENTOFWI
LDLI
FEI
NBOTSWANA

Botswanai
soneofthef
ewcount
ri
eswher
ewi
l
dli
fecanbeseeni
nnat
ional
par
ks
andgamereser
ves.

Wil
dli
fe - acountry
’sf
lor
a(pl
antli
fe)andfauna(ani
malli
fe)
Nat
ionalpar
k - pr
otect
ed ar
eas in whi
ch animals and pl
ants ar
e
57
reser
v ed
Gamer eserv
e - aprot
ectedareainwhichonl yanimal sare
reser
v ed
Endanger edspecies - ani
malsthatmaysoongetexti
nct
Photogr aphi
ctourism - a touri
st act
ivi
ty i
n which t ourist
s t ake
photographsofani malsaft
erpayi
ngafeetodoso.
Communi tyBasedNat ur
alResour
ceManagementProgr
ams- pr ojects set for
l
ocal communi ti
esanddesignedforpr
opermanagementofwildl
i
fer esources.

NATI
ONALPARKS,
GAMERESERVESANDHUNTI
NGAREASI
NBOTSWANA
25l
i
nes
I
MPORTANCEOFWILDLI
FETOBOTSWANA

ECONOMY OTHERBENEFI
TS
- sour ceofemploymentas - Sourceoff
oode.
ggame
peopl e can be hi
red in meat
nationalparksandgame
reser v
es
- sour ce of tour
ist - Sour
ce of raw mat erial
attr
act i
on e.
gelephanttasks,hides
et
c
- source of gover
nment
rev
enuef r
om t
het our
ist
i
ndustry

- source of forei
gn
exchange
- i
tleadst odi
ver
sif
icati
on
ofeconomy

- Itleads to development
of ot her i
ndustri
es e.g
servi
ce i ndustr
ies like
banking,l
odgeset c

I
MPACTSOFWI
LDANI
MALSONTHEENVI
RONMENT

POSI
TIVE NEGATIVE
Ani
malexcr
eti
onaddmanur
eto Theydest
royv
eget
ati
on

58
 thesoi
l
Theybal
ancet
heecosy
stem Theycausesoi lerosion
Theycausel ossofsoi lst
ruct
ure
Their mov ement r esult in
developmentoft racks
They destroy t he habitat f
or
otherwil
dli
fe

CONFLI
CTSBETWEENWI
LDLI
FEANDOTHERLANDUSERS

 Conf l
ictsbetweenwi l
dlifeandsomeBat swana( Basarwa)whosee
wildli
feasasour ceofmeatnott ober eser
vedorpr eserved.
 Conf l
icts between wi ldli
fe and some peopl e who f eelt hat
danger ousanimalsareaconst antt hreatt
ot heirli
ve,therefor
ei tis
bettertokil
lthem.
 Conf l
ictsbetweenwi l
dlifeandf armer s–becausewi l
dani mal skill
theircropsandl ivestockbutt heyar enotal l
owedt oki l
lthewi l
d
animal s
 Al andt hatisreservedf orwildli
fei sconsideredt obeal ossf or
agricult
uralacti
vi
ti
es
 Conf l
ictsbetweenwi ldli
feandf irewoodandwi l
df rui
tgat herers–
alltheflor
aandf aunai nreser
v edar easarenott obehar v est
ed.
 Conf li
ctsbet weenwi ldli
feandexpansi onofset tlement s– l and
reservedforanimalsisal osstoset tlementexpansi on.

ROLEOFTHESTAKEHOLDERSI
NTHESUSTAI
NABLEUSEOFWI
LDLI
FE

GOVERNMENTROLE
The rol
e of the gover
nment l
ies i
nthe nati
onalconserv
ati
on st
rat
egy.
Conserv
ationisencour
agedthr
oughthedepar
tmentofwi l
dli
feandnati
onal
par
kswhi chai
msat:

 Increasi
ng educati
on and par
tici
pat
ion byallmember s ofthe
societyini mprovi
ng t
he envi
ronment( t
hrough t
he Communi t
y
BasedNat ural
ResourceManagement )
 Protecti
ngendangeredspeci
es
 Conser vi
ngmajorecosyst
emsliketheOkavangoDelta
 Impr ovi
ngthedi st
ri
but
ionofincomer ewardsfrom conser
vat
ion
(e.g people whose li
vest
ock are kil
led by wil
d animal
s are
compensat ed)

59
  Establi
sh a bal ance between populati
on growth and supplyof
naturalr
esour ces
 Sell
sandadv erti
sest hecountry’
stour
ism l
ocall
yandabr oad
 Promot ewil
dl i
feclubsi nschools
 Tomi nimizeconf li
ctsbetweenhumanandwi l
dlif
epopulation
 Control
linghunt i
ngt hroughhunti
ngper mi
tsandlicenses
 Control
lingthewi ldl
ifepopulat
ionetc

NONGOVERNMENTALORGANI
SATI
ONS

NGOsli
keKalahariConserv at
ionSoci ety( KCS),Associ
at i
onofWi l
dCl ubsof
Bot
swanaandSomar el
angTi kologoencour ageconservati
oneducationt hr
ough:
 Provi
sion off unds/ sponsor
shi pfortri
ps,r esear
ch projectsand
envi
ronment alprojects
 Provi
sionofper sonnel
 Educationtothelocal sonwildlif
econservat
ion
 Promot i
onofpol i
ciesofconser v
ati
onofwi l
dlif
e
 Theydor esearchonwi l
dli
fe

LOCALCOMMUNI TY
 Dir
ectl
y geti nvolved i
nt he managementand conservat
ion of
wil
dli
feintheirareas.
 Promote wildli
fe based r
uraldevel
opmente.gresourcesbased
management
 Educateeachot heraboutwil
dli
feconser
vat
ion

LOCALAUTHORITY
 All
ocatelandf orwil
dli
feconser
vati
one.gl
andboar
ds
 Establi
shr ul
esandr egul
ati
onsonaccessandcontr
olofr
esour
ces
e.
gr angelands
 Providefacil
it
iessuchasboreholese.
gcounci
l
s

PRI
VATESECTOR

 Provi
deguidel
inesi npr operhunt
ing ofanimal
sbyt
our
ist
se.
g
safar
ihunt
ers
 Provi
desponsorshipsforcommunitypr
oject
s
 Provi
destr
aini
ngt othelocals

60
WAYS/METHODSUSEDTOENCOURAGESUATAI
NABLEUSEOFWI
LDLI
FE

 I
ntroduceanti-
poachingl
aws
 Usinghuntingseasons
 I
ssuingofhunt i
ngli
censes
 Useofconser vat
ionandnati
onal par
ksAct
 Publiceducati
onont hei
mportanceofwil
dli
feconser
vat
ion
 Protect
ionofendangeredspecies.

I
MPACTOFFENCES(BUFFALO FENCEANDCORDON FENCES)ON ANI
MALS
ANDTHEENVI
RONMENT

 Causerestr
icti
onofmov ement
 Aff
ectthebreedingofwildanimals
 Vegetat
ionalongthefencegetdestroyed/over
grazi
ngoccur
s
 Ani
mal smaygetcaughtbyf enceandsomemaydi e
 I
taffect
sdistri
buti
onofanimal speci
es
 Control
sthespreadanimaldiseasese.gfootandmouth

UTI
LIZATI
ONANDMANAGEMENTOFFORESTSANDVELDPRODUCTS

For
est
sandveldproduct
sar ewil
dli
fegoodsf
oundnatur
all
yinanar
eaandcan
behar
vest
edbylocal
sforconsumpti
onorcommerci
alpur
poses.

GEOGRAPHI
CALDI
STRI
BUTI
ON

Forestproductsaremainlyfoundthenortheast( especiall
yphane)andsout h
east(especial
l
ymor ul
a)becauseofhigherr
ainf
alli
nt hesear easmeani ngmor e
tr
eesgr owhereascompar edtotherestoft
hecount ry.Thehi gherrai
nfal
lareas
oft he easthave many products e.
g Lengana,mosukuj ane,mor etl
wa and
mogwanawhi lethewesthav efewerbutsomev er yimpor tantonessuchas
sengapari
le.TheOkavangodelt
ahasmanypr oductsincludingt swi
i(waterl
il
l
y )
.

I
MPORTANCE OF THE COMMERCIALI
SATION OF FORESTS AND VELD
PRODUCTSTOSTAKEHOLDERS/
ECONOMICBENEFI
TS.

GOVERNMENT
 Creat
esempl oy
ment
 Generat
erevenuewhi
chhel
ptor
educer
ural
-ur
banmi
grat
ion
 Di
v er
sif
ytheeconomy
61
  For
eignexchangeassomear
ecommer
cial
l
yexpor
ted

PRI
VATESECTOR
 Therei s an or ganizati
on ofsengapari
le as i
ti s boughtand
manufact
uredintot ablet
sforexpor
t.
 Mophane i s bought by a commer ci
al company,wor l
dwide
commoditi
esandexpor t
edtoRSA
 Manysmal lvendorsar einvol
vedinthesel
li
ngofv el
dpr oduct
son
thel
ocalmarkets.

LOCALCOMMUNITY
 I
tisasour
ceoffood
 Canbeusedformedici
nal
pur
poses
 Waytosuppl
ementincome

Exampl
esar
e:
- Collectionandsel li
ngofphanebyt housandsofpeopl einthenorth
anddi stri
ct
- Communi t
iesinKwenengwest ,Ghantsi
,KgalagadiandNgwaket se
sout hharvestandsel lssengaparil
etoThusany olefat
sheng.
- Mosukudu and mosukuj ane are used as t ea substit
utes and
medi cinalpurpose.
- Mokol ahashel pedinthedev el
opmentofbasketmaki ngindust
ryin
Ngami land di str
ictwhi ch giv
es some t ype ofempl oymentor
incomet oanest imated2000women.
- Mot shikit
shaneandmot shi
kir
iareprizedthatchgrass

NGOs
 Involv
edint hegat heri
ngoft hesepr oducts
 Mai nl
yconcer nedwi t
hmaki ngt heseact iv
iti
essustainabl
e
Exampl
esar
e:
- Councilforsci enti
fi
candi ndust ri
alr esearchofRSAwhi chistryi
ng
tohelpdev elopphanesi l
kpr oduction
- ThusanyoLef atshengwhi chempl oysext ensi
onwor ker
st otryto
show peopl ehow t oharv estsengapar i
l
ewi thoutdest r
oyingthe
plantsoi tremai nssustai
nabl e.Itisal soputquot asoni ndiv
idual
sell
erstot r
yt opreventover harvesting.

ENVI
RONMENTALI
MPACTOFGATHERI
NG

62
  Phanet reesar eoftendest roy edbyhar vesterswishingtogetallt
he
wor msev enatthehi ghestl evel.
 Extinction of some pr oduct si n some ar eas caused by a
combi nat ionofov erhar vestinganddr ought
 Depl etionofpr oductscl osert ot hev il
l
age
 Poorhar v esti
ngmet hodsl eadi ngt othedest ructi
onofsengapar i
l
e
plantand l eaving ofdeep hol es thatcan be f ur
thereroded
dest royingt helocalenv i
ronment .
 Dest ruct ionofmokol apal m byhar v
est i
ngal li
tsleaves
 Ov erhar vest i
ngthatchgr assl eadi ngtor angel anddegradati
on
 Fenci ngofl andandt hepr ev entionofgat herersfrom enter
ingand
theov ergr azingofcat t
ledest r
oy ingthear easofgr assesandv el
d
product s.

ROLES THAT STAKEHOLDERS CAN PLAY TO MAKE FORESTS AND VELD

PRODUCTSSUSTAINABLE

GOVERNMENT
 Bri
ngi nlegisl
ati
onundert henat i
onalconser v
ati
onst r
ategyt
hat
wil
lmaket heut i
l
izat i
onoft hesesust ai
nabl
e.
 Gathersshouldber egist
ered
 Gathersshouldbegi venpermi t
s
 Setquotas
 Developcommer cialculti
vati
onsoft heseproducts
 Carryscienti
fi
cr esear chintothesepr oductsastheyarenotwell
known
 Shouldgi verecogni ti
ont ov eldproductsasadi st
inctlanduse
underNDPandsomoni t
ortheirusemor eclosel
y

LOCALAUTHORI
TIES

 Mustl ookpastt heirneedst ot hef utureandpracticesel

ectiv
e
harv
esting
 Learnaboutt hepr oducttheyar eusi ngsuchaspr operwayof
harv
estingandway sofculti
vati
ngt hepr oduct
 Setupor ganizat
ionthatorganizeeducat i
onofl
ocals,placelocal
quotas,decideonar eastobehar vestedandareast hatcoul
dbe
l
eftforrecuperat
ionandmar kettheproduct .
NGOs

63
  Leadt hewayi nresearchanddev elopment
 Providefunding
Thusany
oLefatshenghasi tsobjecti
veto:
- Develop met hods ofcul tivati
on pr ocessi
ng and market
ing of
i
ndigenoust reesandmedi cinalplants
- Harvestingofsuchpl antsinasoundandecol ogical
manner
- Thepr otect
ionandcul ti
vationofendanger edpl
antspeci
es
- Theint r
oductionofsustainabl eagricul
turalmethods
- Thecr eati
onofr ur
al employ ment

EXAMPLESOFVELDPRODUCTS
- Devil
sclaw
- Mosithane
- Herbaltr
ees
- Morula
- Phanewor m
- Honeyet c

HUMANFACTORSLEADI
NGTODESTRUCTI
ONOFFORESTS

- Expansi onofset tlementsleadingtodef

orestat
ionthusreducti
oni
nthe
si
zeofr angelands.
- Overstockingl eadingtoov er gr
azi
ng
- Overhar vestingoft hatchgr ass
Clearingofl andf oragr i
cul
t ure
- Occur renceofv eldfir
es
- Const ructionofi nfr
astructure
- Polluti
one. gairpollut
ionleadingtoaci
drainwhichkil
lsplant
s
- Mining/i ndustri
es
- Lumber ing

SOLUTI
ONTOPROBLEMSOFFORESTSDESTRUCTI
ON

- Afforestati
on–gr owingoftreeswher efor
estshavebeencut
- Ref orestat
ion-plantingoftr
eesi nareaswit
hf ewtrees
- Publicawar enessonf or
estconservati
on
- Useofal ternati
veener gysourcese.guseofgasi nsteadoff
ir
ewood.
- Useofgov ernmentl aws/pol
iciese.guseofper mi
tforfir
ewoodcol
l
ecti
on
forcommer cialpurposes

64
FORESTRESERVESI
NBOTSWANA

Largef
orestoccurmainlyi
nChobeandsomeareast
herehav
ebeendecl
ared
for
estr
eserves.Ther
eare6for
estr
eser
veswhi
char
epr
otect
edbyl
awnamel
y:

- Chobeforestreserve
- Kasaneforestreserve
- Kasaneforestex t
ension
- Maikael
eloforestreserv
e
- Si
buyuforestreserve
- Kazumaf orestreser
ves
20l
i
nes

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
epr
ohi
bit
edi
nthesear
eas:

- Unauthor
izedcutti
ngoftrees
- Burni
ngofgrass
- Thegrazi
ngofl i
vestock
- Theremov aloft
reestomakef i
elds

ORGANI
SATI
ONSCONCERNEDWI
THCONSERVATI
ONOFFORESTS

ORGANISATION BRIEF OBJECTI VES PROGRAMMES

FOREST Iti
sanon- - Topr omot epublic 1.communi t
y
ASSOCIATI
ON government al awar enessand basedwoodland
OFBOTSWANA organisati
on educat ionont he management
(FAB) whichi snon- i
mpor t anceof 2.homet r
ee
profi
tmaki ng. treesandnat ural pl
anting
Itwasf ormed resour ces 3.school
i
n1983by - Toassi stinthe progr
ammes
i
ndividuals protect ionof 4.agrofor
estry
concerned forest s, bushtrees
aboutt he andshr ubs
depleti
onof - Topr omot eforest
natural i
ndust riesand
related
empl oy ment
throughoutt he
count ry
- Toassi st
organi sat i
on

65
 i
nv olvedi nt r
ee
plantingand
fencingext ension
wor k
- Toactasaf ocal
pointf oral l NGOs
forest ryact ivit
ies
THUSANO Anon- - Processi ngand
LEFATSHENG gov er
nment al mar ket ingof
organisati
onin i
ndi genoust rees
thef i
eldof andmedi cal pl
ants
forestsand - Har vest ingof
veldproducts medi cal and
aromat icpl antsin
asust ainabl e
- Protect ionand
cultivationof
endanger edpl ants
speci es
- Creat i
onofr ural
empl oy ment

RANGELANDS
I
tisastretchofgr
azi
ngl andwhereani
malfeedoritisal andt
hatsuppl
i
es
for
age/veget
ati
onf
orgrazingani
mal
s.I
tisof
tennotf
enced.

Rangel
anddegradati
on/destructi
on
I
tisthedeter
iorati
onofr educti
onofgr azi
ngl
andforl
ivest
ockbyhumanand
nat
ure/thepermanentdeclineintherat
eatwhi
chlandy
ieldsli
vest
ockpr
oduct
s
duetohumanact i
onandnat ural
causes.

Ty
pesofr
angel
ands

Communal - r
angel
andst hatar
eusedbythecommunity/
gener
alpubl
ic
Commer ci
al- r
angel
andst hatarepri
vat
elyowned.Di
vi
dedintopaddocks
andtheanimal
sar
emonitored.
Anexampleofaty
peofrangelandinBotswanai
sBarol
ongfarms.

Exampl
esofr
angelands
- Grassland
- Shrublands

66
 - Woodl
ands

FACTORSI
NFLUENCI
NGRANGELANDS

- sui
tablecli
mati
cconditi
ons
- Theav ai
l
ablesoil
type
- Durat
ionofgazinginthear
ea

HUMANFACTORSCAUSI
NGRANGELANDDEGRADATI
ON

- Deforestati
on
- Overstockingwhi chleadstoovergr
azi
ng
- Overhar vest
ingoft hatchgrass
- Veldfi
res
- Expansionofset tlementsduetopopulati
ongrowth
- Lackofknowl edge/educati
on/poormethodsoffar
ming

PHYSI
CALFACTORSCAUSI
NGRANGELANDDEGRADATI
ON

- Fl
oodi ngduet oheavyr ai
ns
- Drought/lackofrainfal
l
- Poor/lessf er
ti
lesoil
s
- Sali
nizati
onoft hesoi l
s
- Hot/hight emperatur
es( whi
chmaycausev
eldf
ir
es)

EFFECTS/
RESULTSOFRANGELANDDEGRADATI
ON

- Soiler
osionresulti
ngingull
iesandremoval
oft
opsoi
l
- Desert
ifi
cati
on
- Lossofqual i
tyofthesoil
- Loss/l
owqual it
ylivest
ock
- Incr
easedwat errun-of
f
- Poorpastures/l
ackofgr assforl
iv
estock

HOW RANGELANDSCANBEMANAGED/SUSTAI
NABLEUSEOFRANGELANDS

- Ranching/f
encing/ paddocki
ng to cont
rolmov
ementofl
i
vest
ock
contr
olledstockingoflivest
ock
- Pract
icingrotat
ional gr
azing
- Growingfoddercr ops

67
 - Constr
uctionoffir
ebreaks
- Contr
olledcutti
ngofvegetati
on
- Publi
ceducat i
onandresearchonr angel
ands
- Zerograzing
- Aff
orestation
- I
rri
gati
onoff oddercr
opsratherthanr el
yi
ngonr
ainf
all
GOVERNMENT’SEFFORTTOWARDSMANAGEMENTOFRANGELANDS

I
n1975,thegovernmentintroducedtheTribalGr
azingLandPol
icy(
TGLP)t
o
pr
eventr
angel
anddegradat
ion.Thereasons/
object
ivesoft
heTGLPwer
e:

- Tof encegrazingar eastocontrolmovementofli

vestock
- Tor educeov ergrazi
ngandsoi ler
osion
- Todi videlandi ntocommunal ,commer cialandreservedfarming
ar
eas
- Toeducat efarmer sonsustainableuseofrangel
ands.
Howev
er,
theTGLPl aterfail
edandt hegovernmentstoppedit
sser v
ices.Though
t
heTGLPfai
ledithadsomesuccesses.

Success Fai
lur
es
It control
led Poormanagementofr
angesby
overstocking/ overgrazing i
n far
mers
communal areas
It encour aged gr owth and Unwill
i
ngness to li
mit/
reduce
commer ciali
zati
on ofl i
vestock thei
rstocknumber
sbyfarmers
i
ndust ry
Itencour agedl ivestockowner s Lackofmoni toring/supervi
sion
toadoptbet termet hodsofher d by rel
evant
andr angemanagement author
it
ies/
extensionwor ker
s
It encour aged use of Lackofknowledge/ educati
onby
commer cialareas/ r
anching far
mers

ENERGY

Af
ri
cahast
hepot
ent
ial
ofpr
oduci
ngpower
.Ther
ear
e2mai
nresour
cesofpower
.

