MN 586 - 2023 Mine Rock Mechanics

UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING
MINE ROCK MECHANICS

(MN 586)
By
DR FESTUS KUNKYIN-SAADAARI
PhD, BSc, DipRS, LSSGB, MCIM, MARMA, MISRM, MIAENG
August 14 – August 25, 2023
1
COURSE PARTICULARS
Course Code: MN 586

Course Title: Mine Rock Mechanics
No. of Credits: 3
Course Duration: August 14-25, 2023
mn@umat.edu.gh
www.umat.edu.gh
2
COURSE INSTRUCTOR
Dr Festus Kunkyin-Saadaari
Department of Mining Engineering,
Faculty of Mining and Minerals Technology
University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana.
www.umat.edu.gh
+233240699535
fsaadaari@umat.edu.gh
COURSE DESCRIPTION
❑ The course is designed primarily for students in mining

engineering discipline.
❑ However, it also meets the needs of students in other field

such as civil engineering, geotechnical engineering,
petroleum engineering and engineering geology.
❑ As a theoretical oriented course, the focus is to impart

useful skills on the students in order to enhance their
understanding of the subject matter and prepare them for
other specialised applications to be encountered in the
industries and at higher educational levels.
COURSE DESCRIPTION (Contd)
Topics to be covered are:
❖ Soil and Rocks
Soil and rock types, formation of rock types, rock cycle
❖ Physical Properties
Density, unit weight and specific gravity, Moisture content, degree of saturation, Porosity, Void
ratio, Permeability, Velocity of elastic waves, Electrical resistivity, Thermal properties, Durability
❖ Mechanical Properties
Uniaxial compressive strength, Tensile strength, Point load strength, Triaxial strength, Direct
shear strength,
❖ Soils, Rocks and their Types;
❖ Determine the proportions of the main constituents in a soil and rocks; and
❖ Index parameters of Soils.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the course are to:
➢ provide the students with knowledge to develop skills
about the use of the concepts of physical properties of
rocks in the mine production processes.
➢ introduce students to the field applications of rock
mechanics in mining, civil, geotechnical, petroleum
engineering and engineering geology; and
➢ provide students with opportunities to develop basic
conceptual skills with respect to determination of soil
and rocks properties
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES / COMPETENCIES
Upon successful completion of this course, the student
Will understand:
▪ physical properties of rock (density, porosity,

permeability, etc) are determined;
▪ Understand how the mechanical properties of rock
(uniaxial compressive strength, triaxial compressive
strength, point load strength, slake durability, etc) are
determined.
Course Delivery
• This course is delivered through an online lecture
presentations.
• All students must attend the lecture sessions as they will

lay the foundation for the quizzes, assignments, and the
End of Module Exam.
GRADING SYSTEM FOR THE COURSE
This course will be graded as follows:
Attendance 10%
Assignment 15% Continuous
Quizzes 15% Assessment = 40%
Final Examination 60%

TOTAL 100%
READING LIST
Hudson, J. A. and Harrison, J. P. (1995). Engineering Rock Mechanics

an Introduction to the Principles. Vol. 1. Pergamon Press, Elsevier,
UK. 458p.
IBM (2014). Application of Rock Mechanics in Surface and Underground
Mining. Indian Bureau of Mines, published by Gundewar, C. S., 165p.
Hoek E., Kaiser P.K. and Bawden W.F. (1993). Support of Underground
Excavations in Hard Rock. Mining Research Directorate, Canada. 235p.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
❑ Understand the significance of rock mechanics;
❑ Classify rocks;
❑ Distinguish between rocks and normal construction materials;
❑ Outline the uses and economic importance of rocks; and
❑ State the characteric features the defines the strength of rocks.

INTRODUCTION
❑ Rock mechanics is an inter-disciplinary subject covering various fields,
such as engineering geology, mining, petroleum, and civil engineering.
❑ The common man believes that rocks are strong materials with
reliability and permanence and need no treatment if they are used as
foundations.
❑ But rocks present in nature have several geological discontinuities, such

as faults, joints, fissures, etc.
❑ The behaviour of a rock mass subjected to a change in stress is

governed by the mechanical properties of the rock material and the
geological discontinuities.
INTRODUCTION
❑ Several major failures of dams and rock slopes have occurred

in the past due to inadequate analysis and understanding of
rock behaviour.
❑ Nowadays, tall structures, high dams, lengthy tunnels, and

deep mines are constructed, which induce a large stress change.
❑ Thus, for an exact analysis and proper prediction of the

behaviour of civil engineering structures on rock and the use of
rock as a construction material, a complete understanding of
the engineering properties and behaviour of rock masses is
essential.
ROCK MECHANICS
❑ Rock mechanics is the subject concerned with the response of rock to

an applied disturbance.
❑ Disturbance can be man-induced or natural.
❑ Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical

behaviour of rock.
❑ It is that branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to

the force fields of its physical environment.
ROCK MECHANICS (cont’d)
❑Rocks are aggregates of crystals and amorphous particles which may

be joined by varying amounts of cementing materials.
❑Rock is made up of minerals bounded together by forces of molecular

interaction (cohesion) that arise either:
(i) at the sites of direct contact of mineral with one another or
(ii) at the sites of their contact with mineral particles of
extraneous cementing substances.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN ROCK MECHANICS (cont’d)
Classes of Parent Rocks
❑ Three classes of parent rocks are known based on their
mode of formation:
➢ igneous,
➢ metamorphic and
➢ sedimentary
❖ Igneous rocks
- original hard and compact rocks that formed by the cooling of molten
magma. Volcanism also creates new igneous rocks.
❖ Metamorphic rocks
- result from the action of very high temperatures and pressures on any
type of pre-existing rocks.
❖ Sedimentary rocks
- derived from weathering products of other rock types.
- may be unconsolidated i.e. loose and friable but usually compacted
and consolidated by weight of overburden and conversion by
post-depositional processes.
✓ Erosion of igneous, metamorphic or even older sedimentary rocks result in
production of particles called sediments.
✓ Sediments are transported by wind or water and deposited as horizontal layers in
basins.
✓ Loading of more layers on top cause bottom layers to become compacted and
consolidated.
✓ Consolidation and cementation processes convert the sediments to sedimentary
rocks.
✓ Sedimentary rocks can be metamorphosed by heat and pressure to form new
metamorphic rocks.
✓ New igneous and metamorphic rocks can be re-eroded and re-deposited as new
sediments.
✓ The rock cycle therefore goes on forever.
❑ Common features of accessible rocks:
o they are broken up by discontinuities.
o fluid under pressure is frequently present both in open joint
and in the pores of the rock.
o due to the nature of deposition of rock aggregates, the lithology
varies and so, many rocks can be encountered at a time.