 Non-renewablef
ossilf
uel
se.gcoalandoi
l
 Renewablee.gwaterandt
hesun
Someoft
heexamplesofsourcesofener
gyare:

68
  Wind
 Water
 Sun
 Coalet
c

HYDRO-
ELECTRI
CPOWERSTATI
ON

15l
i
nes

Penst ock - alargemet alpi

pe
Tur bi
ne - awheel wit
hblades
Grid - a netused t o separatethe waterfr
om unwanted
mat erial
s
Hy dro-el
ectri
cit
y - energyproducedbyf orceoff
lowingwater
Tail r
ace - apassaget hr
oughwhi chwaterisrel
easedaf
teri
thas
turnedt heturbi
nes
Powerhouse - wherev ol
tagei schanged totheacceptabl
e
standar dofthecountr
y .

HOW I
TWORKS

 Waterfl
owst hroughthegr i
dintot
hepenstocktothepowerhouse
 Thewat erturnstheturbines
 Thegener atorisacti
vated
 El
ectr
icityisproduced
 Thetransformerwi l
lchanget hevolt
agetoanacceptablestandar
d
oft
hatcount r
y.
 Thewat erfrom theturbinesfl
owstothetai
lrace

DI
STRIBUTI
ONOFDAMSFORHYDRO-
ELECTRI
CITI
CPOWERSUPPLYI
NAFRI
CA
20l
ines

Exampl
esofHEPst
ati
onsi
nAf
ri
caSout
hofSahar
a

HEP Count
ry Water sour
ce
which was
dammed
Kai
nji Niger
ia
Kaf
ue Zambia
Kar
iba Zambia/Zi
mbabwe

69
 Akosombo Ghana
CaboraBassa Mozambi
que
Aswan Egypt

FACTORSI
NFLUENCI
NGLOCATI
ONOFANHEP

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofasteepgradient
 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofalargemar kete.gi
ndustr
ies
 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofski
ll
edmanpower
 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofl
argecapital
 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofastronggeogr aphi
crockbase
 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofaregularwatersupply/
perenni
alwat
ersour
ce
 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofanicefreearea

ADVANTAGESOFANHEP

 Servesasatouri
stat t
ract
ion
 Helpstoprovi
decheapel ectr
ici
tyf
orlocal
s
 Sti
mulatesdevel
opmentofi ndustr
ies
 Helpsincontr
oll
i
ngf loodi
ng
 Canbeusedf ortransport
ati
on
 Sourceoffoode.gf i
sh
 Sourceofwaterforirri
gat
ionanddomest i
cuse
 I
tusesar enewableresource

DI
SADVANTAGESOFANHEP

 Constructioncosti shi
gh
 Reservescanbef looded
 Duri
ngdr ought,powerout putdrops
 Agri
culturallandar oundt her eser
v esissubmerged
 Reductioni nwat erdownst ream
 Leadst olossofv egetati
on( deforestati
on)
 Disr
uptionoft heecosy st
em
 Dist
urbanceoft hebr eedingoft hewat erspeci
es

THERMALPOWER

Thi
sist
hepr
oduct
ionofel
ect
ri
cit
yfr
om heat
.Coalandoi
lar
etheusualener
gy

70
sourcesusedinthet
hermalst
ati
on.Anexampl
eofat
her
malpowerst
ati
oni
n
BotswanaistheMORUPULEPowerstat
ion

FACTORS I
NFLUENCI
NG LOCATI
ON OFTHE MORUPULE THERMALPOWER
STATI
ON

 Near
nesstol
argesuppl i
esofcoal
 Avai
l
abil
i
tyofwaterfrom Pajeri
verforcool
ingthepipes
 Avai
l
abil
i
tyofalargemar kete.
gGabor one,
Palapyeetc
 Avai
l
abil
i
tyofski
ll
edmanpowere. gfr
om Palapye,
GaboroneEt
c
 Avai
l
abil
i
tyofl
argef l
atland
 Avai
l
abil
i
tyofcapi
t al
from theBotswanagov er
nment

HOW I
TWORKS

15l
i
nes

 Coal i
scrushedandbl owni nt
oaf urnace
 Thecoal dusti sbur nttoproduceheatener gy
 Theheatener gywill changethewateri nthepi
pesintosteam
 Steam passest hr
ought het ur
bineundergr eatpressure/steam
turnstheturbine
 Thecent r
al shaftturnsi nsi
dealargecoi l
inthegenerat
or
 Electr
ici
tyispr oduced
 Steam passes al ong pi pes int
ot he cooli
ng tank/cool
s and
condenses

The powerpr oduced atMorupul

eislinked to al
lmajorcenter
si n
Botswanaby220kvand132kvt r
ansmi
ssi
onl i
nes.Thest
ati
ongetswater
fr
om Pajer
iver45km nort
hwestofMor
upule.

ADVANTAGESOFATHERMALPOWERSTATI
ON

 I
tpr
ovi
descheapel
ect
ri
cit
ytot
hel
ocal
communi
tyandi
ndust
ri
es
 I
tcr
eat
esemployment

71
  I
tusesalocalresourceandtheref
oreitischeapt
opr
oduce
 I
tsti
mulat
edev elopmentofindust
ries
 Watert
hatisusedf orcool
i
ngcanber eused

DI
SADVANTAGESOFATHERMALPOWER

 I
tcausesairpoll
ution
 I
tistooexpensivetoconst ruct
 I
tusesanon- r
enewabl eresour ce
 I
tneedshugesuppl iesofwat erforcooling
 Cl
earingofl
andf orconstructiondestroysveget
ati
on
 Cancausewast eheaps
 I
tisdirt
ytohandle( coal
dust )
 Coalisbul
kyandr esulti
nhi ght r
ansportcost
 I
tisnotsafeduet oi t
sexplosivenatureofthepowerst
ati
on

SOLARENERGY

I
tisener
gypr
oducedf
rom t
hesun

HOW I
TWORKS

 Thesunr ay
saretr
appedbythesolarpanels
 Theheatenergy(fr
om thesunray s)isconver
tedtoel
ect
ri
cit
yby
phot
ov ol
tai
ccel
ls
 El
ectr
icit
yisst
oredinboost
erbat
teriesforusel
ater

EXAMPLESOFVI
LLAGESI
NBOTSWANAUSI
NGSOLARPOWER

 Manyana
 Motshegal
etau
 Takat
okwane
 Thamagaetc


ADVANTAGESOFSOLARENERGY

 I
tcanbeusedinmostpart
softhewor
ks
 I
tusesarenewabl
eresour
ces

72
  I
tiscl
ean(causesnopol
l
uti
on)
 I
tischeaptouse

DI
SADVANTAGESOFSOLARENERGY

 I
nstal
lat
ioncostsarehigh
 I
tisunrel
iabl
ee.gwheni tisr
aini
ng
 I
tneedsal otofsunl
ighttopr
oducelar
geamountofener
gy

BOTSWANA’
SSTRATEGYFORENERGYCONSERVATI
ON

 Publ i
ceducat i
onont heimport
anceofconservat
ionenergy
 I
nt r
oduct i
onofpr e-pay
mentmet er
sbyBPC
 Subst i
tutescar esandmor eexpensiv
ef uelwit
ht hosewhichar
e
renewabl eandcheapere.gsolarpower
 I
ncr easingbill
ing
 Usel oadsheddi ng
 Useofquot as
 Useofsensorl ight
s
 Switchingof fofunusedelect
ri
calappl
iancesandli
ghts

73
SECTI
ONC
ECONOMI
CACTI
VTI
ES

TOURI
SM I
NDUSTRY
Tourism isawhol ebusi nessofpr ovi
dingser v icessuchasaccommodat i
on,
entertainmentandot herameni t
iessuchasf ood, fur
nitur
eandshoppingfacil
i
ties
fortrav el
l
ingvisitors.Ecotourism ist
our i
sm t hati splannedtorespectand
safeguar dtheenv i
ronment .
At ouristisaper sonwhot ravelsawayf rom hi s/ herhomef orpl
easureona
tempor ar
ybasis.Ther ear etwot ypesoft ourist s:
 I nt
ernaltourist–at ouristwhot ravelswi thintheboundari
esofhis/her
country
.

 I
nter
nati
onaltour
ist–at
our
istwhot
rav
elsout
sidet
heboundar
iesof
hi
s/hercount
ry.

TYPESOFTOURI
SM

 I
NLANDTOURI
SM

I
tr ef
erstot het
ouri
statt
racti
onsar
easandacti
vi
ti
esfoundinthei
nter
ior
ofacount ryorconti
nent
,farawayf
rom t
hesea.Thi
swilli
ncl
udegame
reserves,
monument setc.
 COASTALTOURI SM

I
tref
erstothet
our
istatt
ract
ionar
easandact
ivi
ti
est
hater
afoundnear
t
hesea,alongt
hebeach.Thi
sincl
udeseadi
vi
ng,bay
setc.

Someoft hecountri
esinAfr
icathatpr
acti
cecoastalt
our
ism areSouthAfri
ca
andKeny a.
Areasofcoastaltouri
sm i
nthesecountri
esincl
ude:
SouthAf r
ica Keny a
Mossel Bay Watamubay
Durban Mombasa
CapeTown Malindi
PortEl
izabeth SunnyBeaches
Oyster Coral
Reefs
Marineli
fe Oceans

FACTORSINFLUENCINGTOURI SM DEVELOPMENT
 Cli
matee.g.sunnycondi
ti
ons,ar
easwit
hsnow

 Phy
sical
landscapee.
g.mount
ains,
lakes-mount
aincl
i
mbi
ng/
hiki
ng,
sky

74
 di
vi
ngandl
akesf
orswi
mmi
ngboatcr
uisi
ng.

 Wi
l
dli
fee.
g.bi
rds,
wil
dani
mal
sandv
eget
ati
on.

 Bui
l
dingsandmonument
s–Mat
siengf
ootpr
intandt
hreeDi
kgosi
monument

 Spor
tsandr
ecr
eat
ional
act
ivi
ti
ese.
g.f
oot
bal
l
,gol
f,f
ishi
nget
c

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofaccommodat
ione.
g.hot
els,
campi
ngsi
teset
c

 Tr
anspor
taccessi
bil
i
tye.
g.bet
terr
oads,
rai
l
wayl
i
neandai
rli
nes

 Cul
tur
alact
ivi
ti
ese.
g.l
etl
haf
uladay
,domboshaba,
dit
hubar
uba

 Pol
i
tical
stabi
l
ity

 Beaches

I
NLANDTOURISM (
BOTSWANA)
TOURI
STATTRACTIONSI
NBOTSWANA
o Wil
dli
fe

o Okav
angoDel
ta

o Cav
es–Gcwi
habaCav
erns,
Legagal
agaSet
shel
e

o RockPai
nti
ngs–Tsodi
l
ohi
l
ls,
Many
ana

o TheKal
ahar
iDeser
t–Sanddunes

o Hi
stor
ical
sit
ese.
g.Lent
swel
abar
atani
,Kol
obeng,
dav
idLi
vi
ngst
on’
sFi
g.
Tr
ee

ADVANTAGES/BENEFI
TS/I
MPORTANCE/
POSI
TIVEI
MPACTSOFTOURI
SM
I
NDUSTRYINBOTSWANA.
o Itcr
eat
esemployment
/income

o Sour
ceoff
orei
gnexchange

o Leadst
othedev
elopmentofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

o Encour
agesl
ocal
indust
ri
es

o Encour
agesconser
vat
ionofnat
ural
resour
ces

o I
timpr
ovesi
nter
nat
ional
rel
ati
ons

75
 o Encour
agespr
eser
vat
ionofl
ocal
cul
tur
e

o Pr
omot
est
henameoft
hecount
ry

o Promotesthedev
elopmentofr
emot
ear
easbyst
imul
ati
ngt
hepr
ovi
sion
ofser
vices

DI
SADVANTAGES/
NEGATI
VEI
MPACTS
o Poachi
ng

o Itbr
ingsconf
li
ctsbet
weent
het
our
ism i
ndust
ryandot
herl
anduser
se.
g.
agri
cult
ure

o Leadst
othespr
eadofdi
seasesacr
osscount
ri
ese.
g.SARS

o Pr
omot
espol
l
uti
one.
g.l
i
tter
ing

o Canpr
omot
epr
ost
it
uti
on

o Mayleadtotheer
osi
onofl
ocal
cul
tur
ethr
oughi
mit
ati
ngf
orei
gncl
othi
ng,
hai
rst
yleset
c

o I
tisseasonal(dur
ingtheof
f-peaksseason,
thei
ndust
rysuf
fer
sand
peopl
emayl osetheirj
obs)

o Encour
agesall
for
msofcri
mee.g.thef
t,i
l
legal
drugs/
subst
anceabuse,
poachi
ng,humant
raf
fi
cki
ng,bur
glar
y,r
apeetc.

PROBLEMSFACEDBYBOTSWANAANDOTHERCOUNTRI ESI
N
DEVELOPI
NG/I
MPROVI NGTHETOURI SM I
NDUSTRY
o Lackofcapi
tal
–t hei
ndust
ryr
equi
resalotofcapi
tal

o Poorr
oadcondi
ti
ons,
especi
all
yinr
emot
erur
alar
eas

o Ser
iouscompet
it
ionsf
rom ot
herwel
lknowncount
ri
es

o Shor
tageofski
l
ledmanpower–needshi
ghl
evel
ofmanagement

o Li
mit
edpar
ti
cipat
ionoft
hel
ocal
peopl
e–f
ewpeopl
eaf
for
dtour
ing

o Poort
ranspor
tsy
stemse.
g.poorai
rli
neser
vices

POSSI
BLESOLUTI ONTOTHEPROBLEMS
o Financi
alassi
stancebyt
hegov
ernmente.
g.CEDA

o I
nfr
ast
ruct
ural
Dev
elopmentt
oli
nkal
ltour
istat
tract
ionar
easandmake

76
 t
hem accessi
blee.
g.Tr
ans–Kal
ahar
iroad

o Manpowert
rai
ningf
orl
ocal
se.
g.LEA

o Encouragingl
ocal
peopletovi
sitar
easofatt
ract
ionsothatt
heycan
devel
opt hei
rowntour
isti
ndust
rye.g.l
owtouri
stpackagesf
orl
ocal
s

o For
mul
ati
onofpol
i
ciest
odev
elopt
het
our
ism i
ndust
ri
es

o I
ncr
easi
ngai
rli
nes,
impr
ovi
ngt
ranspor
tsy
stems.

THEROLEPLAYEDBYSTAKEHOLDERSI
NTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHE
TOURI
SM INDUSTRY.
THEGOVERNMENT
 Enforcesant
i–poachi
ngl
aws

 Protect
sandconser
vesnat
ural
resour
cesandwi
l
dli
fet
hroughnat
ional
parksandgamereserv
es.

 For
mul
atet
our
ism pol
i
ciesandi
mpl
ementt
hem

 Dev
elopi
nfr
ast
ruct
urei
ntour
istar
eas

 Adv
ert
iset
het
our
ism i
ndust
ryabr
oadt
hroughBEDI
A,HATAB

THEPRI
VATESECTOR
 Prov
ides/
impr
ovest
our
istaccommodat
ion

 Adv
ert
isesBot
swanaabr
oadt
hroughagenci
es

 Cant
rai
nlocal
sinhot
elscat
eri
ngandt
our
ism ski
l
ls

 Canr
educef
li
ghtr
atesandhav
ehol
i
daypackagest
oat
tractt
our
ist
s

 I
mpr
ovet
our
ism at
tract
ions

NON–GOVERNMENTALORGANISATIONS
 Pr
omotesandi
mpl
ement
stouri
sm pol
i
cies

 Pr
ovi
deseducat
ion

 Canresear
chont
our
ism r
elat
edt
opi
cst
ogi
vemor
einf
ormat
ionaboutt
he
i
ndustr
y

 Canpr
omot
econser
vat
ionofwi
l
dli
fee.
g.Mokol
odi
Nat
ureReser
ve

77
LOCALCOMMUNI TIES
 Pr omotesconserv
ati
onthr
oughCBNRM (
Communi
tyBasedNat
ional
Resour
ceManagement )

 Pr
ovi
desr
esor
tar
ease.
g.Cul
tur
alVi
l
lages

CASESTUDI
ES
KRUGERNATIONALPARK(
SOUTHAFRI
CA)

- Locat
edi
nthenor
thwestcor
nerofMpumal
angapr
ovi
nce

- I
tcov
ersabout20000km2

- Veget
ati
oni
ssav
annat
ypewhi
chi
ssust
ainabl
eforgamegr
azi
ng

- Rel
i
efi
sfl
at

- I
thasawell
dev
elopednet
wor
koft
arr
edanddi
rtr
oadsaswel
lasser
vices
t
othepar
k

- Pl
ent
yofani
mal
sbyt
her
iver
side,
sot
heyar
eeasyt
ovi
ew

- 3000RestCampswi
that
otal
of5000beds

- Wi
dev
ari
etyofani
mal
s/wi
l
dli
fe

- Sev
eral
airst
ri
ps

Pr
obl
emsi nKrugerNat
ionalPar
k
- Animalsdonotli
veinarealnat
uralst
atei
.e.di
seasesar
econt
rol
l
edby
inj
ecti
onsandsprayi
ngofsickanimal
s

- Thepar
kisf
encedsoani
mal
sar
enotf
reet
osear
chf
urt
herawayf
orf
ood

- Predat
oryani
malssuchasl
i
ons,
leopar
dsandhy
enasdonotr
educet
he
numberofotherani
mals

- Cul
li
ngisbei
ngdonet
oreducet
henumberorkeepdownt
henumberof
ani
mals

- Ov
ergr
azi
ngduet
olar
genumberofel
ephant
s

- Compet
iti
onforwat
erwi
thpeopl
eint
hesur
roundi
ngar
easwhowantf
or
domest
icuse

Benef
it
s/Advant
ages
78
 - Hi
ghl
evel
ofl
ocal
tour
ist
s

- Wel
ldev
elopedt
our
isti
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

- Av
ail
abi
l
ityofhomegr
ownski
l
lst
odev
elopt
het
our
isti
ndust
ry

- Empl
oymentwi
thi
nandout
sidepar
k

- Mar
ketf
orl
ocal
product
s

Di
sadvantages/Negat
ives
- Hi ghinci
dentsofal
lfor
msofcr
imee.
g.t
hef
t,subst
anceabuse

- Di
l
uti
onofcul
tur
e/Er
osi
onofcul
tur
e

- Pr
ost
it
uti
on/
soci
ali
l
ls

TOURI SM I
NKENYA
(Leave20li
nesf oramapofKeny ashowi
ngt
our
istat
tract
ionsi
tes)
Factorsi
nfluencingtour
ism i
nKenya
- Polit
icalstabi
l
ity

- Thegov
ernmentofKeny
ahasact
ivel
yencour
agedt
our
ist
s

- Greatvariet
yofscener
ysuchashi
ghl
ands,
rif
tval
l
eysandmanyl
akes,
volcanoes.

- Var
iet
yofwi
l
dli
fei
npar
ks

- Sunnyandsandybeaches

Advant
agesoft
ouri
sm inKeny a
- Sour
ceoffor
eignexchange

- Sour
ceofi
ncome/
empl
oyment

- Sour
ceofgov
ernmentr
evenuet
hrought
axes

- Encour
agesl
ocal
craf
tindust
ry

AGRI
CULTURE

Agr
icul
tur
eist
hepr
act
iceofgr
owi
ngcr
opsandr
ear
ingcr
ops

TYPESOFAGRI
CULTURE

79
 1.Ar
abl
efar
ming–t
hegr
owi
ngofcr
ops

2.Past
oral
far
ming–r
ear
ingofl
i
vest
ock

3.Mi
xedf
armi
ng–gr
owi
ngofcr
opsandr
ear
ingofl
i
vest
ock

4.I
ntensi
vef
armi
ng–wher
ether
ear
e:

 Mor
eyi
eldsperhect
are

 Mor
epr
ofi
tsperhect
are

 Al
argeamountofcapi
tal
used

 Smal
lfar
msused

5.Ext
ensi
vef
armi
ng–wher
ether
ear
e:

 Lessy
iel
dsperhect
are

 Lesspr
ofi
tsperhect
are

 Lesswor
ker
sperhect
are

 Smal
lamountofcapi
tal
inv
est
ed

 Lar
gef
armsused

ARABLEFARMI NG
Therear
et wot
ypesofar
abl
efarmingmainly
:subsi
stenceandcommercial
far
ming.
a.Subsist
encear
ablefar
ming(Practi
cedal
loverBotswanaexcepti
n
someareaswi
thi
ntheKalahar
idesert
)

Thisisthegrowi ngofcropsf orfamil

yconsumpti
on
Characteri
stics/f
eatures:
 Itdependsonf ami l
ylabor
 Si mplehandt oolsareused/ useofsimpleimpl
ementse.
g.hoe
 Ther eissmal lscaleproducti
on
 Donotusepest i
cidesandf erti
l
izer
s
 Pr oduceav ar
ietyofcropsatt hesamet i
mee.g.sor
ghum,maize,
wat
er
melonet c
 Cr opfar msareusual l
yunfenced
 Rel yonr ai
nfal
l
Acti
vit
ies

80
  Cl
ear
ingofl
and

 Fenci
ng

 Pl
oughi
ng

 Weedi
ng(
usi
ngsi
mpl
etool
s)

 Har
vest
ing

I
nput
s:
 Communal l
and
 Simplet oolse.g.oxdrawnplough(dr
oughtpower),
hoe
 Rainfal
l( nat
uralinput
)
 Ordinaryseeds( seedsfrom t
heprevi
ousharvest
)
 Fami l
ylabor
 Treebranchesusedasf ence

Out
put
s(mainlycr
ops)
 Maize
 Watermelon
 Groundnut
s
 Sweetpotat
oes
 Mill
et
 Beans

Pr
obl
emsf
acedbysubsi
stencef
armer
s

 Pest
sanddi
seases

 Dr
ought

 Wi
l
dAni
mal
s

 I
nfer
ti
leSoi
l

 Unr
eli
abl
erai
nfal
l
/lowr
ainf
all
/unev
endi
str
ibut
ionofr
ainf
all

 Hi
ght
emper
atur
es

 Por
oussoi
l
s/sandysoi
l
/hi
ghi
nfi
l
trat
ionsoi
l
s/poorwat
erhol
dingcapaci
ty

Possi
bleSol
uti
ons

 Useofpest
ici
desandi
nsect
ici
des

 Useofi
rr
igat
ionmet
hods

81
  Fenci
nganduseofscar
ecr
ows

 UseofFer
ti
li
zer
s

EFFORTSMADEBYTHEGOVERNMENTTOI
MPROVE
TRADITI
ONAL/
SUBSI
STANCEFARMI
NG

 Ar
abl
eLandDev
elopmentPr
ogr
amme(
ALDEP)

I
twasf
ormedt
opr
ovi
del
oansandgr
ant
sfor
:

 Fenci
ngmat
eri
als

 Wat
ert
anks

 Buy
ingsi
mpletool
sforf
armer
se.
g.pl
oughs,
har
rows,
pl
ant
ersandcul
ti
vat
ors

 Scot
chCar
t–totr
ansporti
nput
sandf
arm pr
opducet
o
andf
rom themar
ket
sandhomesteads

 Thr
ashi
ngMachi
ne

 Chaff–Cut
terf
orcut
ti
ngst
overi
ntosmal
lpi
ecesf
or
f
eedi
ngl
i
vestock

 Accel
erat
edRai
n–f
edAr
abl
ePr
ogr
amme(
ARAP)

I
tsmai
nai
m wast
opr
ovi
dewat
erandpest
ici
dest
ofar
mer
s

 Bot
swanaMar
ket
ingBoar
d

I
tisr
esponsi
blef
orpur
chasi
ngf
oodgr
ainse.
g.mai
ze,
sor
ghum,
mil
l
etet
c
f
rom f
armers

b. Commer
cialAr
abl
efar
ming:

Thisi
safar
mingsystem t
hati
sbasedoncashcr
opfar
ming.I
tismainl
y
forpr
ofi
tmaki
ng.Theareasofcommerci
alf
armi
ngi
nBotswanaare:

82
 - Tul
iBl
ock Gant
siBl
ock

- Tal
anaFar
ms Mogobanef
arms

- Bar
olongFar
ms Lobat
seBl
ock

- Chobef
arms Pandamat
enga
Far
ms

Examplesofcommerci
alf
armsar
efr
eehol
dfar
msandLeasehol
dfar
mswhi
ch
arepr
ivat
elyownedf
arms.

Char
act
eri
sti
cs:

o Thef
armsar
elar
ge

o Rot
ati
onal
far
mingi
spr
act
iced

o Chemi
cal
ssuchaspest
ici
desandar
ti
fi
cial
fer
ti
li
zer
sar
e
used

o I
rr
igat
ionsy
stemsar
eused

o Lar
geamountofcapi
tal
isr
equi
red

o Useofheav
ymachi
ner
y

o Requi
resski
l
ledl
abor

o Pr
oducehi
ghamount
sofout
put
s

Act
ivi
ti
es:

o Cl
ear
ingandf
enci
ng

o Pl
oughi
ng

o Weedi
ng

o Har
vest
ing

o Pr
ocessi
ng

o I
rr
igat
ion

I
nput
s:

83
 o Commer
cial
orf
reehol
dland

o Hi
redl
abor

o Sel
ect
edandt
reat
edseeds

o Ar
ti
fi
cial
fer
ti
li
zer
s

o Heav
ymachi
ner
y

Out
put
s:

o Hi
ghqual
i
tygr
ainf
orsal
ee.
g.r
ice,
mai
ze

o Ci
tr
usf
rui
ts

o Sunf
lower

o Gr
oundnut
s

o Cot
ton

o Tea

Pr
obl
emsf
acedbycommer
cialf
armer
s: Sol
uti
ons

 Lackofmarket
I
ntr
oducenewmarket
ingst
rat
egi
es

 Croppest
sanddi
seases Use
pest
ici
desandher
bici
des

 Lackofenoughcapi
tal Pr
ovi
sionof
gr
ant
sandl
oans

 Lackofski
l
ledl
abor
Tr
aini
ngmanpower

 Lackoftr
ansport
I
mpr
ovi
ngt
ransporti
nfr
astr
uctur
e

 Wil
danimal
s
I
mpr
ovemanager
ialski
l
ls

CASESTUDY-TULIBLOCK

84
Fact
orst
hati
nfl
uencet
heLocat
ionofTul
iBl
ock:

15l
ines

o Av
ail
abi
l
ityofwat
erf
ori
rr
igat
ionf
rom Li
mpopor
iver

o Av
ail
abi
l
ityofl
argef
latl
and

o Av
ail
abi
l
ityoff
ert
il
eloamyandal
l
uvi
alsoi
lwhi
char
e
easyt
ocul
ti
vat
e

o Av
ail
abi
li
tyofcasual
laborf
rom sur
roundi
ngv
il
lagessuch
asTset
set
jweandMolal
atau

o Sui
tabl
eweat
hercondi
ti
ons;
justaboutenoughr
ainf
all
andsunl
i
ght

PLANTATI
ONS:

Itisalargeestateorfar
m wherethereisanint
ensiv
ecult
ivat
ionofonecrop
(monocul t
ure)forsal
ee.g.sugercaneinNatalSout
hAfri
ca,Cottonwool
plant
ationinSudan( Gezi
raScheme) ,
sunfl
ower,cof
feeet
c.Itinv
olvesamassi
ve
capit
al i
nvestment.

Thechar
act
eri
sti
csorf
eat
uresofapl
ant
ati
oni
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 Al
argef
reehol
dland

 Pr
act
icemonocul
tur
e

 Hasanur
ser
y

 Tr
anspor
tforwor
ker
sispr
ovi
dedt
oandf
rom t
he
pl
ant
ati
on

 Hasapr
ocessi
ngpl
antonsi
te

 Haswor
ker
shousesonsi
te

 Haswat
ersuppl
yfori
rr
igat
ion

 Hasawi dev ar
iet
yofservi
cesorameniti
esonsitee.
g.
schoolsforeducati
on,hal
l andbarforent
ert
ainmentandrecr
eat
ional
purposes,shopforshopping

85
  Ther
eisuseofchemi
cal
s(f
ert
il
izer
sandpest
ici
des)

 Ther
eisuseofadv
ancedmachi
ner
y

BENEFI
TS/
IMPORTANCE/
ADVANTAGESTOTHEPEOPLEANDTHECOUNTRY

PEOPLE COUNTRY

Cr
eat
esempl
oyment
/income Sour
ceofFor
eignExchange

Sour
ceofl
i
vest
ockf
ood Sour
ceofGov
ernmentr
evenue

Sour
ceofcheapf
oodst
uff Di
ver
sif
iest
heeconomy

Leadst
orur
aldevel
opment
s/r
educes Leadstothedev
elopmentofot
her
rur
alur
banmigr
ati
on i
ndustr
ies

Leadstohi
ghstandardof Leadstoinf
rastr
uct
ural
dev
elopment
s
l
ivi
ng/i
mprovedli
fest
yles e.
g.roads,r
ail
wayli
nes

Acqui
reKnowledge/
ski
ll
sinadv
anced Haslar
gesuppl
yofr
awmat
eri
als/
food
modernmethodsoffar
ming suppl
y

Ithasalargescaleofproduct
ion
ensuri
ngincreasedyi
elds

Reducesdependenceonother
countr
ies/
reducesi
mport
s/sel
f–
suff
ici
ent

PROBLEMS/
DISAVANTAGESASSOCI
ATEDWI
THPLANTATI
ONFARMI
NG:

 Cr
opsar
eusual
l
yforexpor
t,notf
orl
ocal
mar
ket

 Plant
ati
onf
armi
ngl
eadst
oov
erpr
oduct
ionofone
cr
op/
monocul
tur
e

 Leadst
omi
grat
ionofpeopl
e

 Theeconomyi
sdomi
nat
edbyf
orei
gncompani
es

 Cr
eat
escompet
it
ionf
orl
and

 Di
seasesmaydest
royt
hewhol
ecr
opi
napl
ant
ati
on

86
  Mul
ti
nat
ional
compani
esmaypul
loutatanyt
ime

 Mostoft
hepr
ofi
tsl
eav
est
hecount
ry

 Att
hepl
ant
ati
ons,
ther
eisexpl
oit
ati
onofwor
ker
s

 Ther
eispol
l
uti
onf
rom t
hef
ert
il
izer
s

 Def
orest
ati
on

 Soi
ler
osi
on/
landdegr
adat
ion

 Pl
ant
ati
onscausessoi
lexhaust
ion

 Leadst
osubsi
stencef
armi
ngbei
ngnegl
ect
ed

 Pl
antat
ionsar
eaf
fect
edbyf
luct
uat
ionof
pr
ices/
demand/
recessi
on

SUGARCANEPLANTATI
ONI
NKWAZULUNATALSOUTHAFRI
CA:

I
tisatallgr
assthatgrowsinar
easthatar
einfl
uencedbywarm andmoi st
weat
her.SouthAfri
caisknownasthegreatpr
oducerofsugar
.Thesugarcane
pl
ant
ationsaref
oundi ntheKwaZuluNatalPr
ovinceandi
twasf i
rstgr
ownt her
e
i
n1847byamancal ledMr.Morewood.

FACTORSI
NFLUENCI
NGCULTI
VATI
ONOFSUGARCANEI
NKWAZULUNATAL
WESTOFDURBAN.

o Sui
tabl
etemper
atur
es(
meanmont
hlyt
emper
atur
es
o o
bet
ween25cand30c)

o Annual
rai
nfal
lbet
ween1000mm and1500mm

o Av
ail
abi
l
ityoff
ert
il
esoi
l
s

o Av
ail
abi
l
ityofl
argef
latl
and

o Av
ail
abi
l
ityofcheapl
aborf
rom l
ocal
s

o Av
ail
abi
l
ityofbet
tercommuni
cat
ionsy
stemse.
g.r
oads

CULTI
VATI
ON:

87
 o St
emsofsugar
canear
ecutabout15–20cm (
1or2
j
oint
s)wi
th2t
o4buds.

o Thebudsar
edi
ppedi
ntoi
nsect
ici
dest
opr
eventdi
seases

o Thest
emsar
ethenpl
ant
edi
nfur
rowswhi
char
eabout
13.
5cm apar
t.

o Thi
stakespl
acebet
weenSeptemberandNovember
becausei
tist
herai
nyperi
odandt
emperat
uresareappr
opr
iat
e

o Thef
ir
stshooti
scutt
oal
l
owt
hegr
owt
hoft
hest
ronger
st
em

o Thegr
owi
ngper
iodi
sbet
ween20–25mont
hs.

HARVESTI
NG:

o I
ttakespl
acebet
weenMayandSept
ember

o Thecanei
scutwi
thmachet
es

o Thecanei
sthencol
l
ect
edi
nbundl
esandt
ranspor
tedby
t
ruckst
othepr
ocessingpl
ant

PROCESSI
NGSUGARCANE:

I
tisf
ir
stcuti
ntoshor
tlengt
hsbyr
evol
vi
ngkni
ves

o I
tist
hencr
ushedbyr
oll
erst
oext
ractj
uice

o Thej
uicei
swei
ghedandt
henmi
xedwi
thl
i
mei
nor
dert
o
r
emov
eimpur
it
ies

o Thecl
ari
fi
err
emov
esi
mpur
it
iesandt
heev
apor
ati
onand
boi
l
ingpanspur
if
yitf
urt
her

o Thejuiceisboi
l
edt
oremov
eexcesswat
er,
theni
scool
ed
t
opr
oducesugarcr
ystals

o Thecr
yst
alsaret
hencoveredi
nast
ickybr
ownl
i
qui
d
(
mol
asses)sot
heyar
eputint
othesepar
ator

PROBLEMSOFSUGARCANEPLANTATI
ONS:

88
 o Cr
opdi
seasesandpest
s

o I
nfer
ti
lesoi
l

o Shor
tageofcapi
tal

o Heav
yst
orm andf
loods

o Dr
ought

o Fl
uct
uat
ionofmar
ketpr
ices

BENEFI
TS/
IMPORTANCEOFSUGARCANEPLANTATI
ON:

o Cr
eat
esempl
oyment

o Sour
ceoff
orei
gnexchange

o Pr
ovi
dessugar
/sour
ceoff
ood

o Di
ver
sif
iest
heeconomy

o I
tswast
espr
ovi
desf
ert
il
izer
sandani
mal
feed

USESOFSUGAR:

o Sweet
ensf
ood

o Usedi
nanadhesi
veasani
ngr
edi
ent

o Usedi
nthepr
oduct
ionofdr
ugs/
medi
cinal

o Usedi
nPhot
ogr
aphi
cmat
eri
als

COTTONPLANTATI
ON(
GEZI
RASCHEME)SUDAN:

Themosti mportantandsuccessfull
argescal
eir
ri
gat
ionschemeinSudanist
he
Gezi
rascheme.I ti
slocat
edbet weentheBlueandWhiteNil
eRiv
ersandal
so
nort
hoft heSennardam.TheGezi rahasbeenknownforthepr
oducti
onofgood
qual
itycott
onformanyy ears.

FAVOURABLEFACTORSFORTHEGEZI
RAI
RRI
GATI
ONSCHEME:

 Al
argef
latl
and/
gent
lesl
opebet
weent
heBl
ueandWhi
te

89
 Ni
l
eRi
ver
s

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofcheapl
aborf
rom l
ocal
s

 Hav
efer
ti
lesi
l
tsoi
lfr
om v
olcani
cbasal
t

 Ar
enearper
enni
alwat
ersour
ces/Bl
ueandWhi
teNi
l
e
Ri
ver
s

 Hascl
aybeneat
hsi
l
twhi
chr
educesdr
ainageofv
aluabl
e
wat
er

 Hasl
i
ttl
eveget
ati
ont
obecl
ear
ed

 Wat
ercanf
lowbygr
avi
tyav
oidi
ngexpenseofpumpi
ng

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofr
eli
abl
ewat
ersour
cef
rom t
heSennardam

 Pol
i
tical
stabi
l
ity

CULTI
VATI
ONOFCOTTON:

 Cot
toni
ssewni
nri
dgest
hatar
eamet
erapar
t

 Sever
alseedsar
eplantedtoget
herandwhent
heyhav
e
gr
ownt
oahei
ghtofafewcenti
meters,
thinni
ngisdone

 Thepl
ant
sst
artf
lower
ingaf
tert
hreemont
hs

 Theymat
urei
ntoseedpodsknownasbol
ls

 Thebol
l
scont
ainaf
luf
fywhi
tef
ibercal
l
edl
int

 Whent
heyar
emat
ure,
thebol
l
sbur
standopent
oexpose
t
hel
i
nt.

HARVESTI
NG:

 Har
vest
ingi
sdonebyhand

 Thecl
eanboll
swill
beseparat
edf
rom t
hest
ained/
dir
ty
onesandt
hensenttot
heginsforpr
ocessi
ng

PROCESSI
NG:

90
  Thebol
l
sar
eputi
ngi
ns

 Li
nti
ssepar
atedf
rom t
heseedsandcompr
essedi
nto
bal
es

 Bal
esofcot
tonar
esentt
otext
il
efact
ori
est
obeweav
ed
i
ntocot
toncl
oth

 Theseedsar
ecr
ushedt
opr
oduceoi
l

USESOFCOTTON:

 Topr
ovi
decot
ton

 Theseedscanbeusedt
omakecooki
ngoi
l

BENEFI
TS/
IMPORTANCE:

 Sour
ceofl
argesuppl
yrawmat
eri
al

 Cr
eat
esempl
oyment
/income

 Sour
ceoff
orei
gnExchange

 Di
ver
sif
ytheeconomy

 Leadst
othedev
elopmentofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

 Sour
ceofgov
ernmentr
evenue

 Leadst
othedev
elopmentofot
heri
ndust
ri
es

 Leadst
orur
aldev
elopment
s

 Leadst
ohi
ghst
andar
dsofl
i
ving

 Reducesdependenceonot
hercount
ri
es/
reduces
i
mpor
ti
ngf
rom othercount
ri
es

 I
thasadv
ancedmoder
nmet
hodsoff
armi
ng

PROBLEMS:

 Pest
sanddi
seases

 Fl
uct
uat
ingmar
ketpr
ices

91
  Dr
ought

 I
nfer
ti
lesoi
l
s

 Shor
tageofcapi
tal

I
RRI
GATI
ONSYSTEMSI
NBOTSWANA

Ir
ri
gati
onisthecontroll
edappli
cati
onofwatert
oparti
cul
arareabymeansa
ri
ver
s,boreholes,
damset c.Ther
earevar
iousir
ri
gat
ionmethodsusedby
commer ci
alfarmersinBotswana:

1. FLOODI
RRI
GATI
ON

Thisiswherewaterisspr
eadov eralargeareatosoakint
ot hegr
ound.
Thewat erf
lowsthroughi
rri
gati
onchannelswi t
hbranchesleadi
ngto
areastobeirr
igat
ed.Themet hodispracti
cedinTuliBl
ock.

2. SPRI
NKLERI
RRI
GATI
ON

Thewat
erispumpedthr
oughapi
pewit
haser i
esofhol
esandthewateri
s
spr
eadoutthr
oughhol
es.Thi
smet
hodisusedinSel
ekaandTalanaf
arms.

3. SURFACE/
FURROW I
RRI
GATI
ON

Iti
susuall
yusedi
nasloppyar ea/
landt
oal
lowwatert
obedirect
edto
speci
fi
careasint
hef
ield.Thismethodi
susedatMmathubudukwanei
n
thebanksofMadi
kweriver.

4. DRI
PIRRI
GATI
ON

I
tswaterdr
ipsatarateoftwol
it
ter
sperhourfr
om t
hesuspendedpl
ast
ic
pi
pesset60cm apar
t.Dri
pmethodishi
ghl
yrecommendedcomparedto
ot
hermethodsbecauseevapor
ati
onrat
eisveryl
ow.

5. CENTREPI
VOT

Acent
repi
voti
sal
ongst
ruct
urewher
epi
pesar
eat
tachedwi
thspr
inkl
es

92
 atr
egul
ari
nter
val
s.Thefi
eldsar
eusual
l
yinacircul
arpl
ace.Thi
smethod
i
susedinsomefr
eeholdar
eassuchastheGaboroneBl
ock,Tal
anaf
arms
andTul
iBl
ock.

Reasonswhyi
rr
igat
ioni
snotwi
despr
eadi
nBot
swana

 Hi
ghev
apor
ati
onr
ate

 Lackofknowl
edgei
ntheappl
i
cat
ionofi
rr
igat
ionsy
stems

 Unr
eli
abl
erai
nfal
l

 Fewper
enni
alr
iver
s

 I
tisexpensi
ve

Advant
agesofusi
ngi
rr
igat
ion

 I
ncr
easeagr
icul
tur
aly
iel
ds/
product
ion

 Canbeuseddur
ingdr
yseasons

 Canhel
ptopr
ovi
dewat
ert
hroughoutt
hey
ear

PASTORALFARMI
NGI
NBOTSWANA

I
tist
her
ear
ingofani
mal
s/l
i
vest
ock

Subsi
stencepast
oralf
armi
ng–t
her
ear
ingorl
i
vest
ockf
orf
ami
l
yconsumpt
ion

Commer
cialpast
oralf
armi
ng–t
her
ari
ngofl
i
vest
ockf
orpr
ofi
t/sal
e

Ranch–al
argef
encedar
eaofcommer
cial
past
oral
far
ming

Fr
eehol
dfar
m –pr
ivat
elyownedf
arm

Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngdi
str
ibut
ionofcat
tl
e/l
iv
est
ock
 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofv
eget
ati
on

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofwat
ersuppl
y

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofmar
ketf
ort
hepr
oduct
s

93
  Av
ail
abi
l
ityofcheapl
abor

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityf
ort
ranspor
ttot
hemar
ket

Cat
tl
edi
str
ibut
ioni
nBot
swana

20l
ines

Mostcatt
learef
oundint
heeast
ernpar
tofBot
swanabecauset
her
eismor
e
past
ures/
lar
gegrazi
ngar
ea.