❖ Rock as one of the most commonly used construction material is

very complex.
❖ To avoid structural failure associated with rock,

✓ it is necessary to understand it,
✓ it is necessary to control it,
in its natural environment under the influence of load,
water and temperature.
➢ Rock mechanics is a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe

the behaviour of rocks.
➢ For normal construction materials, e.g., steel and concrete, the mechanical
behaviours are Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic, and Linearly Elastic
(CHILE).
➢ Properties of the man-made materials are known and controllable.
➢ For rocks, due to the existence of discontinuities, the behaviours are
Discontinuous, Inhomogeneous (heterogeneous), Anisotropic, and Non-linearly
Elastic (DIANE).
➢ Properties of the natural geomaterials are unknown and uncontrollable.

BASIC CONCEPTS IN ROCK MECHANICS (cont'd)
Conventional engineering
materials (CHILE)
Continuous,
Homogeneous,
Isotropic,
Linear-Elastic
Rocks (DIANE)
Discontinuous,
Inhomogeneous,
Anisotropic,
Non-Elastic
Fig. 1a: Rock structure illustrating the complex nature of the material (IBM, 2014)
Complex nature of rock
Fig. 1b: Phyllite Rock Exposure along Government Hill Road,

UMaT, Tarkwa, Ghana (Photo by Olaleye)
Uses of Rocks as Engineering Materials

➢ laying structural foundation.
➢ construction of base and sub-base for railroad and airways.
➢ dimension stones, construction of mine openings, tunnels etc.
➢ aggregates for concrete.
➢ facing stone, countertops, tile sink, backsplash and counter, tile flooring
and wall panels, building stone, paving stone, monument, and slabs.
➢ construction of highways.
Economic Importance of Rocks
❑ Many types of igneous rocks are used as building stone, facing
stone, and decorative material, such as that used for tabletops,
cutting boards, and carved figures.
❑ For example, polished granite facing stone is exported all over

the world from countries such as Italy, Brazil, India and
Nigeria.
❑ Rocks may also contain many important ores as accessories or

trace minerals.
❑ Certain mafic intrusives are sources of chromium, titanium,

platinum, and palladium.
Fig. 1c: Crushed Granite Aggregates

Fig. 1d: Countertops

Fig. 1e: Tile Sink, Backsplash and Counter

Fig. 1f: Tile Flooring and Wall Panels

Fig. 1g: Building Stone

Fig. 1h: Facing Stone

Fig. 1i: Paving Stone

Fig. 1j: Monument

Fig. 1k: Slabs

Nature of Rock
❖ Isotropy
❖ Anisotropy
❖ Heterogeneity
❖ Homogeneity
❖ In-situ properties
❖ Intact properties
Characteristics that Determine Rock Strength

❑ Mineralogical composition
❑ Mineral assemblage
❑ Mineral particle size
❑ Shape of mineral particles
❑ Type of bond and cementation
❑ Presence of discontinuities
❑ Presence of water in rock voids
LEARNING OUTCOMES
▪ State and explain the stages of implementation of a rock mechanics
programme;
▪ Outline the field application of rock mechanics;

▪ Understand the methods used in the resolution of rock related
problems;
▪ State and define the index properties of rocks;

▪ The engineering problem posed in all structural design is the
prediction of the performance of the structure under the loads
imposed on it during its prescribed functioning operation.
▪ Rock Engineering is concerned with the application of the principles
of engineering mechanics to the design of the rock structure
generated by mining.
▪ Rock mechanics principles are fundamental to mining engineering
since the excavation created changes the force fields of the rocks
physical environment.
✓ Figure 2 shows the stages of implementation of rock mechanics
programme.
Site characterization - Definition of hydro-mechanical properties of the host rock
mass for mining
Mine Model Formulation - Conceptualization of site characterization
Design analysis - Selection and application of mathematical and computational

schemes for study of various mining layouts and strategies
Rock performance monitoring - measurement of the operational response to mining

of host rock mass
Retrospective analysis - quantification of in-situ rock mass properties, and

identification of dominant modes of response of mine structure
Fig. 2: Stages of implementation of a rock mechanics programme

Stages of Implementation of a Rock Mechanics Programme
(i) Site Characterization
o It defines the mechanical properties and

state of the media in which mining is to occur.
o It involves determination of the strength and
deformation properties of the various lithological
units represented in and around the geometry,
structural features, estimation of in-situ strength
and determination of in-situ stress in the mine
area - investigation of hydrogeology.
o These are achieved through representative data
from small samples.
(ii) Mine Model Formulation
❑ It represents the simplification and rationalization of the data
generated by the site characterization.
❑ The aim is to account for the principal geomechanical features, which

will be expressed in the deformation behaviour of the prototype.
❑ The need for this phase arises from the limited details that can be
accommodated in most of the analytical or computational methods used
in design.
(iii) Design Analysis
❖ Having defined the prevailing

conditions in the rock mass in
an analytically, the mechanical
performance of selected mining
configurations and excavation
geometries can be predicted using
appropriate mathematical or
numerical techniques.
❖ The design analysis represents
the core of rock mechanics practice.
(iv) Rock Performance Monitoring
➢ It characterizes the operational

response of the rock mass to
mining activity.
➢ Data based on measurement of
displacement (deformation) and
stresses made at key locations in
the mine structure are monitored.
➢ Visual inspection is also very
important.
(v) Retrospective Analysis
▪ It is the process of quantitative analysis of data generated by
monitoring activity which is intended to re-assess and improve
knowledge of the in-situ mechanics properties of the rock mass as well
as to review the adequacy of the postulated mine model.
▪ Data generated by retrospective analysis are used to update the site