Ther
ear
enocat
tl
efar
mingi
nthef
oll
owi
ngar
easbecause:

A–Thi
ckf
orest
/tset
sef
ly/
wil
dli
fe/
nat
ional
par
k

B–Swamps/
tset
sef
ly/
wil
dli
fe/
nat
ional
par
k/gamer
eser
ve

C–Sal
tpans/
nodr
inki
ngwat
er

Commer
cialf
armi
ng: Subsi
stencef
armi
ng

o Car
ri
edouti
nranches
usescommunal
land

o Pract
icesr
otat
ional
grazi
ng
dependsonf
ami
l
ylabor

o Empl
oyst
rai
nedmanager
s
pr
oducesatsmal
lscal
e

o Pr
act
icesr
egul
arv
acci
nat
ion

o Pr
oducesatl
argescal
e

I
nput
s I
nput
s

o Commerci
all
and
communall
and

o Local
andexot
icbreeds
l
ocalbr
eeds

o St
ockf
eeds
r
ain

94
 o Hi
redl
abor
f
ami
l
ylabor

o Vacci
nes

Out
put
s Out
put
s

o Mi
l
k mi
l
k

o Meat meat

o Ski
n/hi
de
ski
n/hi
de

Act
ivi
ti
es Act
ivi
ti
es

o Dehor
ning
mi
l
king

o Di
ppi
ng
br
andi
ng

o Br
andi
ng

o Vacci
nat
ing

Pr
obl
ems: Pr
obl
ems

o Unr
eli
abl
erai
nfall
unr
eli
abl
erainf
all

o Li
vestockdiseases
li
vestockdiseases

o Conf
li
ctwitht
het
our
ism i
ndust
ry
over
grazi
ng

o Di
stantmar
ket
s
l
i
vest
ock

o Fl
uct
uat
ingmar
ketpr
ices

95
 o Ov
ergr
azi
ng

Sol
uti
ons: Sol
uti
ons:

o Regul
arvacci
nat
inganddi
ppi
ng
Regul
arv
acci
nat
inganddippi
ng

o Expansi
onoft
ranspor
tli
nks
usi
ngbor
ehol
es

o Li
mitst
ocki
ngr
ates
t
rai
ningwor
ker
s

o
Li
mitst
ocki
ngr
ates

ADVANTAGESOFKEEPI
NGLI
VESTOCKONRANCHES

o Theycont
rol
breedi
ng

o Cont
rol
grazi
ngbypaddocki
ng

o Easycont
rol
ofdi
seases

o Contr
olmov
ementofcat
tl
e/r
educesl
ossof
l
i
vest
ockt
hroughgoi
ngast
ray

I
MPACTSOFPASTORALFARMI
NGONTHEENVI
ROMENT

o Ov
ergr
azi
ng

o Soi
ler
osi
on

o Depl
eti
onofwat
ersour
ces

o Def
orest
ati
on

o Rangel
anddegr
adat
ion

o Deser
ti
fi
cat
ion

o Ext
inct
ionofcer
tai
npl
antspeci
es

96
PROBLEMSTHATMAKEITDI
FFI
CULTFORMANYCATTLEFARMERSTO
BECOMECOMMRCIALFARMERS

o Lackofaccesst
ocr
edi
tfaci
l
iti
es

o Lackofbor
ehol
es

o Lackofeducat
ion/
ski
l
l/manager
ial
ski
l
l

o Lackoff
orage/
past
ures

o Poorbr
eeds

o Lackofcapi
tal

CHANGESOCCURI
NGI
NTHESUBSI
STENCEFARMI
NGSYSTEM I
NBOTSWANA

o Useoff
ert
il
izer
s/pest
ici
des

o Hi
redl
abour

o Useofi
rr
igat
ionsy
stems

o Regul
ardi
ppi
ngandv
acci
nat
ing

o Rot
ati
onal
far
ming

o Dehor
ningofcat
tl
e

MI
NING

Mi
ningi
stheext
ract
ionofmi
ner
alsunder
ground.

MI
NERALSANDROCKSFOUNDI
NBOTSWANA

20l
i
nes

Themaintypeofr ocksare:
1.Sediment aryrocks–t hesear eformedwhenr ockpart
icl
esaredeposit
ed
inri
v er
s,seas,oceansandl akese.
gsandstonesandri
versand
2.Igneousr ocks– t hesear efor
medf rom thecooli
ngofv eryhotliqui
d
whichcomesf r
om deepi ntheeart
h
3.Met amor phicrocks– t heyar eformedwhensedi mentaryandigneous
rocksarechangedbyheatandpr essur
e

97
FACTORSTOBECONSI
DEREDBEFOREMI
NING

o Si
zeoft hedeposi t
o Geologi
cal occurrenceoft heor
e
o Marketpriceanddemand
o Avail
abi
lit
yofcapi t
al
o Avail
abi
lit
yofl abour
o Avail
abi
lit
ywat er
ssuppl y
o Accessi
bilitytorail
wayandr oads
o Poli
ti
calstabili
tyoft hearea
o Avail
abi
lit
yofpowersuppl y
o Quali
tyoft hemi neralore
o Accessi
bilityoftheor e
o Rel
iefofthesi teetc

I
MPORTANCEOFMI
NINGTOTHEPEOPLEANDGOVERNMENTOFBOTSWANA

o Bri
ngsr evenue
o Providesfor ei
gnexchange/ i
ncome
o Createsempl oyment
o Inf
luencet hedev el
opmentofi nfr
ast
ructuree.gschools
o Providesrawmat eri
alsforotheri
ndustri
ese.gprocessi
ngi ndust
ri
es
o Sti
mul atest hedevel
opmentofnewi ndustr
iese.gdiamondpol i
shi
ng,
constructi
on
o Helpspayf orthetr
ainingoflocal
se.gDEBSWANAschol ar
shipprogr
am

METHODSOFMI
NING

1.shaf
tmi
ning

10l
ines

I
tisusedtheoreisdeepunder
ground.Ithassev
eral
probl
emst
hati
ncl
ude:
 dangerofundergr
ounddangerousgases
 excessiv
eheat
 fl
ooding
 rocksfal
li
ng

2.Openpi
t/opencast
/st
ri
p
10l
ines

I
tisusedwhentheor
eiscl
oset
othegr
oundsur
face
3.Planni
ng
10lines

98
I
tisusedinmi ningmi ner
alswhi
char
efoundontheri
verbed
4.Adit/dr
iftmining
10lines
I
tisusedtomi nemineral
sonthesi
deofthehi
l
lortheminer
alor
eoccur
sin
hor
izontal
layers
5.Quarrying
10lines

I
tiswhenexpl
osi
vesar
eusedt
oloosent
her
ockf
rom t
her
ocksur
face.

PROBLEMSFACEDBYCOUNTRI
ES/
ECONOMI
ESDEPENDEENTONMI
NEARL
EXTRACTI
ON

1.Fl
uctuati
ngmar ketprices
2.Exhausti
onofthemi ner alore
3.Peoplemayloset hei
rj obsifthemineral
oregetsdeplet
ed
4.I
tmayl eadtothedev elopmentofghostt ownwhent heminescl
oses
5.Closur
eofsomebusi nessese. gharewaresel
li
ngmi neequi
pment
6.Decli
neinthegrossnat i
onalproduct

COPPERNI
CKELMI
NEI
NSELI
BEPHI
KWE

20l
i
nes

GEOLOGI
CALOCCURANCE

Depositsofcopperaref oundi nthemet amor

phic,igneousandsedi ment
ary
rocks.Thesear
erockswhi chcanbeeasi l
yfol
dedundergr eatpressur
e.I
tsore
hasonl y1% mi
neralcont
entandf oundincombinat
ionwi t
hnickelandcobalt
.
The2met hodsofcopperextract
ionare:

 Openpi
tforsurf
aceore
 Ver
ti
cal
shaftforthedeeperor
e

METHODSOFEXTRACTI
ON

20l
i
nes

1.Remov alofwasterockst oexposetheor e

2.Dri
ll
ingusinghanddr i
lli
ng
3.Explosi
vesareputatt heendofdr i
ll
ingholestoblastt
heoreint
opieces
4.Theor eisloadedi ntoasmal ltr
aint hr
oughahaul agewayi nt
oaski p
whichwillbepull
edt othesur f
acethroughtheshaft
5.The ore willthen be l oaded i
ntot rucks and be t
ranspor
ted t
ot he

99
 pr
ocessi
ngpl
ant
.

PROCESSI
NG

25l
i
nes

1.Attheprocessingplant,
themi neralorei sputint
oaprimar
ycrasherwhere
i
tiscrushedintosmal l
pieces
2.Iti
st hensentt ot hesecondar ycr usherwher eitwouldbecr ushedto
part
icl
esunder12mm i nsize.
3.Iti
sthengrindedintheballmillsi
ntof inepower
4.Iti
sthensentt otheconcentratorwher eitwouldbemixedwi
thwat erand
somechemi cals
5.Thewetconcent rat
ororewi l
lbedr i
edandt akenforsmel
ti
ng.

SMELTI
NG

1.Theoreisheatedi
ntheblatsfur
nace
2.I
tmel t
sandproducesav er
yhotmol t
enli
quidcal
ledmatt
e
3.Themat t
eisremovedfrom thebott
om ofthefur
naceandpassest
hrough
watertocool
4.Bl
ackpowderwi l
lbeproduced
5.I
tisthenpackedinbagsforexport
ati
on

USESOFCOPPER

1.Formakingornaments
2.Formakingall
oys
3.Makingcans
4.Makingpipesforpl
umbing
5.Makingelect
ri
calappl
i
anceset
c

DI
AMONDMI
NING

Diamondsi nBotswanaaremi nedbytheDeBeer sBotswanaMi ni

ngCompany
(Debswana).Iti
sjoi
ntl
yownedbyt heDeBeersandtheBotswanagover
nment
.In
Botswana,diamondsareminedatJwaneng,OrapaandLetl
hakeng.

20l
i
nes

GEOLOGI
CALOCCURANCE

Diamondsar
efoundinsoftigneousr
ockscal l
edki
mberl
it
e.Theyar
efor
meddue
tovol
cani
cerupt
ionwhichresulti
ncryst
all
izedcar
bon.

EXTRACTI
ON

100
15l
i
nes

Dr
il
li
ngmachinesareusedt odr
ill
holesint
her ocks
1.Explosi
vesar eputintothebottom oft hehol
eandtheybl
ast
/br
eakt
he
r
ocksint
osmal lpi
eces.
2.Amechani calshovell
oadstherockpiecesint
oalar
getr
uck.
3.Thet r
ucktranspor
tstherocksoutofthepit.

PROCESSI
NG
25l
ines

1.CRUSHI NG
Ther ocksfrom thetruckareputint
othepri
marycr
usherwhichbrakes
them intosmallpieceslessthan15cm i
nsize.Thesecondar
ycrusher
furt
hercrushestherocksint
opiecesl
esst
hen2.5i
ndiameter
.

2.CONCERNTRATI ON
Thewastemat eriali
sseparatedfr
om thediamondbymi xi
ngtheorewith
waterandchemi calsi
nlargedrums( cycl
ones)whi
chrotat
esquickl
y.The
wastemat eri
alisusual l
ylight
erandi sremovedfr
om t hetopoft he
cycl
one.Thedi amondsbei ngheav ier
,falltothebott
om.Ot herheavy
materi
alsalsopasst hr
oughwi t
ht hediamonds.Thismixtur
ei scall
ed
concentr
ate.

3.FINALSEPARATI ON
Theconcentratei
spassedthroughanx-
raymachinecall
edx-
raysepar at
or
whichseparatesdi
amondf r
om mostoftheremaini
ngheavymaterials.As
thediamondspasst hroughthismachi
ne,theyshi
neandanai rgunwi ll
blow them i
ntoabi n.Theremainingheav
ymat eri
alsareseparatedby
hand.

4.GRADING
Thediamondsar et hensentt oGabor onewher etheyaresor ted,gr
aded
andvaluedatOr apaHousebyt heBot swanaDiamondv aluingCompany
(BDVC).Theyar efir
stsortedintogemst onesandindustri
al di
amonds.The
bestdiamondsar et hegemst onesandar eusedf ormaki ngexpensive
j
ewell
ery.Thegemst onesar egr adedaccor di
ngtotheirshape, colour
,si
ze
andtheirpuri
ty.Thel owqual i
tyst ones,knownasi ndustr
ialdimesmaybe
usedindr i
ll
i
ngorcut t
ingtools,si ncediamondi sthehar destsubstance
known.

5.VALUING
Aft
ergradingt
hediamondsareval
uedandthensentt
oLondonbyair
.In
London,theyaresol
dt odiamonddealer
sthroughtheCent
ralSel
l
ing

101
 Or
gani
zat
ion(
CSO)
.

CHANGESBROUGHTBYMI
NINGONTHEENVI
RONMENT/
LANDSCAPE

POSI
TIVE
- Devel
opmentofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
- Devel
opmentofot
heri
ndustr
ies

NEGATI
VE
- Poll
utioninal
lfor
ms
- Developmentofholesontheear
thsur
face
- Developmentofwasteheaps
- Remov alofveget
ati
on,r
esul
ti
nginsoi
lerosi
onet
c

PROCESSI
NGANDMANUFACTURI
NGI
NDUSTRI
ES

I
ndust
ri
alest
ate–anareareserv
edfori
ndustri
aldevel
opment
I
ndust
ri
alsi
te–theact
ualgroundonwhichindustr
iesst
and

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFI
NDUSTRI
ES

1.PRI
MARYI
NDUSTRI
ES

Theyinv
olvetheextracti
onofr awmat eri
alsf
rom t
heenvi
ronment
.
Mostofthepr oduct
sr equir
epr ocessi
ngbef oret
heyar
eused.E.g
far
ming,for
estry
,mining,quarr
ying,fi
shingetc

2.SECONDARYI NDUSTRIES
Theyuserawmat er
ial
sfrom pr
imaryi
ndustr
iest
oproduceawi
de
rangeofpr
oduct
s.Twot y
pesofsecondar
yindust
ri
esar
e:

- Processing-Itisani ndustr
yt hatref
ines/
cleans/pur
if
ies/
treats
rawmat eri
alsi
ntof
ini
shedgoodst hatr
esemblet herawmat eri
als
used.Onlyonerawmateri
alisused.e.gBMC

- Manuf act
uri
ng-Itisanindust
rywher
e2ormor erawmat eri
alsare
combinedt omakeorpr oducenew anddi
ff
erentendpr oducts.It
produces goods ofhigh qual
it
ye.g mot
orv ehicl
e assembl i
ng
i
ndustry

102
PROCESSI
NG MANUFACTURI NG
- Fewchangesmadet
othe - Product s may appear
r
awmater
ial
s quite diff
erentfrom t he
origi
nal r
awmat eri
al
- Oft
en employ unski
l
led - Empl oya hi gherpor t
ion
l
abour who oper ate ofski l
ledwor ker
si nt he
si
mplemachiner
y labour
- Si
mple - compl ex
- machi nesusedar elarge
and r
equire skil
led
operators

3.TERTIARYI NDUSTRIES
i
tdealswi t
hser vi
ceacti
vit
ies/provi
desser
vicestothepeopl
ee.g
shops,banks,hospi
tal
setc.theycanbepr i
vatel
yownede.gbanks,
i
nsurancesorownedbyt hegov ernmente.
gAi rBot
swanaoreven
parast
atal
se.gBPC,WUC

4.QUATERNARYI NDUSTRI ES
They prov
ide speci
ali
zed ser
vices e.
g comput
erpr
ogr
ammi
ng,
computerengi
neeri
ngetc

FACTORSI
NFLUENCI
NGLOCATI
ONOFANI
NDUSTRY

- Proxi
mity(near)totherawmat eri
al
- Proxi
mitytosour ceofpower
- Governmentpol i
cy
- Avail
abil
i
tyofal argemarket
- Avail
abil
i
tyofcheapabundantf latl
and
- Avail
abil
i
tyofgoodi nfr
astr
ucturee.gr
oads
- Avail
abil
i
tyifskil
ledmanpower
- Personalchoi
ce

ADVANTAGESBOTSWANAHASFORI
NDUSTRAI
LDEVELOPMENT

- Avai
labil
i
tyofheaplabour
- Poli
ti
calstabi
li
ty
- Goodi nf
rastr
uctur
edev el
opmentofi
ndust
ri
alest
ateswi
thwat
er

103
 andpowerconnecti
ons
- Avail
abi
lit
yofrawmat eri
al
- Member shipt
otheSout her
nAf r
icanCust
omsUnion( SACU)which
off
ersalargemarketsincether
eisfreemovementofcert
aingoods
betweenmemberst at
es.

FACTORSHI
NDERI
NGI
NDUSTRI
ALDEVELOPMENT

- Lackofcapital
- Lackofskill
edlabour
- Lack/short
ageofwat er
- Expensiveurbanland
- Compet i
ti
oni nt
hewor l
dmarket
- Smalllocalmarketbecauset
hesmal
lpopul
ati
onsi
ze
- Expensive

I
MPORTANCE/ BENEFI TSOFI NDUSTRIES
- Itincreasesthewealthofthecount r
y
- Leadst odev el
opmentofmanpowert rai
ningoflocals
- Leadst odiversi
ficat
ionoftheofthecount r
y’seconomy
- Increasesempl oymentopportuni
ties
- Decr easesdependenceoni mports.

REASONS WHY INDUSTRI

AL ESTATES ARE LOCATED I
N THE
OUTSKI
RTSOFTOWNS.

- Toav oi
dpollut
ion
- Forcheaperland
- Toav oi
dcongestion
- Formor espacetoexpand
- Thereislesscompetit
ionofl
andatt
heout
ski
rt
s

ADVANTAGES OF CONCERNTRATING I
NDUSTRI
ES I
N I
NDUSTRI
AL
ESTATES(
indust
ri
alaggl
omer
ati
on)

- Ther
eiseasyaccesstopeopl
elivi
ngaroundindustr
ies
- Ther
eiseasyaccesstomateri
als
- Ther
eisshari
ngofthecostsofcert
ainfaci
l
iti
ese.gpower
- I
tisapoolofski
ll
edlabour

104
DISADVANTAGES OFCONCERNTRATI
NG I
NDUSTRI
ES I
NINDUSTRI
AL
ESTATES(i
ndust
ri
alaggl
omer
ati
on)

- Poll
uti
on
- Competit
ionf
orlandandcust
omers
- Traf
fi
ccongesti
on
- Theymaybef arf
rom cust
omers

EFFORTSMADEBYTHEGOVERNMENTOFBOTSWANA TO I
MPROVE
I
NDUSTRAI
LDEVELOPMENT

- Fi
nancial assistancee. g.CEDA, NDB,BDC,
yout
hFund
- Educationandt raini
nge. gLEA
- Sett
ingupi ndust r i
alestates
- Provi
dingf actoryshel l
s
- Promot i
onofl ocal r
awmat eri
als
- I
ndust r
ial
izationofr ur
al areas
- Developmentofi nfr
astructuree.groads
- Provi
sionofmar kets
- Adverti
singe. gBEDI A
- Provi
sionoft axhol i
day s
- Quotasandt arif
fsoni mpor tedgoods

DI
FFERENCESBETWEENSMALLANDLARGESCALEI
NDI
STRI
ES

SMALL SCALE e. g pot

ter
y, LARGESCALE
metalwork,basketr
y
Useslesscapit
alinv
est
ment Useslar
gecapi tal
investment
Usesfewmanpower Uses mor e manpower( labour
i
ntensi
ve)
Haslowinput
sandoutput
s Hashighinputsandout puts
Usessimplet
echnol
ogy Usescompl extechnology
Covers/uses a smal
larea of Usesalargeareaofl and
l
and

CASESTUDYOFPROCESSI
NGI
NDUSTRI
ESI
NBOTSWANA

BOTSWANAMEATCOMMI
SSI
ON(
LARGESCALE)

105
 Rawmat
eri
al-cat
tl
e

Locat
ion-Lobat se, Fr anci stown
20l
ines
FACTORSI NFLUENCI NGLOCATI ONOFBMCI NLOBATSE
- Av ail
abi l
i
tyofcheapl abourf rom sur r
oundingv i
ll
agese. gKany e,
Goodhope, Ot seet c
- Av ail
abi l
i
tyofcat tlefrom bot ht radi
tionalandfreehol
df armers
- Av ail
abi l
i
tyofwat erfrom Gabor oneandNny wanedams
- Goodr oadandr ailtranspor t
- Enoughl andf orest ablishmentoft heindustr
y
1page
BYPRODUCTS
- Hor nsar eusedt omakebut t
ons
- Skinsar etreat edandpr eser ved,halfofitissentt othet anneryi
n
Lobat set obet urnedi ntoleatherwhi letheotherhalfisexpor t
edas
wethi des
- Bonesar ewashedandcr ushedt omakebonemeal
- Bloodi scookedt omakebl oodmeal
- Bil
ef r
om t hegal l bladderi sext ract
edt ousedinmedi cine
- Condemnedcar cassesandheadsar ecookedandcr ushedt omake
car cassmeal
- Intestines,ki dney s,l
iver,l
ungsandst omachl ini
ngar ecleanedand
packedf orhumanconsumpt ion

I
MPORTANCEOFTHECATTLEI
NDUSTRYTOTHEECONOMY

- Provi
desimpor tancemarketforthelocalf
armers
- Provi
desempl oy ment
- Generat
ei ncome/ f
orei
gnexchange
- Leadstodev el
opmentofi nfr
astr
ucturee.groads,
- SomeBat swanaar etrai
nedtowor kintheplant
- Promotest henameoft hecountry
- Itssourceoffood
- Iti
ssourceofr awmat eri
ale.
ghor ns,bi
leetc

PROBLEMSFACEDBYTHECATTLEI
NDUSTRYI
NBOTSWANA

- Cat
tl
earet r
ekkedforalongdist
anceandl
osewei
ght
- Fl
uctuat
ingmarketpri
cesintheworldmar
ket
- Cat
tl
ediseasese.gfootandmout h
106
 - Competi
ti
onwi t
hbutcher
ieswhichofferi
mmediatecashtofar
mers
- Short
ageofwaterduri
ngdroughtperi
od
- Dist
antmarket
sEuropeanUnion(EU)resul
tinhi
ghtranspor
tcost
s
- Lowquali
tybeefwhichaf
fectthepri
cesintheworl
dmar ket

SOLUTI
ONS

- Provi
sionofbor ehol
estofarmersbythegover
nment
- Regul
arv acci
nat i
ons
- Subsi
dizedpr icesofsupplementar
yfeedstoliv
est
ocktoimpr
ove
thequali
tyifthebeef
- Provi
sionofl oansandgr antsforimprov
ingthest
andar
dsofthe
beefi
ndust r
y

I
MPACTOFBMCONTHEENVI RONMENT
- Poll
ution
- Developmentofwast eheapswit
hinthesurroundi
ngar
eas
- Re-al
locati
onofsettl
ements
- Clear
ingoflandleadstolossofvegetat
ion

GUMAREBASKETWEAVERS(
SMALLSCALE)

Rawmat
eri
al–mokol
wanel
eav
es/
mot
lhakol
abar
ks

Locat
ion–Ngami
l
and

HOW BASKETSAREMADE

- Mokolwanel eavesareboi l
edandt hendri
edinthesun
- Leavesarethencuti ntolongthinstri
ps
- Thestripsar ethenboi l
edt ogetherwithmotlhakol
abar kst
ody
e
them t
oabr owni shcolour
- Reeds,grass,orcreepersareusedt omakebasketcoi l
s
- Leafstr
ipsaret henusedt owr aparoundthebasketcoil
- Thebasketist henstit
chedt ogether

USEOFBASKETS

- Fordecor
ati
on
107
 - Forwinnowing(l
esel
o)
- Forstor
inggrai
n(sesi
go)
- Forcarr
yingthi
ngs(gr
ains)

MARKET
- BotswanaCraf
tinGabor
one
- Localshopsi
nGumare
- Touri
sts

BENEFI
TS/IMPORTANCE
- Womenar eempower ed
- Creati
onofemployment
- Promotestouri
sm i
nthear ea
- Util
i
zati
onoflocal
resources
- Improvementofst
andardofl i
vi
ngf
orGumar
ewomen
- Improvessel
f-
suff
ici
ency

CASESTUDYOFAMANUFACTURI
NGI
NDUSTRYI
NSOUTHAFRI
CA

Integrat
edsteelworks–allpr
ocessesf
or minputoforetof
ini
shedsteel
carri
edoutinoneplace
Pigi r
on–mol t
enironwit
himpurit
iesi
.e.i
ronasi tcomesoutfrom t
he
blastfur
nacecontai
ningi
mpuri
ti
es

Ir
onoreisfoundinrockswhi
char
eassoci
atedwi
thv
olcani
cer
upt
ions
andi
gneousrocks.