characterization data, mine model and design process via the feedback
loop.
Objectives of Rock Mechanics
❑ Irrespective of the excavation technique adopted for ore extraction, it is
possible to specify four common rock mechanics concepts for the
performance of mining structure as:
i. to ensure the overall stability of the complete mine structure defined by
main ore source, mined voids and adjacent country rock;
ii. to protect the major service openings throughout their designated duty
life;
iii. to provide secure access to safe working places in and around the
centers of ore production; and
iv. to preserve the mineable condition of unmined ores reserves.
Field Applications of Rock Mechanics
✓ determination of the physical
and mechanics properties of rocks;
✓ investigation of the condition of

stability of rock slopes;
✓ study rock pressure and its

occurrence in mine openings;
✓ study of rock subsidence under

the effect of mine openings; and
✓ study the processes of

fragmentation of rock during
excavations.
The problems can be solved using the following methods:
❑ Experimental Method
(i) observation of behaviour of rock under production condition
(excavation of deposits).
(ii) determination of physical and mechanical properties of rock in-situ.
(iii) determination of physical and mechanical properties under
laboratory conditions.
(iv) study of physical and mechanical properties, which take place in
layer of rock under the effect of mining process using models.
❑ Theoretical Method
Establishment of an analytical dependence between values which
characterize a particular phenomenon in a mathematical way using
theory of dimension and basis of theory of elasticity etc.
INDEX PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
o Indexing is important for describing and quantifying rock.
o Rock exhibits a vast range of properties, which reflect vast varieties of

structures, and fabric (arrangement of the elements (minerals, textures,
fossils, layers) that make up that rock).
o Rock is a natural substance, as such, it has structural features.
o The performance of rock under the action of load, water, temperature and
tectonics of the earth’s crust depends upon physical and mechanical
(strength) properties of those materials.
INDEX PROPERTIES OF ROCKS (cont'd)
Technological properties of rocks necessary for design and
construction are:
✓ unit weight;
✓ deformations under load (strain);
✓ static and dynamic strength (compressive, tensile, shear);
✓ angle of internal friction, ϕ;
✓ cohesion, c;
✓ Young’s modulus of elasticity, E;
✓ Poisson’s ratio, μ;
✓ resistance to mechanical abrasion (wear);
✓ dilatancy;
✓ creep;
✓ permeability to water;
✓ resistance to weathering;
✓ resistance to chemical influences;
✓ thermal properties (conductivity, heat capacity);
✓ electrical properties.
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
(A) Physical Properties of Rocks
❑ Physical properties are the properties exhibited by rocks as a result of inherent
characteristics formed at the time of deposition of the rock.
❑ Depending on characteristic of bonding between mineral particles, rocks are
classified into:
▪ Hard (rigid rocks): have strong bonds between mineral particles (e.g.
crystalline).
▪ Soft (plastic rocks): have weak cementation and bonds between particles (e.g.
clay).
▪ Loose (friable rocks): no bond between particles or very weak bond e.g. sand or
gravel. These types of rocks are friable, incoherent and unconsolidated.
(A) Physical Properties of Rocks (cont'd)
❖ The physical properties of rocks affecting design and construction in rocks are:
o mineralogical composition, structure and texture.
o specific gravity, S.G.
o unit weight, γ.
o porosity, φ.
o void ratio, E.
o moisture content, W.
o degree of saturation, S.
o permeability to water, K.
o chemical effects.
o thermal properties.
o electrical properties.
(i) Moisture Content
❖ Moisture content (W) is a measure of the amount of water the rock material contains.
❖ It is the ratio of the volume of water to the bulk volume of the rock material.
❖ The objective of the test is to determine the natural moisture content of the rock
material as it was retrieved in the field.
❖ For the accurate determination of the in situ water content, the sampling, storage,
transport and handling precautions should be such that the water content remains
within 1% of the in situ value.
❖ The standard procedure is specified by the International Society for Rock Mechanics
(ISRM, 1981), water content (w) is calculated by:
( 𝑴𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒌 −𝑴𝒅𝒓𝒚 )
𝒘= 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒌
(ii) Specific Gravity (S.G.)

➢ It is defined as the ratio of the weight of a substance to that of an equal
volume of water.
➢ It forms a useful guide in mineral identification.
➢ Specific gravity is determined in accordance with ISRM standard as

(eqn. 1):
where W1 is the weight of sample in air, g; W2 is the weight of bottle + water, g;
W3 is the weight of sample + bottle + water, g.
➢ It represents the factor increase in weight of the rock per unit volume over the same
unit volume of water.
➢ For example, if the weight of water happened to be 750 gm, the weight of an equal
volume of shale would be about 2.75 x 750, or 2062.5 gm.
(iii) Density
❖ Density is mass per unit volume which is denoted by:
where Ms is the grain sample mass, Mv is the void mass.
❖ It is principally influenced by the mineralogical composition and the amount

of void spaces, as the proportion of void spaces increases so the density
decreases.
❖ Generally rocks with low porosities usually have high densities.
(iii) Density (cont'd)
❑ There are four different types of density:
o grain density or the mass of the mineral aggregate per volume of solid
material (Grain density describes the density of solid or mineral grains of
the rock.).
o bulk density is mass of mineral aggregate and natural water content per
volume.
o saturated density is the mass of mineral aggregate and water per volume.
IAEG grouped dry density and porosity of rocks into five classes (Table 1):
Class Dry density, Description Porosity, Description

mg/m3 %
1 < 1.8 Very low Over 30 Very high
2 1.8 – 2.2 Low 30 – 15 High
3 2.2 – 2.55 Moderate 15 – 5 Medium
4 2.55 – 2.75 High 5-1 Low
5 > 2.75 Very high <1 Very low
▪ Density of rocks is a function of its temperature
where ρt is the density of rock at t0c, ρ0 is the density of rock at

00c, α is the coefficient of expansion of rock.
Mass Density:
• derived by multiplying the specific gravity by the density of water, specified as
1000 kg/m3.
• knowing the specific gravity of some rock types, their mass densities would be:
Shale: 2.75 x 1000 kg/m3 = 2,750 kg/m3

Granite: 2.65 x 1000 kg/m3 = 2,650 kg/m3
Sandstone: 2.2 x 1000 kg/m3 = 2,200 kg/m3
Basalt: 2.65 x 1000 kg/m3 = 2,650 kg/m3
Marble: 2.7 x 1000 kg/m3 = 2,700 kg/m3
Limestone: 2.45 x 1000 kg/m3 = 2,450 kg/m3
Steel: 7.85 x 1000 kg/m3 = 7,850 kg/m3
Gold: 14 x 1000 kg/m3 = 14,000 kg/m3
(iv) Unit Weight
➢ In construction works, it is often desirable to describe all rock materials as a 'unit'
weight.
➢ This measure is also made in relation to water which weights 9.81 kN/m3.
So, the unit weights of the above samples are:
Shale: 2.75 x 9.81 kN/m3 = 26.9775 kN/m3
Granite: 2.65 x 9.81 kN/m3 = 25.9965 kN/m3
Sandstone: 2.2 x 9.81 kN/m3 = 21.582 kN/m3
Basalt: 2.65 x 9.81 kN/m3 = 25.9965 kN/m3
Marble: 2.7 x 9.81 kN/m3 = 26.487 kN/m3
Limestone: 2.45 x 9.81 kN/m3 = 24.0345 kN/m3
Steel: 7.85 x 9.81 kN/m3 = 77.0085 kN/m3
Gold: 14 x 9.81 kN/m3 = 137.34 kN/m3
(v) Porosity
Porosity () can be defined as the ratio of the void volume to the total volume
of a rock and it is generally expressed in percentage.
where Vb is the bulk volume, m3, Vs is the grain volume, m3 and

Vp is the volume of pore, m3. It is the totality of space within the solid
phase of a completely dry rock.
where ws is the weight of sample when saturated; wd is the weight of sample

when dried; and ρL is the density of liquid used for the saturation.
63
(v) Porosity (cont'd)
❑ The presence of pores in the fabric of rock material decreases its strength
and increases its deformability.
❑ Porosity is essential as guide for mechanical performance of rock.
❑ According to size, pores are divided into:
▪ Highly porous: having clearance of > 0.1mm. Flow of fluid in highly porous
pores takes place basically under the effect of gravitation (e.g. gravel).
▪ Porous: having clearance of 0.002 - 0.1mm. Flow of fluid is under the effect
of molecular force that overcomes force due to gravitational.
▪ Non-porous: having clearance of < 0.002mm. These rocks practically do not
permit flow of fluid.
64
❖ Porosity is classified as:
o Absolute porosity: Total porosity is the ratio of all pore spaces to the bulk
volume of the entire material under consideration. It is the porosity of a
rock regardless of whether or not individual void are connected.
o Effective Porosity: Porosity due to voids which are inter-connected. It is
the ratio of the interconnected pore volume to the bulk volume of the
material.
❖ Compaction and cementation decrease porosity while fracturing and

65 chemical solution lead to increased porosity.
Each of these two types of porosities can itself be primary or secondary.
(i) Primary Porosity:
▪ It is the voids formed at the time the
sediment was deposited.
▪ The voids contributing to this type
are the spaces between individual
grains of the sediment.
(ii) Secondary Porosity:
o It is the voids formed after the sediment was deposited.
o Secondary porosity is the porosity developed in the rock as a result
of post-depositional modifications like fracturing and shattering,
66 compaction, chemical solution, cementation etc.
Pore Spaces
Fig. 3: Configuration of pore spaces in rocks
67
Secondary porosity is subdivided into three classes based on the mechanism of form.
(8)
(a) Solution Porosity: Voids formed by the solution of the more soluble portion of the rock in
percolating surface waters containing carbon and other organic acids. It is also called
vugular porosity while the individual holes are called vugs.
(b) Fracture, Fissures and Joints: Voids of this type are common in many sedimentary rocks
and are formed by structural failure of the rock under loads caused by various forms of
diastrophism such as folding and faulting.
(c) Dolomitization: This is the process by which limestone (CaCo3) is transformed into
dolomite Ca,Mg(Co3)2.
The chemical reaction explaining this change is:
2CaCo3 + MgCl2 = CaMg(Co3)2 + CaCl2

68 (8)
Table 2: Qualitative evaluation of porosity in rocks
Porosity (%) Qualitative Evaluation

0-5 Negligible
5 - 10 Poor
10 - 20 Good
20 - 30 Very Good
Over 30 Excellent
69
The principal factors complicating intergranular porosity magnitudes are:
❑ Uniformity of grain size: The presence of
small particles such as clay, silt etc which
may fill in the voids, between larger grains
greatly reduces the porosity.
❑ Degree of Cementation: Cementing material
deposited around grain junction reduces porosity.
❑ Packing: Rock packed in a manner that
makes it highly porous.
❑ Particle shape: Most efficient
shape in circular shape.
70
Coefficient of porosity, which can be denoted as n, is defined as ratio of
volume of voids, Vv, to the total volume, VT, of rock sample.
71
Using n, rocks are divided into:

✓ Low porosity when n is < 5%,
✓ Average porosity when 5 < n < 20% and
✓ High porosity when n is > 20%,
72
QUANTITATIVE USE OF POROSITY
𝑽𝒘 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒈
Fluid Saturation: 𝑺𝒘 = ; 𝑺𝒐 = ; 𝑺𝒈 =
𝑽𝒑 𝑽𝒑 𝑽𝒑
Vp = Vw + Vo + Vg
So, Sw, Sg are oil, water and gas saturation respectively; and
Vo, Vw, Vg are oil, water and gas volume in the rock
respectively.
73
Phase Relations
(Soils and Porous Rock)
For this, we need to know the following
• Mass (M) is a measure of a body's inertia, or its "quantity of matter". Mass does not changed at different places.
• Weight (W) is the force of gravity acting on a body.
W = M g where g : acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m

sec2
Mass
Density,  =
Volume
Weight Mass  g So  = g
Unit weight,  = =
Volume Volume
• The unit weight is frequently used in geotechnical engineering than the density (e.g. in calculating the
overburden pressure).
Units of unit weight and density
✓The SI unit of mass density () is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3).
✓The SI unit of force is Newton, therefore, the unit weights of soils are
typically expressed in kN/m3
Relationship between unit weight and density

The unit weights of soil in kN/m3 can be obtained from densities in kg/m3 as
✓The density of water w varies slightly, depending on the temperature. At

4Co , water’s density is equal to 1000 kg/m3 or 1 g/cm3
unit weight of water ,  w = 9.81 kN

m3
Soil Phases
➢ Soil deposits comprise the accumulated solid particles plus the

void space between the particles
➢ The void spaces are partially or completely filled with water or

other liquid.
➢ Voids space not occupied by fluid are filled with air or other
gas.
➢ Hence soil deposits are referred to as three-phase system, i.e.