Locat
ion–Pr
etor
ia

Rawmat
eri
al–i
ronor
e

Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngl
ocat
ion

- Avai
labi
li
tyofwaterf
rom t
heVaal ri
ver
- Avai
labi
li
tyofcheaplabourfrom surr
oundi
ngarease.
gMamel
odi
,
Soshanguve
- Avai
labi
li
tyofpowersuppl
iedbyEskom
- Avai
labi
li
tyofcokefr
om Natal
- Avai
labi
li
tyofcapi
tal
from SouthAfri
cangover
nment
108
 - Av
ail
abi
l
ityofcoki
ngcoal
from Wi
tbank

METHODSOFEXTRACTI ON
- Dri
ll
i
ngmachi nesar eusedtoopenholesinr
ocksinor dertopav
e
wayforexplosi
ve
- Expl
osi
vesar eputattheendofthehol
estoblastt
herocksopen
- Theoreisthentranspor
tedbytr
uckstothepr
ocessingplant

PROCESSINGOFI RONORE
- Theor ewi l
lbecrushedi ntosmal lpi
eces
- The cr ushed orei s puti nto a concent
rat
orand mixed wi
th
chemical
st oremov ei
mpur i
ties
- Theor eisdr i
edandt henputi ntotheblastfur
nacewher
eitis
heat
edatv eryhightemper atures
- Mol t
eni r
oni scall
edmol tenpi gir
on
- Themol t
enpi gir
onisthencool ed

CONVERSI
ONOFTHEPI
GIRONTOSTEEL

Steelisproducedbysmel t
ingpigi
ronandsomesmal lamountsofmetal
s
suchascobal tandnickel
.Thesteelwil
lber ol
l
edintobars,pl
atesand
sheets.Thest eeli
susedast hemainr
awmat eri
alf
orthemanufactur
eof
mot orvehicl
es.

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUT

Scr apiron Casting/moul
ding Pi
giron/
casti
ron
Limest one Rol
ling Sl
ag
Coke/ coke Forging
Oxy gen/ air
Alloymet al
Car bon
wat er
Sand
Fireclay
electri
city

SECTI
OND

POPULATI
ONANDSETTLEMENTSTUDI
ES

109
POPULATI
ONSTUDI
ES

Def
ini
ti
onoft
erms

Popul at i
on:i tist henumberofpeopl ei nanar eaoracount ry
Doubl ingt ime:t henumberofy earsi tt akesf orapopul ationt odoubl et he
presentpopul atione. gi nev er y15y ear s
Dependencyr atio:t her at i
ooft heeconomi callydependentpar toft hepopul ation
(under16andabov e64)t ot hepr oduct i
v epar toft hepopul ation( between16and
64)ort hepr opot i
onofwor ki ngpeopl et onon- wor kingpeopl e.
Popul at i
ongr owt h:t hespeedatwhi cht hepopul ationi sincreasi ng.Gr owt hmay
occurwhent henumberofbi rthsi sgr eatert hant henumberofdeat hs.
Lif
eexpect ancy :itist heav eragenumberofy ear st hatonei sexpect edt oliv ein
apar ti
cularcount rye. gI nBot swanal i
feexpect ancyf ormeni s54y ear sand62
forwomen
Infantmor tal i
tyr ate:t henumberofdeat hofi nf ant sbef oret hei rf i
rstbi r
thday
expr essedpert housandl ivebi rths.I nf antmor talityisawi del yusedi ndi catorof
heal t
hcondi tionandgener al livi
ngst andar dofpeopl ei napar ti
cul arar ea.
Popul at i
onexpl osi on:i ti sthesuddenpopul ationi ncreaser esul tingf rom ar apid
fal
l indeat hr ateandahi ghbi rthr ate.
Popul at i
ondensi ty :t henumberofpeopl el ivingpersquar eki lomet er( km² )
.It
showst henumberofpeopl ef oundwi t
hinasquar euni tofl andsuchasa
kil
omet er( km) .i ti si nf l
uenced by f act ors such as cl imat e,mi ner als,
wat er
availabili
ty ,lessf ertil
esoi l
s.
Popul at i
ondi stribut ion:t hewaypeopl ear espr eadorset tl
edi nacount ry
.i tis
i
nfluencedbyt heav ai labi l
it
yofwat er,fer ti
lesoi ls, mi neralse.t.c
Opt imum popul at ion:i tist hepopul at ionsi zewhi chi sf elttobemostdesi rable
fortheut il
isat ionoft hecount ry’snat ural resour ces.
Ov erpopul ation:i ti swhenacount r
yhasmor epeopl eandf ew r esour ces.Thi s
canl eadt ohunger ,diseaseorunderdev elopment .
Underpopul at i
on:i ti swhenacount ryhasmor er esour cesandl esspeopl e
Popul at i
oncensus; thi si st heof ficial countofpeopl ei nacount r yatagi vent ime,
usual l
ydoneev eryt eny ears.
Def acto:i tist heact ual popul ationpr esenti nt hecount ry
Dejur e:itispopul at i
oni nt hecount r
y, includingt hoser esident st empor aril
youtof
thecount ry .
Fertili
tyr ate: thenumberofchi l
dr enbor nper1000womenofchi l
dbear i
ngage.
Mor talityr ate/ deat hr at e:thenumberdeat hsper1000peopl epery ear.
Birthr ate:t henumberofl ivebi r
thsper1000women

110
WORLDPOPULATI
ONDI
STRI
BUTI
ON
20LI
NES

DENSELYPOPULATED
 EastAsi
a
 EastofUSA
 WestofEuropean

SPARCELYPOPULATED
 Sahar
adesert
 Canada
 Russi
a/Nort
hofEur
ope

WHYSOMEAREASARESPARCELYPOPULATED

 Presenceofmount ai
ns/mount ai
nousl
and
 Lowr ainf
all/
toomuchofr ainfall
 Extr
emecl i
mat i
ccondit
ionse. gtoohot/
toohot
 Desertareas
 Densef orests
 Occurrenceofpest sanddi seases
 Presenceofi nfer
ti
lesoi
ls
 Fewr esourcese.gareaswi thoutminer
als
 Presenceofsl opes

WHYSOMEAREASAREDENSELYPOPULATED

 Favour abl
ecl i
mat ee. g.adequat erainf
all
 Presenceofr esour cese.gmi ner al
s
 Presenceoff ert
ilesoi l
s
 Presenceofgent lesl opes/f
latland
 Availabil
it
yofwat ersour ces
 Poli
t i
calfactorse. gwher ebyt hegov ernmentdeci
deswher
epeopl
e
shoul dsettl
e
 Availabil
it
yofpast ures/vegetation
 Presenceofcommuni cat
ionlinkse.groads,rai
l
wayli
neset
c
 Diseasef reeareas
 Gov ernmentpol icy

111
FACTORSAFFECTI
NG/I
NFLUENCI
NGPOPULATI
ONGROWTH

HI
GHBIRTHRATE
Thisi
swhenbi r
thrateishighert
handeat
hrat
e.Ther
ear
esev
eralr
easons
forhi
ghbir
thr ate.Theyincl
ude
o Thedesi reforboysorgirl
s
o Earl
ymar ri
age
o Socialpresti
ge
o Rel
igionandbel iefs

IMPROVEDHEALTHFACI LITI
ES
Thishasledt
oadecreasei ndeat
hrates.Manypeopl
esurvi
veandthi
s
combinedwit
hthef
actt hatbir
thrat
eishighleadstorapi
dpopul
ati
on
growt
h

DECLINEI NINFANTMORTALI TY
Manyi nf
antsareabl
etosurvi
veduetofoodavai
l
abil
it
yandgoodmedi
cal
faci
l
iti
es.Thi
stheref
orel
eadstorapi
dpopul
ati
ongrowth.

FAMILYPLANNI NGOFBIRTHCONTROL
I
tisnotf ul
lyaccept
edindevel
opingcount
ri
esandmostpeopl
ehav
enot
yetseent heneedt ocont
rolbir
ths.t
heyenduphavingmanychil
dren
whichresulti
nrapi
dpopul
ati
on.

I
MPROVEDFOODSUPPLY
Peopl
eli
vemuchl
ongerbecauset
heygetnut
ri
ti
onal
bal
anceddi
ets.

I
MPROVEDWATERSUPPLY
Peopl
eli
vel
ongerbecauset
heydr
inkcl
eanwat
er

INMIGRATI
ON
Popul
ati
onwil
lincr
easewhenpeopl
efr
om ot
hercount
ri
esmov
eint
othe
count
ry

PROBLEMSCAUSEDBYRAPI
DPOPULATI
ONGROWTH

LACKOFJOBS
Ifthe popul
ati
on i
ncr
eases r
api
dly
,ther
e won’
tbe enough j
obs f
or
every
one.

112
 SHORTAGEOFHOUSI NG/OVERCROWDI NG
Peopl
ewil
lnotbeabl
etoprov
ideenoughhousi
ngf
ort
hei
rfami
l
ies.

OVERPOPULATI ON
Ifthepopul ati
ongr owsr api
dlyt heywoul dbef ewr esour ceswhi chwi l
lnot
be enough t o suppor tt he popul ati
on and t his wi l
lputpr essur e on
resour ces.
SHORTAGEOFFOODANDWATER
Foodandwat erwi llbeexpensi vebecauset heywoul dbehi ghdemand
(whent herear emanypeopl ein-needofsomet hingt hepr i
ceswi l
lbehi gh)
.
Peopl ewi l
lnotbeabl etoprov i
deenoughf oodf ort heirlovedfami lies.
GROWTHI NCRI MERATE
Crimewi l
lincreaseduet ounempl oy ment,lackoff oodandaswel lasl ack
ofhousi ng.Thi sisbecausesomepeopl eresorttocr i
measawayl iving.
SHORTAGEOFMEDI CALFACI LITIES
Ther ewi llbeshor tageofmedi calf acil
it
ies,therefor emedi calcost swi llgo
high
GROWTHOFSQUATTERSETTLEMENT
Peopl ewoul dmi gratet oot herar east ol ookf orj obs.Thosewhoar e
unabl et of i
nddescenthouses/ settlementwi l
lsettlei nthemar ginalar eas
therebydev elopingsquat terset tl
ement s.
POVERTY
Peopl ewhocan’ tfi
ndj obs/empl oymentwi llbecomepoor .
SHORTAGEOFEDUCATI ONALFACI LI
TIES
Ther ewi llbemanychi l
drenandschool swillnotbeenoughf oralloft hem.
LOW STANDARDOFLI VING
Peopl ewi l
lbeunabl et oaf f
or dbasi cnecessi t
iessuchasbat terf ood,
shel t
erandwat erandt heirstandar dsofl i
vingwi llbel ow.
SHORTAGEOFTRANSPORTFACI LI TI
ES
Ifthepopul ationgr owsr apidl
yt her ewoul dbemanypeopl eandt ransport
facili
ti
essuchasbuses, t
rai
nse. t.
cwi l
lnotbeenough.
Ov ercrowdi ng/ l
ackofhousi ng
Pol l
ution
Spr eadofdi sease
Landdegr adat i
on
Soci alil
lse. g.prostituti
on
Traf f
iccongest ion

SOLUTI
ONSTOTRAFFICCONGESTI
ON
- Onewayrout
es
- Fl
y-
over
s
113
 - Overheadpedest ri
anbridges
- Numberpl atesaccess
- Traffi
cci r
cles
- By-passes
- Fr
eeway s
- Mul t
ilanedr oads
- Traffi
clights
- Parkingmet er
s
- Traffi
ccops

THEDEMOGRAPHI
CTRANSI
TIONMODEL

20l
i
nes

Demogr aphi
ctr
ansi
ti
onmodelstat
esthatpopul
ati
onpassest
hroughst
agesof
changesandt hesechangesar
el i
nked t
ot hestageofdev
elopmentofthe
countr
y.

STAGE1( hi
ghfl
uctuati
ng)
I
tischaract
eri
zedbyhi ghbi
rt
hrat
esandhi
ghdeat
hrat
esandal
ow nat
ural
i
ncreasei
npopulat
ion

Reasonsf
orhi
ghbi
rt
hrat
es

o Traditionalbelief
s/ socialcust oms-Chi l
drenar ehighlyval
uedasa
signofweal th
o Nouseofcont racept i
ves
o Infantmor tali
tyrat eishi gh so parentshav emanychi ldren t
o
ensur ethatsomel ive(deat hinsurance)
o Chi l
drenar easour ceoff reelabouronthef arms
o Pol y
gamy–whenpeopl emar r ymorethanonewi fetheyarebound
tohav emanychi ldren
o Desi r
et osur esexual powerbyhav i
ngmanychi ldren
o Ear l
ymar r
iages–whenpeopl emar ryearly,t
heyhav e mor echil
d
bear i
ngy earsascompar edtot hosewhomar r
ylate.
o Gender /
sexpr eference–t hedesi r
ehav eacer tainleadstosome
peopl ehav i
ngmanychi ldren.

Reasonsf
orhi
ghdeat
hrat
es

114
 o Poorfoodsuppl yandpoordi et
s
o Outbr
eakofpl aguedi seasese.
gchol
era
o Poorhygiene
o Poormedi calfaci
li
ties
o Lackoffood/st arvation
o Lackofcleanpipedwat er

STAGE2( ear
lyexpandi
ng)
I
tischaracteri
zed bydecli
ning deat
hs,hi
gh bi
rt
hrat
esand ar
api
d nat
ural
i
ncreasei
npopulati
on.Thi
sisbecauseof:

reasons for low

reasons for high birth rate o Avail
abil
i
tyofi mpr ovedmedical f
acil
it
ies death rate
o Lowknowl edgeont heuseofcont racepti
ves
o Improvedsani t
ation
o Supplyofcleanpi pedwater
o Reducti
onini nfantmor t
ali
ty
o Improvedfoodpr oduct
ionleadingbetterdi
ets
o Improvedhy gi
eneandsani tation
o Highchil
dsur vival,meani
ngl esspressuretobearmanychi
l
dren

STAGE3(
lat
eexpansi
on|
)

I
tischaracteri
zedbyl ow deat
hrat
es,shar
pdecl
i
nei
nbi
rt
hrat
esandasl
ow
nat
ural
increaseinpopulat
ion.

Fal
li
ngbirthratebecause;
o Bet terst andardsofl i
vinge. ghavingbiggerhouses,car
sasar esul
ts
people st ar
thav i
ng fewerchi ldr
en which competi
ti
on wit
hr aisi
ng of
chil
dren.
o peopl ehav eaccept edtheuseofbi rt
hcontrolmet
hodse.guseoff amil
y
planningandi l
legalizedabor t
ion
o Lowi nfantmor tali
tyratereducestheneedtohav emorechi
ldr
en.
o I ncreased levelofeducat i
on amongstwomen/women al so chooses
careersthanchi ldbearing.
o I ncentiv
esf orpeoplehav i
ngfewerchildr
en

STAGE4(
lowst
ati
onar
y)

I
tischaract
eri
sedbylowbi
rthr
ates,l
owdeathr
atesandal
ownat
urali
ncr
ease
ofpopul
ati
on.Thesehav
eshownthatt
her
eare:

115
 o Latemar r
iages
o Chil
drenar enolongerval
uedasassets( peopl
eopttohav
efew
chi
ldren)
o peopleareeducat edandhav eful
lyacceptedtheusedofbi
rt
h
contr
ol methods
o Moreadv ancementinmedi calt
echnol
ogy

Ar
easinst
age4and5hav eahi ghagi ngpopul at
ionwit
hsi gnsofdecli
ne.
Pr
obl
emsofanagi
ngpopul ati
onar e:
o decli
neinlabourf orce
o highdemandf orpensi ons
o pressureonmedi calfaci
li
tiesbecauseofoccurrenceofhi
gh
li
festy
lediseasese. gheartpr obl
ems.Hyper
tensi
onetc
o underuti
li
zedser vi
ces
o underuti
li
zednat uralresources

SUMMARY

Stage 1 2 3 4
Birt
h Hi
gh Hi
gh Decl
i
ne Low
rate
Death Hi
gh Decl
i
ne Low Low
rate
N.P.I Low Rapi
d Sl
ow Low
incr
eas i
ncreas
e e
N.
P.I
=nat
uralpopul
ati
oni
ncr
ease

N.BNATURALPOPULATI ON INCREASE:t hi
sist hedif
ferencebetween
bir
thrateanddeathrat
eexpressedper1000oft hepopulati
one.gBirt
h
rat
e 65 perthousand,deat
hr ate 30 perthousand theref
ore nat
ural
i
ncreasesi
npopulat
ionisgoi
ngtobe35pert housand

65
-30
=3
5
35per1000i
noneyear

116
 Total area Swazil
and Lesot
ho30 Botswana
i
nkm² 17000 000 600000
Total 737000 1673000 1164000
populat
ion
٪l iv
ing in 26 19 21
towns
Bir
th r ate 47 41 47
per1000
Death rate 13 12 12
per1000
CALCULATETHEPERCENTAGENATURALPOPULATI
ON I
NCREASEOF
EACHOFTHECOUNTRIES.

(
SKI
P10LI
NESFORTHEWORKI
NG)

POPULATI ONPYRAMI D
Age-sexpyramid
Iti
saspeci alt
ypeofbarchartshowi
ngpopul
ati
ondistr
ibuti
onbyageand
sex(mal eandf emal
e).Theshapeofthepyramidcanshow thelev
elof
developmentofacountry.Ther
earet
hreet
ypesofpyramids.

EXPANSIVEPYRAMID
I
tisassoci
atedwi
thdev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es.
Iti
schar
act
eri
zedby
:

CHARACTERI STI
CS/ DESCRIPTI
ON EXPLANATI ON
Broadbased Highbir
thrates
Steepsloped Highdeathrate
Getsnarrowtowardsthetop Lowlif
eexpectancy
Numberofpeopl edecr easesasage Lowlif
eexpectancy
i
ncreases
Large numberofdependent s and a Hi
ghdependencyr
ati
o
smallnumberofeconomi call
yact i
ve
group
15l
i
nes

CONSTRUCTI
VEPYRAMI
D

I
tassoci
ated wi
th dev
eloped count
ri
es popul
ati
on.I
ts char
act
eri
sti
cs

117
 i
ncl
ude:

CHARACTERI STICS/DESCRI PTION EXPLANATION

Narrowbase Lowbir
thrate
Gentlesloped Lowdeathrat
e
Fair
lystrai
ghtedges Highl
if
eexpectancy
Numberofpeopl eincreaseasage Highl
if
eexpectancy
i
ncreases
Smal lnumberofdependent sanda Lowdependencyr
ati
o
l
argenumberofeconomi call
yactiv
e
group

15l
i
nes

STATI
ONARYPYRAMI
D

Ithas a narr
ow base t
hatshows a mov et owar
ds zero growt
hi n
popul
ati
on.Iti
susedtodescr
ibehi
ghlydevelopedcountr
ies.I
tusedfor
count
ri
eswithanagi
ngpopul
ati
on.I
tschar
acteri
sti
csare:

- veryfewyoungpeople
- l
owdependencyr at
io
- highli
feexpect
ancy
- mor eworki
ngpopulat
ion
- mor eel
derl
ypeople

N.
B:whencompar ingtwopy r
ami ds,
compar
ethef
oll
owi
ng:
- gender(malesandf emales_
- Li
feexpectancy
- Dependencyr at
ion
- Bir
thrate
- Deathrate
- Theshape

POPULATI
ONDI
STRI
BUTI
ONANDDENSI
TYI
NBOTSWANA

SPARCELYPOPULATEDARES
1.theKgalagadiar
eas
- lowandunr el
i
abler
ainf
all
- poorsandysoils

118
 - dri
nkingwateri
sdi
ff
icul
tandexpensi
vet
oobt
ainast
her
eisl
i
ttl
e
surf
acewater
- poorpast
ures

2.OkavangoDelta/
area
- Di
seases
- Presenceofswamps
3.Chobearea
- Mostoft hel
andisusedf
orwi
l
dli
feandf
orestr
eser
ves

DENSELYPOPULATEDAREAS

1.Easternareas
- Highr ai
nfal
l
- Ferti
lesoil
s
- Diseasefree
- Pasturesofbetterquali
ty
- Developedinfr
astructur
e
- Empl oymentoppor t
unit
ies

EFFORTSMADEBYSTAKEHOLDERSTOCURBRAPI
DPOPULATI
ONGROWTH

GOVERNMENT

- Providesawar eness/ educationonf amil

yplanning
- Providesf r
eecont raceptiv
es
- Formul atepol ici
ese. g paidmat ernit
yleaveonlyforthe3chil
dren,
onechi ldpol i
cy
- I
mmuni zat
iont oreducei nfantmor tal
it
ysol esserchil
drenwi
llbe
bornasf ewdi e
- Mor ejoboppor t
uniti
esforwomen
- I
mpr ov edst atusofwomen
- provisi
onofi ncent iv
esf orsmallfami l
i
es
- migrationlawse. guseofv i
sas
- Discour ageill
egal settl
ement se.gshant yhouses

CHURCHES

- Pr
eachabst
inence

119
 - Pr
ovi
deawarenessonfami
lypl
anni
ng
- Pr
omotesexaftermar
ri
age
- Pr
omotecel
ibacy

NGOs
- Pr
ovideseducati
ononfami
lypl
anni
ng
- I
mplementgov er
nmentpol
i
cies

COMMUNI
TIES
- Latermarr
iagest
her
eforefewerchi
l
dbear
ingy
ear
s
- Nochildr
enbefor
emar r
iage

POPULATI
ONMOVEMENT

Migr
ati
on
I
tist
hemovementofpeopl
efr
om onear
eat
oanot
her

Emi
grat
ion
Mov
ingoutofacount
ry

I
mmigr
ati
on
Mov
ementint
oacount
ry

Vol
unt
arymovement
Whenpeopl
echooset
omov
efr
om onear
eat
oanot
her

I
nvol
untar
ymov ement
Whenpeoplear
ef or cedt omov e..
Ususl
lyi
tsdueto:
- Fami ne/ l
ackoff ood
- War scr eati
ngl argenumber sofrefugees
- Raci al discri
mi nation
- Nat ural disasterse. gfl
oods,ear
thquakes
- Slaver y /
slavet rade
- Reset t
lement
- Gov er nmentpol icy

Per
manentmigrat
ion
Whenpeopl
eleavethei
rpl
aceofor
igi
nwi
thoutt
hei
ntent
ionofcomi
ngback

Tempor
arymigrat
ion
Whenpeopl
eleaveforashor
tper
iodoft
imeandr
etur
ntoor
igi
nal
place
120
I
nter
nalmigr
ati
on
Movementofpeopl
ewi
thi
nthecount
ry

Ext
ernalmovement
Movementofpeopl
eout
sidet
hecount
ry

Localmi
grat
ion
Movementwithi
nlocal
i
tye.
gfr
om school
tohome

Regi
onalmigr
ati
on
Movementofpeopl
ewi
thi
nther
egi
one.
gfr
om Gabor
onet
oMochudi

I
nternati
onalmovement
Mov ementofpeopleout
sideboundar
iesoft
hecount
rye.
gfr
om Gabor
onet
o
Harare

TYPESOFMI
GRATI
ONWI
THI
NBOTSWANA

- Rural–urban
- Urban–r ural
- Rural–rural
- Urban–ur ban

FACTORSFORMI
GRATI
ON

Pushf
act
ors/
negat
ive

o starvati
on
o naturaldisasterse.gfl
oods,drought
s, ear
thquakesetc
o unempl oyment
o poli
ti
cal i
nstabili
ty/persecut
ion
o l
ackofdev elopmente. geducati
onalf
aci l
i
ties,heal
thet
c
o overcrowding/ poorhousinginrur
alareas
o l
owwagesi nagr i
cult
uralwork

Pul
lfact
ors/
posi
ti
ve

o hi
gherempl
oymentoppor
tuni
ti
es

121
 o bet
terentertainment
o bet
termedi cal f
aci
li
ti
es
o bet
tertr
anspor t
o pol
it
icalstabili
ty
o bet
tereducat i
on
o marri
age
o bet
termar ket
o bet
tershoppi ngfaci
li
ti
es
o bet
terstandar dsofl
ivi
ng
o hi
gherwages

CONSEQUENCESOFMI
GRATI
ON

Negat
iveef
fect
sonsour
cear
eas/pl
aceofor
igi
n

o de-populati
on/underpopul at
ion
o declini
ngagricult
uralproducti
on/agr i
cult
urelef
tinthehandsofthe
i
nexper i
enced
o age-seximbal ancest r
ucturee.g.theremaybemor ewoment han
men
o l
eadst omar ri
agebr eakdown/ separati
onoffamil
ies
o familyli
veschangesbecausewomenhav etoplayaroleofbeing
bothmot herandf ather/j
uvenil
edelinquency
o braindrain

Posi
ti
veef
fect
sonsour
cear
eas/pl
aceofor
igi
n

o i
tcreatesemploymentopport
uni
ti
esfortheremaini
ngpopul
ati
on
o pressurei
sreducesonresour
cesofland
o decli
neinbirt
hrates
o migrantsmaybringnewskil
ls
o migrantssendmoneyhomet oimprovel
ivi
ngstandards

Negat
iveef
fect
sont
her
ecei
vi
ngar
ea

o overcr
owding
o unemployment
o l
ackofhousing
o poorsani
tati
on
o i
ncreasedcri
merat
e

122
 o traf
fi
ccongest i
on
o poll
ution(noiseandwat er)
o l
ackofsoci al serv
icese.ghospi
tal
s
o developmentofsquat t
ercamps
o raci
al t
ension/ t
ri
bali
sm

Posi
ti
veef
fect
sonr
ecei
vi
ngar
eas

- overcomesl abourshor
tage
- bri
ngsspecializedski
ll
s
- preparedtowor kdir
tyunskil
l
edj
obsandl
onghour
s
- cult
uraladvantagesandlinks

WAYSOFSOLVI
NGRURAL–URBANMI
GRATI
ON

o Est
abli
shmentofi ndustri
est ocreat
eempl oyment
o I
mpr ovementofinfrast
ructuree.groads,
school
s,hospi
tal
set
c
o Useofy outhempower mentpr ogrammes
o Decentral
izat
ionofgovernmentof fi
ces
o I
mpr ovementi nt
heagricult
uresectore.g.NAMPAAD
o I
ncreaseofser vi
cesinruralareas

HI
VAI
DSI
NBOTSWANA

Theacronym HIVst
andsf
orHumanI mmuno-
def
ici
encyVi
rus.TheHI
V
causesAcqui
redI
mmuneDefi
ciencySy
ndr
ome.

I
mpact
sofHI
V/AI
DSi
nBot
swana

Soci
al
- Increasepsy chol
ogi calsupport
- Increasedabsent eeism from work
- Increasednumberofor phans
- Labourshor tageonf arms
- Stigmaagai nstthei nfect
edandt heaf
fect
ed
- Lossofbr eadwi nner s
- Mor echil
drenheadedf amili
es
Economic
- Decl i
neinfami l
yincome
- Increasedterminal benefits

123
 - Lowpr oduct
ivit
y
- Incr
easedpov ert
y
- LowGr ossDomest i
cPr
oductgr
owt
h
- Incr
easeddependencyr
ati
o
- Shortageofskil
ls

SOLUTI
ONSTOTHEPROBLEMSOFHI V/AI
DS
- educationont hedangersofunprotect
edsexe.
gthr
ought
heat
er
groups
- provi
sionoff reecondoms
- PreventionofMot herToChil
dTransit
ion
- Encouragingabst i
nence
- Freeprov i
sionofAntiRi
troVir
al(ARV)drug
- Provisi
onoff oodbaskettothetermi
nall
yil
l
- Provisi
onofhomebasedcar

SETTLEMENTS
Settlement–i ti sanar eawher epeopl eleav e
Site–r eferstot heact ualgroundonwhi chset tl
ement sstand
Haml et–aset tl
ementwi thfewhousesandnotmor ethan100peopl e.It
hasv er yfewbasi cser vi
cese.gt uckshop, mobi l
eclinicetc
Vill
age–aset tl
ementofupt o2000peopl e.Ithasav ar
ietyofservicese.g.
cli
nics, shopsandl ibrary
Town–aset tl
ementofapopul ationofabout1000000peopl e.I thas
manydi fferentser v
ices.
City–aset tl
ementofwi t
hpopul ationofmor ethan1000000peopl e
Conur bation–whent ownsj ointoget hert oform alargeci ty
Megapol is–whent ownsandci tiesjoint ogethertof orm av eryl
argecity
Mor phol ogy–t hest udyoft hefor m andst ructureofset tl
ement s
Spher eofi nfluence– t heext entt owhi chat ownandi tssurrounding
regionsi nteract
Settlement hi erar
chy -r anking of set t
lements accor ding to si ze

124
(population),v
arietyofserv
icesetc
Situati
on–posi ti
onofaset tl
ementinr elati
ontoothersett
lementsaround
i
t
Funct i
onofaset tl
ement–r ol
eplayedbyaset tl
ementi neconomi cuse
e.g.recreati
onal,educati
onal,commer cial,
indust
ri
al,admi
nistr
ati
ve,heal
th,
andr eli
giouscent er.
Urbanizat i
on-thegr owthofanurbanar ea
Spher eofi nfl
uence– how aset t
lementand i t
ssur r
ounding r
egions
i
nt er
act

RURALSETTLEMENTS

Av i
ll
ageisthemostpr ominentf
orm ofrur
alsett
lementsinAfr
ica.The
housesaregeneral
l
yunplannedandtherearefew ser
vicescomparedto
towns.Agr
icul
tur
eisthemaineconomicacti
vi
ty.

SETTLEMENTPATTERNSI
NBOTSWANA

Dispersedsett
lements
7l
ines
Thedwel l
ingsarescat
teredandareusuall
yawal
ki
ngdi
stancef
rom each
other.InBotswana,suchset t
lementsarecommonintheNEDi stri
ct,
Ngami l
and,Barol
ongfarmsandt heKgal
agadi

Descri
bepl
aceswher
edi
sper
sedset
tl
ement
sar
eli
kel
ytodev
elop
-
cattl
epost
s
-
lands
-
ranches

REASONSFORDI SPERSEDSETTLEMENTSi nBotswanaincl

ude:
- Plentyofspace
- Lackofwat ersopeopl emustspr ead
- Flatl
andsot her earenorestr
icti
onsonsi ze
- Improvedtranspor tmakesiteasiertogettomarket
- Cattl
epostsof tencoverslar
gear eaofland
-
Descri
beplaceswher enucleatedsettl
ement sar
elikel
ytodevel
op
-
onplantati
ons
-
wheretherearemi neraldeposit
sformi ning
125
 -
wheretherearefer
ti
lesoil
sforcropproduct
ion
-
ataroadjuncti
onforeasytranspor
t
-
att
hemout hofari
verforeasyaccessetowater

Adv
ant
ages Di
sadv
antages
- Spacet oextendt hefarm - Lack of soci alcontact
- Farmers can use new andcommuni t
yhelp
technology as t herei s - A f armer must hav e
plentyofspace. his/herownmachi nes
- Pressure on r esources - Diffi
cultandexpensivet o
and env i
ronment al providesocialserv
ices
i
mpact sarer educed - Diffi
cult t o mobi l
ize
- Land and resour ces are peopl e f or communi t
y
shared equal ly without projects
muchcompet i
ti
on - Diffi
culty i
n
admi nist
rati
on by l ocal
chief since people ar e
scattered ov er a wi de
area

Nucleatedsett
lement
Bui
ldings are usual
l
y close t
o each ot
her.Usual
l
ythe bui
l
dings ar
e of
ten
cl
usteredaroundawat ersour
ceorrout
efocus.

7l
i
nes

REASONSFORNUCLEATEDSETTLEMENT

- Li
mi tedwat ersuppli
ese.g.housesarebui l
tar
oundawater
hol
e
- Defenceagai nstenemi ese.g.cl
usteri
ngi nhi
ll
se.g.t
heol
dsit
eof
Molepol ol
e
- Cult
ur e–t hechiefscouldeasil
ycontrolmanypeoplei
nanucl
eated
set
tlementsot heyprefer
redthi
spat t
ern
- Miner al
depositse.Sowa
- Nearnesst oshops, schools,
healt
hfacili
ti
es

126
 Adv
ant
ages Di
sadv
antage
- Short di st
ance for - Long di stancest ol ands
servi
ces andgr azing
- Networ k of - This makes i ntensi
ve
roads/accessibi
li
ty farmi ng and hi gh yiel
ds
- Easyadmi ni
str
ati
on dif
ficul t
- Socialcohesion - Over grazing near t he
- Easypr ovi
sionofservi
ces vil
l
age
- Securi
ty /
neighborhood - Fir
ewood may r un out
watch neart hev ill
age
- Sewer age di sposal i s
mor edi ff
icultforal ar
ge
numberofpeopl e
- Trafficcongest ioni nthe
settl
ementcent er

Li
nearset
tl
ement

Buil
dingsf
orm al
i
net
hatmaybest
rai
ghtorcur
vedal
ongar
oad,r
iverorr
ail
way
l
ine.
7li
nes

Descri
beplaceswherelinearset
tl
ementsar
eli
kel
ytodev
elop.
-
alongthecoastl
ineforfishi
ng
-
alongtranspor
tli
nesforeasymov ement
-
fert
il
elandalongtheriv
erbankst ogr
owcrops

Adv
ant
ages Di
sadv
antages
- Easypr ovisionofser vi
ces - vulnerabl
e t o nat ural
whi char el inearinnature disasterli
kefloods
e.g.el ectricit
y,telephone - Prone t
o vehicl
e
l
ine, wat erreticul
ation, accidentsanddr owning
- Accessi bili
ty t o wat er - Residentsont hefarend
(usesamer i
ver) oft hev il
l
aget ravellong
- Peopl e easi l
y connect distancef orservi
ceson
withmai ncommuni cati
on the ot her side of t he
net work i .e. r oad or settlement
i
nt ernetline

127
FACTORSI
NFLUENCI
NGLOCATI
ON/
SITI
NG/
EVOLUTI
ONOFASETTLEMENT

 Avai
labil
it
yofr angelands/pastur
es
 Avai
labil
it
yofwat ersupply
 Avai
labil
it
yoff erti
lesoil
s
 Avai
labil
it
yoff uel wood
 Avai
labil
it
yofr awm mat eri
alse.
gr eeds, cl
ayetc
 Avai
labil
it
yofhi ghlandsf orprot
ection/reli
ef
 Nearnesst ovaluableresourcese.gmi nerals
 Hi
storicalsit
es
 Avai
labil
it
yofgoodcommuni cat
ionlinkse.groads

URBANSETTLEMENT

Theyaredi ff
erentf
rom rur
alsett
lementsbysizeandf unct
ion.Urbancenter
s
havethousandsofpeopleandtheirmajorf
unct
ionisindust
ri
al.Anurbancentr
e
canbedef i
nedasasettl
ementwhosemaj oract
ivi
ti
esare:manufact
uri
ng,mini
ng,
admini
strat
ion,commerci
alandtouri
sm.

I
nter
nalst
ruct
ureofur
banar
eas

1.Centr
alBusinessDi st r
ict( CBD)
Thisf
ormst heci t
ycent er.Itismadeupofcommer
cialact
ivi
ti
esof
theci
ty.ACBCchar act eri
zedby :
 Av ari
etyofshops
 Tall
, mult
istorybui l
di ngs
 Bankingandf inancial i
nstit
uti
ons
 Cent r
algov ernmentheadquar ter
s
 Buildi
ngswi t
hgl asswal l
s
 Hasami xtureofol dandnewbui l
dings
 Hasof fi
cesofpr i
vatecompani es
 Thebui l
dingshav eel evator
s
 Highdayt imepopul ati
on
 Lowni ghttimepopul ati
on

2.I
ndust
ri
alAr
eas

128
 Thesear ebuil
tfarawayf r
om theCBD,wherel
andischeapand
i
nfrastructur
eisaccessibl
ee.groadsandrai
l
wayli
nes.Ther
ear e
l
ighti ndustr
ies(e.
gt ext
il
eindust
ri
es)andheav
yindust
ri
es( e.
g.
mot orvehicl
eindust
ri
es).

Iti
schar acteri
zedby :
- Factoryshells/warehouses
- Rail
road
- Bigtrucks
- Smoke/ poll
ut i
on
- Noise( f
actoriesandtrucks)
- Largeland

Theyar
efoundi
ntheout
ski
rt
soft
heci
ti
esbecause:

- Ther
eisenoughspaceforexpansi
on
- Ther
eisneedtoavoi
dpollut
ionint
heinnerci
ty
- Toavoi
dtraf
fi
ccongest
ion
- Thel
andtherei
scheaper

3.Resi denti
alareas
a)Lowdensi tyareas
Itismadeupofmedi um andhi ghcosthouses.Theyar eusuall
y
foundnextt otheCBDori nt heoutskir
tsofthecity.Theyareowned
bypeopl ewi t
hagoodf inancialbackground.Peoplelivi
ngi nsuch
areascommut etoworkev er
ydayandmostoft hem owncar s.
b)Hi ghdensityareas
Thesear elowcosthouses.Theyar efarawayfrom theCBDandt he
housesar eusuallysmallandt heyarebui l
tinsmal lpl
ots.People
l
ivingintheseareasareusual l
ysemi-ski
lledworker
s, l
abourerset
c

4.Twil
ightZone
Thi
si sar egi
onofdecayingindustr
iesandhousi
ng.I
tisusual
l
y
cl
oset otheCBD.Iti
sinthiszonethatthepr
obl
emsoftheci
tyar
e
ati
tsworste.gcr
imerates

5.ShantyTowns/squat
terset
tl
ement
Thisiswher emanypeopl eliv
eandt hehousesar ebui l
tfr
om
anythi
ngonecanf i
nde.gmet alsheet
s,plast
ics,t
ins,boxeset
cit
usuall
yfoundi
ntheoutski
rt
soft heci
tybecause:

129
 Theyar
eusual
l
yfoundi
ntheout
ski
rt
sofset
tl
ementbecause:

- Landintheinnercit
yisexpensi
ve
- Iti
snearindustri
es
- There’
sempt yland/av
ail
abl
eland
- Therei
slackofaccommodat i
on
- Iti
snearindustri
es

Theyar
echar
act
eri
zedby
:

- Housesmadeofwast emateri
al
- Smallhouses
- Housescluster
ed/cl
oselypacked
- Li
tt
er
- Badsmel l
- Poorsanit
ati
on
- Noisepoll
uti
on
- Poorventi
lat
ion/nowindows
- Temporarybuil
ding/
fli
msystruct
ures

MODELSOFURBANMORPHOLOGY

LANDUSEPATTERNS
Thisrefer
st othewayl andisusedandsi tuat
edinapar t
icularplace.I
na
ci
ty,usuall
yt her
eisacer tai
npat t
ernwhi chisfol
lowedwhenst ructur
ing
sett
lements e. gresi
dentialareas,t he CBD and industr
ies are allin
dif
ferentareas.Geographershavet r
iedtocomeupwi ththeor i
esonhow
l
andusepat t
ernsshouldbeinaci ty
:

 Concent
ri
cmodel
 Sect
ormodel
 Mult
i-
nuclei
model

a)Concentri
cModel(Bur
gessModel
)
Hebelievedthatci
ti
esandtownsgr
ow outasaser
iesofr
ings
ar
oundt heCBD
10li
nes

130
 b)SectorModel( Hoy tandHomermodel )
Theysaidt hatregi
onsi nacityoccurinsect
ors,extendingfrom t
he
CBDal ongmaj orroutessuchasr oadsandrail
wayl i
nes.
10lines
c)Multi-
nucleimodel( Harri
sandHul l
man)
Theybel i
evedt hatanyi mportantplaceintheci t
ycancauset he
growth ofhousesand of f
icesar ound.There are a numberof
i
mpor tantsectorsincit
iessurroundedbydif
ferentsectors.
10lines

SERVI
CESTHATPEOPLEI
NTHESURROUNDI
NGAREASCANGETFROM
TOWNS/CI
TIES

 Postalserv
ices
 Educati
onal services
 Healthservi
ces
 Shoppingfaci l
i
ties
 Recreati
onal services
 Bankingserviceset c

URBANI
SATI
ON

I
toccursinbothmoder
nandi ndigenoustownsi nBotswana.Itiscaused
mainl
ybypeoplemovi
ngfrom theruralar
easintotownsandci t
ies(r
ural–
ur
banmi gr
ati
on)aswel
lasthr
oughnat uralpopul
ationi
ncrease.