Solid + Liquid (water) + Gas (air)
PHASE DIAGRAM
For purpose of study and analysis, it is convenient to represent the soil
by a PHASE DIAGRAM, with part of the diagram representing the
solid particles, part representing water or liquid, and another part air
or other gas.
Volumetric Ratios
(1) Void ratio e
Volume of voids Vv
e= =
Volume of solids Vs
(2) Porosity n%
Volume of voids V
n= = v 100
Total volume of soil sample Vt
Saturated
Dry
(3) Degree of Saturation S% (0 – 100%)
Total volume of voids contains water Vw
S= = 100%
Total volume of voids Vv
Weight Ratios
• (1) Water Content w%
Weight of water Ww
w= = 100%
Weight of soil solids Ws
•
•
Soil unit weights
•(1) Dry unit weight
Weight of soil solids Ws
d = =
Total volume of soil Vt
•(2) Total, Wet, Bulk, or Moist unit weight
Total weight of soil Ws + Ww

= =
Weight of soil solids + water Ws + Ww
 sat = =
•Saturated unit weight (considering S=100%, Va =0)
Note: The density/or unit weight are ratios which connects the volumetric
side of the PHASE DIAGRAM with the mass/or weight side.
Specific gravity, Gs
The ratio of the mass of a solid particles to the mass of an equal
volume of distilled water at 4°C
ws
Gs =
Vs  w
i.e., the specific gravity of a certain material is ratio of the unit weight
of that material to the unit weight of water at 4o C.
The specific gravity of soil solids is often needed for various

calculations in soil mechanics.
s
Gs = Gw = 1
w Gmercury = 13.6
Typical Values of Specific Gravity
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979) (Goodman, 1989)

Example 1:
•In its natural state, a moist soil has a total volume of 9344.56 cm3 and a mass 18.11 kg. The
oven-dry mass of soil is 15.67 kg. If Gs = 2.67, calculate the moisture content, moist unit
weight, void ratio and degree of saturation.
3475.66 cm3
2.44 kg 2440cm3
18.11 kg 9344.56 cm3
15.67 kg 5868.9 cm3

Relationships Between Various Physical Properties
All the weight- volume relationships needed in soil mechanics can be derived
from appropriate combinations of six fundamental definitions. They are:
1.Void ratio
2.Porosity
3.Degree of saturation
4.Water content
5.Unit weight
6.Specific gravity
Use of Phase diagrams in finding relationships physical
properties
Remember the following simple rules:

1.Remember the basic definitions of w, e, Gs, S, etc.
2.Draw a phase diagram.
3.Assume either Vs=1 or Vt=1 or ws = 1 depending on
given values.
4.Solve the phase diagram for required values.
If given e, assume Vs =1 Air
e
Water 1+e
Solids 1
If given w, assume Ws =1
Air
w
Water
1+w
1 Solids
1. Relationship between e and n
Using phase diagram

Given : e e
required: n
1+e
Vv e
n= = 1
Vt 1 + e
2. Relationship among e, S, w, and Gs
ww  wVw  wVw Vw
w= = = =
ws  sVs  wGsVs GsVs
Dividing the denominator and numerator of the R.H.S. by Vv yields:
Se = wG s
This is a very useful relation for solving THREE-PHASE RELATIONSHIPS.
Using phase diagram
Given : e, S, Gs
required: w
Air
e
e S w Water eS
1+e
Gs  w + e S  w
Gs  w Solids 1
Ww e S  w e S
w= = =  w Gs = e S
Ws G s  w G s
3. Relationship among , e, S and Gs
W Ww + Ws  wVw +  sVs  wVw +  wGsVs

= = = =
V Vs + Vv Vs + Vv Vs + Vv
( Se + Gs )
= w
1+ e
Notes:
Unit weights for dry, fully saturated and submerged cases can be
derived from the upper equation
Water content can be used instead of degree of saturation.
3. Relationship among , e, S and Gs
Using phase diagram
Given : e, S, Gs
required: 
Air
e
e S w Water eS
1+e
Gs  w + e S  w
Gs  w Solids 1
Wt (Gs + eS ) w Ws Gs w
= = d = =
Vt 1+ e Vt 1+ e
Wt ( water filled with water) (Gs + e) w
d = =
Vt 1+ e
Various Unit Weight Relationships
Solution of Phase Problems
Method 1: Memorize relationships
( Se + Gs )
Se = wG s = w
1+ e
e 
n= d =
1+ e 1+ w
Method 2: Return to Basics
Remember the following simple rules:
1.Remember the basic definitions of w, e, Gs, S, etc.
2.Draw a phase diagram.
3.Assume either Vs=1 or Vt=1 or ws = 1 depending on given
values.
4.Solve the phase diagram.
Method 2: Problem assumptions
If given e, assume Vs =1 Air
e
Water 1+e
Solids 1
If given w, assume Ws =1
Air
w
Water
1+w
1 Solids
Example 2
Example 1
Given the following data on a core sample, compute the porosity and
oil, water and gas saturation:
Sample weight as received from field = 53.50 gm (Wb)
Water volume recovered during extraction = 1.50 cm3 (Vw)
Sample weight after extraction and drying = 51.05 gm (Wd)
Density of core oil = 0.85 gm/cm3 (ρo)
Bulk volume of sample = 23.60 cm3 (Vb)
Grain density of sample = 2.63 gm/cm3 (ρs)
10
Solution
(i) Porosity, ϕ = Vb - Vs = Vp %
Vb Vb
but Vs = wd = 51.05 = 19.4 cm3
ρs 2.63
ϕ = 23.60 – 19.4 = 0.178 or 17.8%
23.60
Sw = Vw
Vp but Vp = Vb – Vs = 23.60 – 19.4
Sw = Vw = 1.50 = 0.357 or 35.7%