PROBLEMSOFURBANI
SATI
ON

- Shortageofj obscausi ngunempl oyment

- Lackofcheaphousi ng, sopeopl ebuildsquattercamps
- Highr entscausingov ercrowdi ng
- Lackofcl eanpipedwat erleadingt odi
seases
- Traf
ficcongest i
on
- Poll
utione.g.duet olackofpr opersewagedi sposal
- Lackofmedi calfaci
li
ties
- Lackofeducat i
onalfaci l
i
tiesleadingtolowl i
ter
acyrat
e
- Social i
l
lse.g.prosti
tution,juv
eniledelinquencyetc

BOTSWANANATI
ONALSETTLEMENTPOLI
CY

131
 InBot
swanat
her
eisaNat
ionalSet
tl
ementpol
i
cywhi
chhast
hef
oll
owi
ng
aims:

- Topromot epr operuseofl and

- Provi
del ongterm st r
ategyf orhumanset tl
ement
- Regulateestablishmentofset t
lements
- Promoteconser vati
onofnat ur
alresources
- Helpreducer ural–ur banmi gr
ati
on
- Provi
degui deli
nesont ransportandut i
l
itynetworks
- Serve as guidel i
ne fordev el
opmentofv ari
ous regi
ons oft
he
country
- Promotebal anceddev elopment
- Faci
li
tateorder l
yt r
ansitionfrom r
uraltourbanset t
lement
s

PAPER3

RESEARCHSKI
LLS

Resear chi sanact ivi

tywher eonef i
ndsoutaboutsomet hingt hatinter
ests
him/her .I
ti staskcarri
edoutwi ththeintent
iontodiscovernew ideas,fact
sor
gatheri nformation t
hatwi llhelp answeryourquest i
ons.I tbegins with an
i
nquisitivemi nd.Iti
spr ocessoff i
ndingoutmor einfor
mat i
onaboutaspeci fi
c
problem ort opic.Research is saidto be systemati
c because therei s an
acceptablewayofconduct i
ng it.
ietherearecer t
ain st
agesorst epst o be
foll
owedwhenconduct i
ngar esearch.Thef ol
l
owingar ecommonst agesof
researchpr ocess:
 I dentifi
cati
onofapr oblem

132
  For
mul
ati
onofar
esear
cht
opi
c

 For
mul
ati
onofahy
pot
hesi
s

 St
atementofai
msandobj
ect
ives

 Li
ter
atur
erev
iew

 Met
hodol
ogy

 Dat
aanal
ysi
s

 Concl
usi
on

 Recommendat
ion

 Acknowl
edgement

 Bi
bli
ogr
aphy

Ar
esear
chshoul
dbeasobj
ect
iveasmuchaspossi
ble.

WHYDOWERESEACH

 Togat
hernewf
act
s

 Answercont
empor
aryi
ssuesofconcer
n

 Toi
mpr
oveexi
sti
ngf
act
s

Resear
chmet
hodscanbecl
assi
fi
edasqual
i
tat
iveandquant
it
ati
ver
esear
ch

1.
QUANTI
TATI
VEMETHOD

Thesear emethodsofi nvestigati

ngwherebyt heresearcheremphasisnumeri
cal
methods describing sit
uations.These met hods aret heref
ore sci
ent
if
ic or
mathemat i
calnature.Theyr equir
ealotofst atist
icaldataintermsofnumbers,
addit
ion,measur ements,cal cul
ati
onsetc,v ari
ousscal esar eusedt oensure
accuracyandprecisedescriptionofsi
tuat
ions.

ADVANTAGES
 Moreaccur
ateandpr
eci
se

 Deal
swi
thf
act
snotopt
ions

 Hel
pther
esear
chert
oacqui
resci
ent
if
icski
l
ls

133
  Canber
epeat
edmanyt
imest
over
if
yfi
ndi
ngs

DI
SADVANTAGES
 Dif
fi
cul
ttoqual
i
fypeopl
e`sbehav
iour
alat
tri
but
es

 Expensi
veequi
pmentmaybeneededi
nlabor
ator
ies

 Sui
tabl
eforl
i
ter
atepeopl
eonl
ysi
ncei
tinv
olv
escal
cul
ati
ons

 Donotal
l
owt
her
esear
chert
oaddhi
s/heropi
nion

2.QUALI
TATI
VEMETHOD

Thesear emet hodsofi nvesti

gati
ngapr oblem wherebyther esearcherusesot her
meansofdescr ibingsituati
onsot hert
hansci enti
fi
corst ati
sti
caldata.Qualitative
researchisdonebyr esearchersinthesocialandbehav iouralsci
ence,aswel las
bypr acti
ti
oner si nt hef i
eldthatconcer nst hemselveswi thissuesr el
at edt o
humanbehav i
ourandf uncti
oning.Thesemet hodsinvol
v ecoll
ectingofpeopl e` s
opini
ons,f eel
ings,v iews,ideaset c.Exampl eofqual it
ativeincl
udes;st udent s`
viewst owardst eachers,causesoft eenagepr egnancyandef f
ectsofpov ertyon
chil
dren.Someoft hedat amaybequal ifiedaswi thcensusdat abutanal ysis
i
tselfi
saqual itati
v eone.

ADVANTAGES
 Offermor
ein-
dept
hunder
standi
ngofi
ssues

 Pr
esent
sat
ruepi
ctur
eofawayofl
i
fee.
gpeopl
e`sopi
nion,exper
iences,
i
deaset
c

 Al
l
owr
esear
chert
oaddhi
s/heropi
nion

 General
l
y cheaperbecause i
tneeds l
ed equi
pmentt
han qual
i
tat
ive
methods.

DI
SADVANTAES
 Lessaccur
atebecausei
tispr
onet
oresear
cherbi
as

 Noteasi
l
yrepeat
abl
easi
tdeal
swi
thpeopl
e`sopi
nionandv
iews

GENERALPROBLEM THATMAYBEENCOUNTERREDDURI
NGARESEARCH

 Lackofcooper
ati
onbyr
espondent
s

 Hi
ght
ranspor
tort
rav
ell
i
ngcost
s

 Longdi
stancet
othear
eaofst
udy

134
  Lackoft
ranspor
ttot
hear
eaofst
udy

 Lackofsecur
it
yint
hear
ea

 Lackofaccessi
bil
i
tyt
othear
eaofst
udy

 Resear
chcabbeat
imeconsumi
ngexer
cise

 Di
srupt
ionbyunpr
edi
ctabl
eev
ent
ssuchasbadweat
her

CHOOSI
NGARESEARCHTOPI
C

Aresearchtopi
ci sat opi
cofinv
est i
gati
onathandandshoulddescr
ibeincl
ear
t
ermswhatt her esearcheri
st r
ying tofind out
.When sel
ect
ing a t
opi
cof
r
esearchtheresearchershoul
dconsiderthefol
l
owing:

 Decidewhatitisyouwanttofindout(e.
gthereasonfortheincr
easein
rapey ourv
il
lage,r
easonswhyy oungpeopl
eareleavi
ngy ourvil
l
age,or
howt hecel
lphonehaschangedthewaypeopl
ecommuni cate)

 Topicmustberesear
chabl
ei.
eitsat
isf
iest
heway
sandmet
hodsusedi
n
col
lect
ingdat
a

 Topi
cshoul
dnotv
iol
ateconst
it
uti
onal
laws

 Setthel
engthofti
metheresearchwoul
dlastandmakesur
ether
esear
ch
probl
em canbeinv
est
igat
edwi t
hint
heti
mef rame

 Itmusthav
ealocalfl
avori
.et
hetopi
cshoul
dbesomethi
ngt
hatpeopl
ein
theareaknow well
.Thisisimport
antsi
ncetheywoul
dbey ourmain
sour
ceofdataori
nformati
on.

 Itmusthaveapointoff ocus.Thi
sreferstotheexactf
act
stheresear
cher
wantstofi
ndoutabout .Theuseofv erbssuchascauses,
impacts,
eff
ects
andrat
ewillhel
pdirecttheresear
chert of
ocus.

Resear
chabl
etopi
csi
nGeogr
aphy

1.Causesandef
fect
sofpassi
onki
l
li
ngi
nTl
okweng

2.Ef
fect
soHI
V&AI
DSonl
owi
ncomeear
ningf
ami
l
iesi
nMahal
apy
e

3.I
mpact
soff
uel
woodcol
l
ect
ingi
nMar
apongl
ands.

4.I
mpor
tanceoff
uel
woodcol
l
ect
ioni
nMogodi
tshane

135
 5.Ani
nvest
igat
ioni
ntheef
fect
sofpaperl
i
tter
ingi
nschool
s

AI
MS/
OBJECTI
VES

Aresearchtopi
cmusthaveaimsorobj ecti
ves.Object
ivesar
estatementof
i
ntent
ion,i
.ewhati
stheresear
cheri
ntendingtofindout.Theyshul
dbeclear
andtothepoint
.

TOPI
C:Causesandeff
ect
sofli
tt
eri
ngi
nSTJoseph`
sCollege
e.
g
 Tofindoutthemai
ncausesofl
i
tter
ingi
nSTJoseph`sCol
l
ege

 Tofi
ndoutwhatst
udent
sandt
eacher
scandot
okeept
heschool
cl
ean

 Tof
indwhyt
her
eisl
i
tter
ingi
ntheschool

 Tof
indwhysomear
eashav
emor
eli
tt
ert
hanot
her
s

HYPOTHESI
S
 Iti
sanideat
hatcanbet
est
ed

 I
tisani
ntel
l
igentguess

Agoodhy
pot
hesi
s

 Doesnotcont
radi
ctexi
sti
ngknowl
edge

 Pr
edi
ctsr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenv
ari
abl
es

e.
g
 Paperl
i
tter
ingi
sonl
ycausedbyst
udent
s

 Theonlysour
cesofl
i
tter
ingi
ntheschool
aret
hedupl
i
cat
ingr
oom andt
he
ki
tchen

 Ther
ateoft
eenagepr
egnancyi
shi
ghesti
nTl
okweng.

 Popul
ati
on migr
ati
on i
n Met
simot
lhabe i
sthe mai
n cause ofsl
ow
devel
opment

 Theonl
yty
peofl
i
tteri
ntheschool
sar
ebot
tl
esandpl
ast
ics

SOURCEOFDATA

136
  Publ
i
shedandunpubl
i
shedbooks

 Gov
ernmentandpr
ivat
enewspaper
s

 Radi
opr
ogr
ammes

 Jour
nal
s

 Magazi
nes

 I
nter
net

METHODSOFDATACOLLECTI
ON

1.QUESTI
ONNAI
RE

The ter
m quest i
onnai
resimplymeansa f orm,which i
sused f orcollect
ing
i
nformati
onf r
om therespondenti.
epersonwhoisgivi
ngt heinf
ormation.This
methodinvolvessendi
ngoutasetofquest i
onseit
herbypostordi rectl
yand
physi
call
ycarryi
ngthem t
ot hepeoplet
oanswer.Therespondent
swi l
lsendt he
questi
onnai
resbacktotheresear
cheraf
terfi
l
li
ngthem.

I
MPORTANTPOI
NTSTONOTEWHENPREPARI
NGQUESTI
ONNAI
RES

 Remembert
omakeapol
i
test
artandf
ini
sh

 Alway
sstar
twithabrief
,persuasi
vest
atementst
ati
ngt
hepur
poseand
val
ueoft
heresear
chexerci
se.

 Thefir
stquesti
onmustt ackl
ethesi
mpl
erandeasi
eri
temswhi
chwi
l
lnot
i
rri
tat
ey ourr
espondent
s

 Phr
asey
ourquest
ionscl
ear
lyandcour
teousl
y

 Makequest
ionst
othepoi
nt

 Av
oidquest
ionswhi
chseekot
herpeopl
e’
ssecr
ets

 Maket
hequest
ionsasf
ewaspossi
ble

 Quest
ionsshoul
dtar
gett
heai
msoft
hecour
sewor
korr
esear
chpr
obl
em

 Thequest
ionnai
reshoul
dhavebi
o-dat
ae.
gsex,
age,
occupat
ion,
educat
ion
et
c(namemaybemadeopt ional
)

137
  Makeal
lquest
ionsendwi
thaquest
ionmar
k.

 Remembert
oconcl
udebyt
hanki
ngy
ourr
espondentf
ort
hei
rcont
ri
but
ion.

Howt
ocol
lectdat
ausi
ngquest
ionnai
res

 Pr
epar
easetofquest
ions

 Makeasampl
eofr
esponses

 Sendorgi
vequest
ionnai
rest
othet
argetgr
oup

 Col
l
ectbackquest
ionnai
res

 Compi
l
ethei
nfor
mat
ion

Aquest ionnaireonShopper s
Gender :
Age:
Nationalit
y:
1.Wher edoy oul i
ve?
InTown Outsi
detheTown
2.Howhav eyout rav
ell
edher et
oday ?
Bus Car Walk Bicy
cle Other
3.Howl ongdi ditgetyoutogether e?
>10mi nutes 10-
20mi nutes between
20-30mi nutes
<30mi nutes Other
,pl
easespeci fy
4.Howl ongisi tsi
ncey oulastv
isither
e?
Yesterday Thedaybef ore l
esst hanaweek 1-
2weeksago
5.Whatt ypeofgoodsdouusual lybuywheny oucomet ot hi
sshoppi
ngcenter
?
Foodanddr inks Clot
hesand shoes
Electr
icalgoodsJewel ler
y Fur
nit
ure
Books

ADVANTAGESOFQUESTI ONNAIRES
 Ithaswi decoveragebecauseonecanaskpeopl
efr
om anumberof
l
ocat
ionsorpl
aces.

 Respondent
scanansweratt
hei
rownt
ime

 Ther
eispr
ivacyoranonymi
tyonthepartofr
espondent
s.Thi
smeanst
hey
maynotberequi
redtoshowthei
rident
it
y.

138
  Respondent
shav
epl
ent
yoft
imet
othi
nkaboutt
hequest
ionsbef
ore
answeri
ng

 Respondent
scanconsul
tot
hersour
ces.

 Quest
ionnai
rescanbemai
l
edt
ofarpl
aces.

 Savesr esear
cher
sti
mebecausehe/
shei
snotr
equi
redt
o beal
way
s
present

DI
SADVANTAGES
 Lowresponser
ateassomepeopl
emayi
gnor
ethequest
ionnai
re

 Questi
onnair
egetl
ostduet
orespondent
`scar
elessnessorev
eni
nthe
mail
ingprocess

 Lackofclar
it
yastheresear
cherwi
l
lnotbet
her
ewhent
her
espondent
s
answert
hequest
ions

 Delayedresponse/
timeconsuming.Somerespondent
smaydel
ayt
osend
theresponseandthismaydelaythewhol
eresearchpr
oject
.

 Languagebarr
ierasonlypeopl
ewhounder
standt
hel
anguageusedcan
answerthequest
ionnai
re

 Lackoff
lexi
bil
i
ty,
respondenti
sconf
inedt
oquest
ions

 Non-
ver
bal
behav
iourcannotbeobser
ved

 I
tissui
tabl
efort
hel
i
ter
ateonl
y

 I
tcanbecost
lye.
gwhenpost
ingquest
ionnai
res

2.I
NTERVI
EW

I
tinv
olv
est hediscussi
onort al
ki
ngorexchangi
ngwor
dswi
thi
ndi
vi
dual
sor
gr
oupofpeople.
Howtocol
lectinf
ormati
onusi
nginter
viewmet
hod:

 Rel
evantquest
ionst
othest
udyar
eseti
nadv
ance.

 Chooseasampl
eofr
espondent
swhowi
l
ltakepar
t

 Appoi
ntwi
thr
espondent
satat
imeandl
ocat
iont
hati
ssui
tabl
eand

139
 conv
eni
entt
othem.

 Sendort
akecopi
esoft
hequest
ionnai
ret
other
espondent
.

 Si
twi
thr
espondent
sandaskquest
ions

 Av
oidbei
ngj
udgement
aldur
ingt
hei
nter
view

 Wr
it
edownr
esponses

 Keept
hei
nter
viewshor
tnott
obor
eandt
ir
ether
espondent

 Compi
l
einf
ormat
ion

ADVANTAGES

 Al
l
owsr
esear
chert
oaskf
oll
owupquest
ions

 Cl
ari
fyoft
hei
nfor
mat
ionast
her
esear
cherwi
l
lbepr
esent

 Thereisfl
exi
bil
i
tyasi
tal
l
owst
hei
nter
viewert
omakechangeswher
e
possi
ble

 Sui
tabl
eforbot
hnon-
li
ter
ateandl
i
ter
ates

 Hi
ghr
esponser
atebecauseoft
her
esear
ch`
spr
esence

 Non-
ver
bal
behav
iourcanbeobser
ved

DI
SADVANTAGES
 Timeconsumingast
heresear
cherhastospendt
imewit
hther
espondent
whotakealongti
metoanswerevensi
mplequest
ions

 Pr
esenceofr esear
chermaymaket
her
espondent
suncomf
ort
abl
eand
maywithhol
dsomei nf
ormat
ion

 Hi
ghcost
sinv
olv
ed,
e.gt
ranspor
ttot
her
espondent
s

 The respondent may gi

ve mi
sleadi
ng answer
sjust t
o pl
ease t
he
i
nter
viewer

 Respondent
smaybeuncooper
ati
vebynothonourappoi
ntment

140
 3.DOCUMENTAYSTUDY

I
nthi
smet hodtheresearcherreadswrit
tenmater
ial
ssuchasbooks,
newspaper
,
magazi
nes,i
nter
netetcrelatedtothetopi
c.
Howtocoll
ectdatausingdocument ar
yst udy

 Vi
sitl
i
brar
y

 Readwr
it
tenmat
eri
alsr
elat
edt
othet
opi
c

 Takenot
es

 Compi
l
einf
ormat
ion

ADVANTAGES
 Materi
alscanber
e-v
isi
ted

 Det
ail
edandspeci
fi
cinf
ormat
ione.
g,number
s

 Wi
dercov
eragebydi
ff
erentsour
ces

 Sav
est
imeasi
tpr
ovi
desal
readyanal
ysedi
nfor
mat
ion

DI
SADVANTAGES
 Avai
labl
einf
ormat
ionmi
ghtnotbespeci
fi
ctot
hest
udy

 I
nfor
mat
ionmi
ghtbeout
dat
edorol
d

 Pagesmay
bemi
ssi
ng

 Resear
chermyr
epeatmi
stakesdonebypr
evi
ousr
esear
cher
s

 Sui
tabl
eforl
i
ter
atepeopl
eonl
y

4.OBSERVATI
ON

Thi
siswher ether esearchergoesint
othef
iel
dtoexamineorseet
hingswith
hi
s/hereyes.E.g,onecangoandobser vet
raf
fi
cfl
ow atthemainmalldur
ing
l
unchhours.
Howt ocol
lectdatausingobservat
ion:
 Vi si
tthearea

 Exami
ne

 Wr
it
edownnot
es

141
  Compi
l
edat
a

ADVANTAGES

 I
tgi
vesf
ir
sthandi
nfor
mat
ion

 I
ti s a dir
ectmet
hod ofst
udy
ing t
her
efor
ether
eis no di
stor
ti
on of
i
nformation

DI
SADVANTAGES
 Trav
ell
i
ngcost
s

 Canbeeasi
l
ydi
srupt
edbyunpr
edi
ctabl
eev
ent
s,e.
grai
n

 I
tishi
ghl
ysubj
ect
ivet
anobj
ect
ive

Bel
owi
sanexampl
eofanobser
vat
ionsheetusi
ngf
ocol
l
ect
ingdat
a:

Anobser
vat
ionsheet

Pl
aceofobser
vat
ion;
___
___
___
___
___
___
___ Ti
me_
___
___
___
___
___
___

Dat
eofobser
vat
ion:
___
___
___
___
___
___
___

SKETCHMAP

Vehicl
e Mor
ningr
ush Lunchr
ush Ev
eni
ngr
ush
observed
Buses
Trucks
Taxis
Pri
vate
sedans

5.SI
MPLESURVEY

142
Theresearchergoesint
othef iel
d and gather
ssomei nfor
mation.Nor
mal
l
y
sampl
esareused.Survey
saregoodf ort
opicswhereonewantsto:
 Assesstheimpact
sofdevelopmentinanarea

e.
gImpact
sofanopencostmi
nei
nOr
apa

 i
nvest
igat
ingaboutsomet
hing

e.
gthebestpl
acet
obui
l
danot
heruni
ver
sit
yint
hecent
ral
dist
ri
ct

 compar
edi
ff
erentt
hings,
concept
sori
deas

e.gper
for
manceoft
eacher
sinpr
ivat
eschool
swi
tht
hosei
ngov
ernment
school
s

ADVANTAGES
 Givesf
ir
sthandi
nfor
mat
ion

 Qui
ckmet
hodsassampl
ear
eusedt
orepr
esentawhol
e

 I
tisf
lexi
bleast
her
esear
cherdet
ermi
nest
hesampl
esi
ze

DI
SADVATAGES
 Trav
ell
i
ngcost
s

 Canbet
imeconsumi
ng

 Sampl
emay
beunr
epr
esent
ati
ve(
toosmal
l
)

 Bi
asedi
nfor
mat
ion

6.EXPERI
MENTALMETHOD

Thisis a way ofcol l

ect
ing dat
at hrough car
ryi
ng outexperi
ments under
condit
ions.I
tismainl
yconf
inedtolaboratori
esandinvol
vest
heuseofapparatus
whichmaysomet i
mesbecompl i
cated.Al otofcareandpati
enceisneededfor
resul
tstobev al
uabl
e.

Adv
ant
ages
 Resul
tsarereli
ableifal
lthenecessar
yst
epswer
efol
l
owed
 I
tisadirectmet hodofstudy
 Fi
rsthandinfor
mat ioni
sobt ai
ned
 I
tcanber epeatedifnecessary

Di
sadv
antages
 Itneedspeopl
ewi
thski
l
ls

143
  I
tisexpensi
vesincetheequi
pmentmaybesophist
icated
 Acci
dentsarecommonwhenhandl i
ngdanger
ousmat eri
als
 I
tmayy i
eldwrongresulti
fwrongmethodi
sused

METHODOFDATAPRESENTATI
ON

 Barchar
t/gr
aph

10l
i
nes

 Pi
echar
t

10l
i
nes

 Pi
ctogr
am/
pict
ogr
aph

10l
i
nes

 Li
ne-
graph/l
i
near
-gr
aph

10l
i
nes

 Hi
stogr
am

10l
i
nes

 Tr
iangul
argr
am

10l
i
nes

 Maps

10l
i
nes

 Wr
it
tenr
epor
t

 Fl
owchar
ts

10l
i
nes

 St
ati
sti
cal
tabl
es

10l
i
nes

WHATTOREMEMERWHENPRESENTI
NGDATA

 Ti
tl
e

144
  Label
axi
spr
oper
ly

 Donotuseabbr
evi
ati
ons(
ifsopr
ovi
dekey
)

 Forbargr
aphandhi
stogr
ams,
thewi
dthoft
hebar
sshoul
dbeequal

 Forl
i
neargr
aphs,
li
neshoul
dst
artandendwher
etheyar
esupposet
o

 Forpi
echar
tsusepr
otr
act
or,
shar
ppenci
lander
aser

DATAANALYSI
SANDI NTERPRENTATI
ON
 Anal
yse/
int
erpr
et

 Concl
ude/
summar
ise

 maker
ecommendat
ions

 submi
ttor
elev
antaut
hor
it
ies

 compi
l
ear
epor
t

 pr
esent

 ev
aluat
e

 publ
i
sh

 t
esthy
pot
hesi
s

RESEARCHETHI
CS

 Conf
ident
ial
andpr
ivacyassur
ed

 Anony
mit
y

 Honest
y

 I
nfor
medconsent

 Ri
ghtt
odi
scont
inue

 Showcour
tesy

145
PAPER1

MAPREADI
NG
GRI
D
I
nordertolocat
efeat
uresonthet
opogr
aphi
calmaps,
ref
erenceneedt
obemade
t
ogridli
nes.Thesearethenumberedl
i
nescrossi
ngt
hemapf rom Westt
oEast

146
andf rom Sout
ht oNorth.Verti
calgri
dlinesareknownast heEasti
ngsbecause
theyar enumberedfrom Westt oEast.Thehorizontalgri
dlinesareknownas
Nor t
hingsandtheyarenumber edfrom Southt
oNor th.
Agr idrefer
encegivest helocati
on/posit
ionofaf eatureonamap.I nallgr
id
refer
encestheEasti
ngsar egivenbeforetheNort
hings.

4gri
drefer
ences 6gri
drefer
ences
A=1406 A=148069
B=1405 B=145058

DI
RECTIONS
Di
rect
iononatopographi
cmapmaybegi venbyusing;
a)CAMPUSDI RECTION:her eref
er enceismadet othemaincampuspoi nt
s
ofNor
th,South,West,andEast.Ot herpoint
sinbetweengi
vedi
r ect
ionsi
n
moredetai
ledandi ncludeNE,SE,NW,SW.Ev enmor epr
eci
sioncanbe
gi
veni
freferencei
smadet opointsinbetweenthese,
suchasNNEet c

EXAMPLE
Ski
p15li
nes

Fi
ndi
ngdi
rect
ionsbet
weenfeat
ures.
1.MakeaNor t
hli
newherei
tsaysfr
om

2.Joi
nthet
wopoi
ntsorf
eat
ures

3.Wr
it
etheot
hercar
dinal
poi
ntf
rom t
heNor
thl
i
ne

4.Not
edi
rect
ion

b)GRI
DBEARI
NGS

Thedirecti
onisobtai
nedusingbear
ingsfr
om Gri
dNort
h.Thesebear
ings
areknownasgr idbeari
ngs.Theyar
egivenindegr
eesworki
ngcl
ockwise
fr
om zer odegr
eesorGridNorth

147
Ski
p10l
i
nes

Fi
ndi
ngdi
rect
ionsusi
nggr
idbear
ings
1.MakeNor t
hli
newherei
tsaysfr
om

2.Joi
nthet
wopoi
ntsorf
eat
urest
oget
her

3.Measur
et heangl
efrom t
heNor
thlinetot
hel
i
nej
oini
ngt
het
wopoi
ntsi
n
acl
ockwisedir
ect
ion(usi
ngapr
otector
)

4.Not
ethegr
idbear
ing

NB:Remembert
oindi
cat
euni
tsandst
artwi
thazer
othent
heangl
eis2di
git
s
e.
g090degr
ees

MEASURI
NGDI
STANCE

Mapsar edrawntoscale.Theact
ualsi
zeoffeatur
esothegroundandthe
dist
ancesbet
weenthem canber
educedi
npr
oport
ion,i
nor
dert
oshowthem on
topogr
aphi
calmap.

St
rai
ghtl
inedistance
1.Placerulerorst
rai
ghtedgeofapieceofpaperonthemapandmeasur
eor
markoffdist
ancealongorbet
weenthetwolocat
ions.

2.Transf
erthemapmeasur
ementt
othescal
eli
nepr
ovi
dedbel
owt
heapoe
usetherati
oscal
eal
sopr
ovi
dedi
nthemap.E.
g

I
fmapdi
stanceis5cm andthescalei
s2cm:
1km
2cm:1km
5cm:X
X=2.5km or2500m

Cur
veddi
stance
1.Div
idethelengt
hoft
hel
i
net
obemeasur
edi
ntoast
rai
ghtsect
ions

2.Pl
aceacor nerofastrai
ghtedgeofpaperwher
ethel
i
nebegi
nsandmar
k
onthepaperthefi
rstbendli
nemeasured

3.Keepingt
hemar ky
ouhav emadef
ir
mlyf
ixedr
otat
ethest
rai
ghtedgeof
paperunt
ili
tfol
l
owstr
aightl
i
ne

148
 4.Cont
inuewi
tht
hepr
ocedur
eunt
ilt
heendoft
hel
i
ne

5.Whenyouhavecomplet
edthemeasurement
suset
hescal
etoconv
ertt
he
measur
ementtoact
ualdist
anceorr
ati
o

DETERMI
NINGHEI
GHTS

Hei
ght
sar
eshowninthreewaysonatopogr
aphi
cal
map.
1.SPOTHEIGHT:thesear
espotsmarkedonmapswi
tht
hehei
ght
sgi
veni
n
(m)

2.TRIGONOMETRI
CALSTATION:Theyar
egi
venonmapsbyat
ri
angul
ar
symbolwi
tht
hehei
ghtgi
veni
n(m)

3.CONTOURS:Theyar el i
nesjoi
ning placesoft he same hei
ght
.On a
topographi
calmaptheyareshownasbr ownlines.Thespaci
ngbetween
contoursisknownasthecont
ourvert
icalint
erv
al.

CALCULATI
NGGRADI
ENT

Agr adientisthesteepnessofsl opesbetweentwopoi nt

s.Itiscalculatedusing
the horizontaldistance and t
he dif
fer
encei n hei
ghts.Slopesdi ff
eri nt hei
r
steepnessandy oucandet er
minehowst eepaslopei sbyreferr
ingtot heheight
anddi stancedetail
sinthemap.Thegr adi
entisusual
lygivenasratio.E.g1:200

STEPSOFCALCULATI
NGGRADI
ENT

1.Fi
nddi
ff
erencei
nhei
ght
sbet
weent
het
wopoi
ntsgi
ven(
VI)

2.Measur
ethehor
izont
aldi
stanceei
therasst
rai
ghtl
i
neoracur
vedl
i
ne

3.Makesuret
hatbot
hthehei
ghtandhor
izont
aldi
stancear
eint
hesame
uni
ts,
namel
y(m)

4.Uset
hesef
ormul
a

Verti
cali
nterval=VI
Hori
zontali
nterval HD
Andgi
vet
hegr
adientasar ati
o

AREA

149
  Countthenumberofwholesquares
 Countthenumberofpar
tsquaresanddividet
henumberby2
 Add thenumberofwhol esquar esand partsquares(
i.
e.t
otal
numberofsquares)
 Fi
ndtheareaof1squareusingthescale
 Mult
iplyar
eaof1squarebythetotalnumberofsquar
es

E.
g.I
fthetotal
numberofsquar
eis5
Areaof1squarei
s1km x1km whi
chis1km
Theref
ore:t
heareaoft
hetotal
numberofsquar
esi
s:

1km x5

ANSWER=5km²

LANDFORMS

VALLEY
Thi
sisanar r
owl owlandsurr
oundedbyhighlands.Thehi
ghestcontourl
i
nesar
e
ontheout
side.Therefor
etheV`softhev
alleypointst
othehi
ghlands.

Ski
p7l
i
nes

SPUR
Thi
si sanarr
owpartofhighl
andcutti
ngoutf r
om thesidesofamount
ainover
hi
ll
.Itpoi
ntst
owar
dsthelowland.Thelowestcont
ourli
nesareont
heoutsi
de.

Ski
p7l
i
nes

PLATEAUS

Skip7l
ines
RIDGES

Ski
p7li
nes
KNOLL

Ski
p7lines
CONICALHILL

150
Ski
p7
RANGE

Ski
p7l
ines
GORGE

Ski
p7li
nes
SADDLE

TYPESSLOPES

1.GENTLESLOPE

Thecontour
sarewidel
yspaced.Foraunifor
m(regul
ar)gent
lesl
ope,t
he
cont
oursaremoreorl
essanequaldist
anceapar
t.

2.ASTEEPSLOPE
Thecont
our
sarecl
oset
oget
her

3.UNEVEN

Ski
p10l
i
nes

4.AVERTI CALSLOPEORCLI FF
Thecontoursarecl
osetoget
herthatt
heyal
mostmer
gei
ntoone.Forav
ert
ical
cl
if
f,al
lthecont
oursfor
m oneli
ne.

Ski
p7l
i
ne

5.ACONVEXSLOPE
Thecont oursareclosel
yspaced,
showingasteepersl
opealongthel
ower
partofthesl ope;andmorewidel
yspaced,showingagent
lerslopei
nthe
upperpar t
.

6.ACONCAVESLOPES
Thecontoursarewidelyspacedshowingagent
lersl
opeont helowerpar
t
oftheslope;andmor ecl osel
yspaced,showi
ngast eeperslopeinthe
upperpart
.Thedi cti
onarytell
susthatconcavemeans“ curvedli
kethe
insi
deofcir
cle”

Ski
p15l
i
nes

7.STEPPEDORTERRACED

Ski
p7l
i
nes
151
SERVI
CES

Hospit
al-heal
thservi
ces
School
-education
Postoff
ice-communi cat
ion
Poli
cestati
on–secur ityser
vices
Dam –wat ersupply
Roads-communi cation
Powerli
nes–powersuppl yetc

HUMANACTI VITIES
Diptank–pastoral
far
mi ng
Quarry–quar
rying,mi
ning
Farminget
c

SETTLEMENTPATTERNS
Li
near
Nucl
eated
Concentr
ic

OTHERCALCULATIONSTOLOOKAT
 Temperat
urest
ati
sti
csi
.e.mean,
range
 Rel
ati
vehumidi
ty
 Popul
ati
onstat
ist
ics

CALCULATI
NGTI
ME

I
NTRODUCTI ON
Theear
thr otatesintwoway s:
1.Itr otatesaroundanel li
pti
calorbi
taroundthesun.Thi
skindofrotat
ion
t
akesoney ear(365.25days)tocompleteandbri
ngsabouttheseasons
i
.e.wi nter
,spri
ngs,summerandaut umn

2.Itr
otat
esabouti
taxes.Thi
srot
ati
ont
akesoneday(
24hour
s)t
ocompl
ete
andbri
ngsabout
:

i
. Thedef
lect
ionofwi
ndsandoceancur
rent
s

i
i
. Thedai
l
yri
singandf
all
i
ngoft
het
ides

i
i
i. Ni
ght
sandday
sinpl
acesar
oundt
heear
th

152
 i
v. Adi
ff
erenceofonehourbet
weent
womer
idi
ans15ᵒapar
t

CALCULATI ONOFTI ME
Asi ndicatedabov e,t hesecondt ypeofear thr otat
ionbr i
ngsaboutat ime
dif
ference ofone hourbet ween two mer i
dians 15ᵒ apar t
.Thisi si n an
anti
clockwi sedirecti
onandi tisdescribedasbei ngf rom westt oeast.This
meanst hatallthear easthatar eintheeastexper i
encesunr isebeforethosein
thewest .Thear easint heeastarethussai dtobeaheadi ntime.
Forthisr eason,whenwet ravelinaneast erl
ydirecti
onweaddt imeorgaint i
me.
Forev ery15ᵒweadd1hourorf orevery1ᵒweadd4mi nutes.
Ont hecont r
ary
,whenwet ravelinawest erl
ydi recti
onwesubt ractti
meorl ose
ti
me.Forev ery15ᵒwesubt ract1hourorf orevery1ᵒwesubt ract4mi nut
es.
Usingt hesebasi cfacts,wecancal culat
et i
mef oranypl ace,giventhenecessary
i
nformat ion.

Example1:
I
fiti
s12:00noonatt heGr eenwichMeridi
an( 0ᵒ),whatt
imewill
itbeatapl ace
(i
) 45ᵒ E
(I
I) 30ᵒ W
Therear
etwoway sofcal culati
ngtheseti
mes.
Methodone:counti
ngdirectlyfrom meri
dians
(i
) bet ween0ᵒand45ᵒ,t hereare3intervalsof15ᵒ,soweadd1hourt hr
ee
ti
mesbeginningfr
om 12:00noon.Thi sgivesat imeof15:00or3:00pm at45ᵒE
(I
I) bet ween0ᵒand30ᵒ,t hereare2i nter
v al
sof15ᵒ ,sowesubtract1hour
twotimesbeginni
ngf r
om 12: 00noon.Thi sgivesat i
meof10:00or10. 00am at
30ᵒW

Calculat
ingt
imedif
fer
encebet
weenl
i
nesoflongi
tude.
Met hodtwo:usi
ngrat
io
(i
) 1ᵒ : 4ˊ
45ᵒ : Xˊ crossmulti
ply
ing

1ᵒxXˊ= 45ᵒx4ˊ
X= 180ˊ = 3hour
s t
his i
s t
he t
ime di
ff
erence
bet
ween0ᵒand45ᵒ

Wet
henadd3hour
sto12:
00noongi
vi
ngat
imeof1500hour
sat45ᵒ

(
ii
) 1ᵒ : 4ˊ
30ᵒ : Xˊ cr
ossmul
ti
ply
ing

1ᵒxXˊ= 30ᵒx4ˊ
X= 120ˊ = 2hour
s t
his i
s t
he t
ime di
ff
erence
bet
ween0ᵒand45ᵒ

Wethensubt
ract2hour
sfr
om 12:
00noongi
vi
ngat
imeof1000hour
sat
30ᵒ
153
Exampl e2:
Theti
meatmer i
dian30ᵒEis1420hour s.Whatt
imeisitatmeri
dians
(i
) 90ᵒ E
(i
i) 60ᵒ W
Method1: count
ingofft
hemer idi
answeget
(i
)1820hour sat90ᵒE
(i
i)0820hoursat60ᵒ W
Method2: usi
ngrati
on
(i
) Si nce30ᵒEand90ᵒ arebothont heeastofGreenwichMer i
dian,wef
ir
st
cal
culatethemer idi
andif
ferencebetweenthem:
90ᵒ-30ᵒ = 60ᵒ t henuserati
on
1ᵒ = X crossmulti
ply
ing

1ᵒxX = 60ᵒX4ˊ
X = 240ˊ =4hour stimedif
ference
Soaddi
ng4hoursto1420hour sgivesatimeof1820hoursat90ᵒ
E
(i
i) Since30ᵒEand60ᵒW areonopposi t
esidesoftheGreenwi
chMeri
dian,
we
addt
hem uptogetthemeridi
andi
fferencebetweenthem.
30ᵒ+60ᵒ = 90ᵒ Thenuser ati
o
1ᵒ : 4ˊ
90ᵒ : X crossmul t
ipl
yi
ng

1ᵒxX = 90ᵒx4ˊ
X = 360ˊ=6hoursti
mediff
erence
So,subt
ract
ing6hoursfrom 1420hour
sgi vesati
meof0820hour
sat
60ᵒ
W.

TIMEZONEANDSTANDARDTI ME
Ifeacht ownwer et okeept het i
meofi tsownofi townmer i
dian,t herewoul dbe
muchdi fferencei nlocal ti
mebet weenonet ownandt heot her.
Forex ampl eGhanzii sappr oximately6ᵒwestofFr anci st
own,sot her eisat i
me
diff
erenceof24mi nutesbet weent hem.Ther eisalsoat i
medi fferenceofabout
16 mi nut es bet ween Gabor one and Ghanzi:8 mi nute difference bet ween
Gabor oneandFr ancistownandsoon.Thi smeanst hatpeopl et r
av ell
ingbet ween
theset owns( citi
es)wi llhav etoadj usttheirwat chesf rom timet ot ime-agr eat
i
nconv eni ence!
Toav oidt hisi nconv enience,t hewor ldisdi videdi nto24bel ts,each15ᵒof
l
ongi t
udewi deandt helocalt imeoft hecent ralmer i
dianf oreachbel ti sapplied
tothatbel twhichi scal ledat imezone.Thel ocalti
meoft hecent ralmer i
dianis
call
edst andardt i
me.
Acount ryofl i
mi t
edl ongi t
udinalwidthhasonl yonest andar dtimewhi chi sbased
oni t
scent ralmer idiane. gthest andar dti
mef orNiger i
aissetbymer idian15ᵒ E
andBot swanaby30ᵒ Ewhi chmeanst hatthesecount riesar e1hourand2hour s
aheadoft heGMTr espectivel
y .
Acount ryofgr eatlongi t
udinalwi dthorwest -
westst r
et chhassev er altimezones

154
e.
gtheformerU.
S.S.
Rwhi
chhasl
ongi
tudi
nal
widt
hof165ᵒhas11t
imezonesf
or
pr
acti
calpur
poses.

INTERNATI ONALDATELI NE
Thisisal i
nethatfoll
owst he180ᵒmer i
dian exceptwhereitcr
ossesl and
surf
aces.Itisalinewhereadayi slostorgaineddependingi
nwhichdirecti
on
oneistravell
i
ng.Ifatr
avell
ercrossestheli
nef r
om easttowesthelosesaday
andwhilecrossi
ngtheli
nefrom westtoeasthegainsaday

Example1:
I
ftheGMTi s1800hr
sonaMonday ,whattiem woul
ditbeat
:
(i
) 180ᵒ E
(i
i) 180ᵒ W
Method1:count
ingdi
rect
lyf
rom meri
dians.

Met
hod2:
usi
ngrat
io
1ᵒ : 4ˊ
180ᵒ : X

1ᵒxX: 180ᵒX4
X : 720ˊ=12hour
sti
medi
ff
erence

So,theti
meat180ᵒ Ewil
lbe 1800
+1200
=3000
Wesubt r
act24hrsfrom ouranswerwhi chmeanst hatwehav ecr ossedto
anotherday.Thi
smeanst hatwear enolongeronMondaybutTuesday.Thetime
will
be0600onTuesday .
Theti
meat180ᵒ W wil
lbe 1800
-1200
=0600
Answer0600Monday
From theexamplesaboveitcanbeseent hatcrossi
ngt
hedateli
nefrom westto
eastonewi l
lgai
naday

155
156
157