Vp 4.2
So = Vo
Vp but Vo = Wo note Wb = Wd + Ww + Wo
10 ρo
Wo = Wb – Wd – Ww
Ww = ρw Vw = 1x 1.5 = 1.5 gm
therefore Wo = 53.50 – 51.05 – 1.50 = 0.95 gm
Vo = Wo = 0.95 =1.12 cm3

ρo 0.85
So = Vo = 1.12 = 0.267 or 26.7%
Vp 4.2
Sg = 1 - Sw - So note: 1 = Sg + Sw + So
= 1 – 0.357 – 0.267
10 = 0.37 or 37%
Example 2
Given the following data for a cylindrical core sample:
(i) compute its porosity and
(ii) the density of the rock grains.
Clean, dry weight of sample = 311gm
Weight of sample with pores completely filled (100%)
saturated with a 1.05 specific gravity brine = 331gm
Diameter of sample = 4.0 cm
Length of sample = 10.0 cm
10
Solution (i) Ø = Vp/Vb
Vb = π (2)2 (10) = 40π cm3

Vp = 331 - 311 = 19.05 cm3
1.05
Ø = 19.05/40 π = 15.1%
(ii) ρs = 311 = 2.9 gm/cm3

(0.849) (40 π)
Note that density = sg*density of water; volume = øvb

10
Example 1: Calculate specific gravity
A specific gravity test was conducted on a sand. The

data are as shown below. Calculate the specific
gravity.
Mass of pycnometer = 38.2 grams
Mass of pycnometer and dry soil = 64.3 grams
Mass of pycnometer, dry soil, and water = 154.8 grams
Mass of pycnometer and water = 138.5 grams

Solution: Calculate specific gravity
 Given
M1 = mass of pycnometer = 38.2 grams
M2 = mass of pycnometer and dry soil = 64.3 grams
M3 = mass of pycnometer, dry soil, and water = 154.8 grams
M4 = mass of pycnometer and water = 138.5 grams
 Calculate
Ms = mass of dry soil = M2 – M1 = 26.1 grams

M5 = mass of water displaced by soil particles = M4 – M3 + Ms = 9.8
grams Gs = M s / M 5
Specific gravity, = 26.1/9.8 = 2.66

EXAMPLE 2 Calculation of Void Ratio and Porosity
 A container of volume 2.83 x 10-3 m3 weighs 9.8 N.

Dry sand was poured to fill the container. The
container and the sand weigh 52.3 N. Calculate (a)
the void ratio and (b) the porosity. Describe the
condition of the soil (loose or dense). Assume Gs =
2.7.
Solution 2
Step 1: Calculate the weight of dry sand.

Weight of container = 9.8 N 9.8 N
Weight of sand and container = 52.3 N

52.3 N
Weight of dry sand, Ws = 52.3 − 9.8 = 42.5 N = 0.0425 kN

Solution 2
 Step 2: Calculate dry unit weight.

Ws 0.042.5
d = = −3
= 15 kN/m 3
V 2.83  10
 Step 3: Calculate the void ratio.
Ws Gs
d = = w
V 1+ e
w 9.8
Solving for e, we get e = Gs − 1 = 2.7 − 1 = 0.764
d 15
Solution 2
Dr (%) Porosity, n (%) Description

 Step 4:Calculate the porosity. 0–20 100–80 Very loose
20–40 80–60 Loose

e 0.764
n= = = 0.43 = 43% 40–70 60–30 Medium dense or
1 + e 1 + 0.764 firm
70–85 30–15 Dense
 Step 5:Describe the soil. 85–100 < 15 Very dense
From table, n = 43%, the sand is medium dense or

firm.
Example 3 - Calculating Soil Constituents
 A sample of saturated clay was placed in a

container and weighed. The weight was 6 N. The
clay in its container was placed in an oven for 24
hours at 105ºC. The weight reduced to a constant
value of 5 N. The weight of the container is 1 N. If
Gs = 2.7, determine the (a) water content, (b) void
ratio, (c) bulk unit weight, (d) dry unit weight, and (e)
effective unit weight.
Solution 3
 Step 1: Write down  Step 2: Determine the

what is given. weight of water and
Weight of sample + container = 6 N the weight of dry soil.
Weight of dry sample + container = 5 N
Weight of water: Ww = 6 − 5 = 1 N
Weight of dry soil: Ww = 5 − 1 = 4 N
Solution 3
 Step 3: Determine the  Step 4: Determine the

water content. void ratio.
Ww 1
w= 100 = 100 = 25% wGs 0.25  2.7
Ws 4 e= = = 0.675
S 1
Note: The denominator is the
weight of solids, not the total
weight.
Solution 3
 Step 5: Determine the  Step 6: Determine the

bulk unit weight. dry unit weight.
W Gs  w (1 + w)   
= = d =  =
19.7
= 3
 1 + w  1 + 0.25
15.8 kN/m
V 1+ e
2.7  9.8(1 + 0.25)
= = 19.7 kN/m3
1 + 0.675
In this case the soil is saturated, so
the bulk unit weight is equal to the
saturated unit weight.
Solution 3
 Step 7: Determine the effective unit weight.

 G − 1  2.7 − 1 
 =  s  w =   = 3
 1 + 0.675 
9.8 9.9 kN/m
 1+ e 
or
  =  sat −  w = 19.7 − 9.8 = 9.9 kN/m3
(vi) Permeability
o Permeability is the characteristic
for assessing the ability of rock to
permit the flow of fluid.
o It is the property of a porous material
to permit the passage of fluid within
the interconnection of voids.
o Permeability of rock material is
governed by porosity.
o Porous rocks such as sandstones
usually have high permeability
119
while granites have low permeability.
(vi) Permeability (cont'd)
❖ Quantitative definition of permeability was first given in an empirical
relationship developed by Darcy (1856)
❖ Darcy law states that the rate of flow per unit area per unit time is
proportional to the gradient of pore pressure at that point.
where K is the coefficient of permeability (millidarcy); Q is the volumetric flow

rate (cm3/sec); μ is the viscosity of flowing medium (centipoises); L is the Length of
the flow path (cm); A is the cross sectional area) of flow path (cm2); and ΔP is the
12 pressure differential (Pa).
❑ There are three types of permeability:
• effective permeability
• absolute permeability and
• relative permeability.
➢ Effective permeability
o It is the ability of a rock to conduct a fluid in the presence of other fluids in the
section.
o It is a function of the saturation level of the fluid.
12
o The higher the saturation level, the higher the effective permeability.
➢ Relative permeability
• It is the ratio between effective permeability of a given fluid at a

partial saturation and its permeability at 100% saturation (known as
absolute permeability)
12
▪ Permeability is affected by temperature due to changes in viscosity,
hydraulic gradient and grain shape/packing.
▪ Small gains reduce permeability and an increase in porosity increases
permeability but not directly proportionate.
▪ Permeability conveys information about the degree of interconnectivity

between the pores and fissures.
▪ It has bearing on practical problems e.g. pumping of H2O, oil or gas into or
out of porous formation, storing of fluid in mines, predicting water flow into
a tunnel.
12
PERMEABILITY
Example The sample of example 2 was subjected to a laboratory linear flow
test using distilled water as the flowing fluid. It is assumed that this did not
alter the characteristics of the rock.
Determine the permeability of the sample given the following data
obtained:
μw = 1cp
P1 = 50 psia
q = 0.50 cm3/sec
Solution k = qμ L = (0.50) (1.0) (10.0)

AΔp (4 π) (50)
12 = 0.117 darcy = 117 md
(vii) Swelling
❖ Swelling of dense rock is the increase of its volume as a result of
fragmentation compared with its initial volume before fragmentation.
❖ Coefficient of swelling is the ratio of the volume of the rock after
fragmentation to volume of rock before fragmentation (Anon, 1981).
where Vf is the final volume and

12 VI is the initial volume
(viii) Sonic velocity
➢ It is an index that measures the degree of fracturing of rock.
➢ Measurement of sound wave enables the determination of the sonic velocity.
➢ This consists of sending pulses at one end of the rock with a piezo electrical crystals and
receiving the vibrations with a second crystal at the other end (Fig. 4).
➢ The traveled time is determined by measuring the phase difference with an oscilloscope
(pulse generator and logger) equipped with a variable time delay.
12 Fig.4: Sonic velocity measurement with Oscilloscope

(viii) Sonic velocity (cont'd)
❑ Measurements of the wave are often done by using P-wave and
S-waves.
❑ P-wave velocity measures the travel speed of longitudinal (primary) wave in the
material, while S-wave velocity measures the travel speed of shear (secondary)
wave in the material (Fig. 5).
❑ The velocity measurements provide correlation to physical properties in terms of
compaction degree of the material.
❑ A well compacted rock has generally high velocity as the grains are all in good
contact and wave are traveling through the solid.
(a) (b)
12 Fig. 5: (a) Compression or P-wave and (b) Shear or S-wave (Carlos et al., 1995)
(B) Mechanical Properties of Rocks
❖ Mechanical property of rock is characterized by its reaction
to the effect of a force field of its environment.
❖ It depends on:
✓ the nature of the rock substance (isotropy, anisotropy,
heterogeneity, homogeneity, in-situ properties, intact properties);
✓ stratigraphy of the rock in-situ;
✓ rock defects; and
✓ testing methodology.
12
(B) Mechanical Properties of Rocks (cont'd)
❑ Other characteristics that determine rock strength are:
▪ mineralogical composition;
▪ mineral assemblage;
▪ mineral particle size;
▪ shape of mineral particles;
▪ type of bond and cementation;
▪ presence of discontinuities; and
▪ presence of water in rock voids.
12
(i) Hardness
➢ It is the characteristic of a solid material expressing its resistance to
permanent deformation.
➢ Hardness of a rock material depends on several factors, including
mineral composition and density.
➢ The concept of hardness has usually been associated with the surface of
a material.
➢ Deere and Miller (1966) considered rock hardness as its resistance to the
displacement of surface particles by tangential abrasive force, as well as
13 its resistance to penetrating force whether static or dynamic.
(i) Hardness (cont'd)
▪ Mohr (1822) proposed a scale of hardness based upon ten minerals.
▪ The scales are 1 - 10 and the rocks representing these values are:
1 - talc, 2 - gypsum, 3 - calcite, 4 - fluoride,
5 - apatite, 6 - orthoclase, 7 - quartz,
8 - topaz, 9 - corundum and 10 - diamond.
▪ Sometimes hardness is used as a

strength criterion of rock.
▪ A typical measure is the Schmidt
13rebound hardness number.
✓ Schmidt hammer with rebound measurement is used for Schmidt Hammer Rebound
Hardness test.
✓ The Schmidt hammer is pointed perpendicularly and touches the surface of rock.
✓ The hammer is released and reading on the hammer is taken.
✓ The reading gives directly the Schmidt hammer hardness value.
✓ The standard Schmidt hardness number is taken when the hammer is pointed vertically
downward.
✓ If the hammer is pointed to horizontal and upward, correction is needed to add to the
number from the hammer.
✓ The correction number is given in Table 3
Fig. 6: Schmidt hammer rebound hardness test

Table 3: Correction number for Schmidt hammer with inclination angle
13
❖ At least 20 tests should be conducted on any one rock specimen.
❖ It is suggested to omit 2 lowest and 2 highest reading, and to use the
remaining reading for calculating the average hardness value.
❖ Report of results should include descriptions of rock type, location, size
and shape, and orientation of hammer axis.
❖ The hardness index can be used to estimate uniaxial compressive strength
of the rock material.
❖ The correlation between hardness and strength is shown in the Figure 7.
13❖ The correlation is also influenced by the density of the material.

Fig. 7: Correlation between
13 hardness, density and strength
❖ The reading of a Schmidt hammer are 40, 37, 38, 43, 36, 44, 46, 40, 41 and 42 with a rock density of
2.35 g/cm3. Determine the Rebounds Number (R), Estimate the UCS of the rock with the
corresponding average dispersion of the rock. Indicate all the necessary steps.
❖ Remove Min/Max values: 36, 37, 38, 40, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46
37+38+40+40+41+42+43+44
❖ Rebound Number:𝑹 = = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟔
𝟖
❖ Computing the Unit weight γ = ƿ×g= 2.35g/cm3 ×9.81= 23.1 kN/m3

❖ From the graph, the Initial Estimated UCS = 70 Mpa
❖ The Average UCS dispersion is +/- 15MPa
❖ Hence the Estimated UCS = 70±15 MPa
137
138
LEARNING OUTCOMES
❑ Describe slake durability test;
❑ Discuss rock strength and tests conducted to determine it;
❑ Distinguish between rocks and normal construction materials;

(ii) Slake Durability
▪ Durability is a relative term used to describe a rock that exerts a considerable
resistance to disintegration or separation of its particles.
▪ Durability Apparatus is used in simulated weathering tests to determine

abrasion resistance in wetting and drying cycles of rocks
▪ Rock durability can be determined in the laboratory using Rock Durability

Apparatus (Fig. 8).
140
(ii) Slake Durability (Cont’d)
Fig. 8: Rock Durability Apparatus

141
(ii) Slake Durability (cont'd
Test Procedures
✓ Slake durability test using rock durability apparatus involves the cyclic wetting and drying.
✓ Representative rock sample consists of 10 lumps each of 40-60 g.
✓ Roughly spherical in shape with corners rounded during preparation.
✓ The sample is placed in the test drum with solid removable lid and fixed base.
✓ Dried to a constant mass at 105°C.
✓ The mass of drum and sample is recorded (Mass A).
✓ The sample and drum are placed in trough which is filled with slaking fluid and the drum is
rotated at 20 rpm for 10 minutes.
✓ The drum and sample are removed from trough and oven dried to a constant mass at 105°C
without the lid.
✓ The mass of the drum and sample is recorded after cooling (Mass B).
✓ The slaking and drying process is repeated and the mass of the drum and sample is recorded
(Mass C).
✓ The drum is brushed clean and its mass is recorded (Mass D).
142
(ii) Slake Durability (cont'd)
❑ mass of drum and sample (Mass A)
❑ The slake-durability index is taken as the
❑ mass of drum and sample after
percentage ratio of final to initial dry cooling (Mass B).
sample masses after two cycles. ❑ mass of the drum and sample is
▪ First-cycle slake-durability index (Id1) as: recorded (Mass C).
❑ drum is brushed clean and its mass
is recorded (Mass D).
▪ Second-cycle slake-durability index (Id2) as:
143
(ii) Slake Durability (cont'd)
Table 4: Durability classification based on slake durability index
144
(B) Mechanical Properties of Rock (cont'd)
(iii) Rock Strength
❖ Rock strength is a measure of the ability of a rock mass to withstand force
when subjected to one or a combination of forces.
(a) Uniaxal compression
▪ It is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed compressive
forces.
▪ That is, the maximum force that can be applied to a rock sample without
breaking it (Fig. 5).
▪ The test for uniaxial compression is carried out on cylindrical core
samples of length-to-diameter ratio of 2.5:1.
145
(a) Uniaxial compression (cont'd)
146
Fig. 5: Uniaxial Compression Test Setup
147
❑ According to ISRM (1989), the suggested method for determining
uniaxial compressive strength of rock is as given in eqn. (4).
P 4P
Co = = (4)
A D 2
where Co is the uniaxial compressive strength, MPa;

P is the applied peak load, kN;
A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen, m2.
❑ Classification of uniaxial compressive strength by various workers is

presented in Table 3.
148
Table 3: Uniaxial (unconfined) compressive strength classification
Geological Strength Index (GSI) IAEG ISRM

Term Strength Term Strength Term Strength
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Very weak < 1.25 Weak < 15 Low <6
Weak 1.25 – 5.00 Moderately strong 15 - 50 Moderate 6 – 20
Moderately weak 5.00 – 12.50 Strong 50 – 120 High 20 – 60
Moderately strong 12.50 – 50 Very strong 120 – 230 Very high 60 – 200
Strong 50 – 100 Extremely strong > 230 Extremely high > 200
Very strong 100 – 200
Extremely strong > 200
149
Cylindrical Rock sample

attached with strain gauge for
displacement measurement.
Fig. 10: Uniaxial Compression Set-up with Strain Gauge attached to Cylindrical Rock
150 Sample in Geology Laboratory, UMaT, Tarkwa (Photo by Olaleye)
151
(b) Triaxial compression)
➢ Triaxial compressive strength of rock material involves the
application of both axial and lateral (circumferential) loads on the
rock sample.
➢ The test for triaxial compression is carried out on cylindrical
specimens prepared in the same manner as those used for uniaxial
compression tests.
➢ For testing purpose σ1 > σ2 = σ3 (triaxial compression) and δ3 is
referred to as the confining stress.
➢ The principal stresses (Fig. 6) are called major, intermediate and
minor stresses from a consideration of relative magnitudes.
(b) Triaxial compression (cont'd)
❖ The normal stress acting on a principal plane is referred to as a
‘principal stress’
❖Plane within a rock mass is acted upon by a stress inclined to the
normal of the plane.
❖Such a stress has both a normal and a tangential stress (or shear stress)
[Fig. 11].
Fig. 11: Different stresses

o The principal stresses (Fig. 12) are called major, intermediate and minor
stresses from a consideration of relative magnitudes.
σ1
σ1 > σ2 > σ3
major intermediate minor
For testing purpose σ1 > σ2 = σ3 (triaxial compression) and σ3

is referred to as the confining stress.
σ3 σ2 = σ3
Fig. 12: Principal stresses

➢ The effect of the confining stress is important in application of rock engineering
(Fig. 13).
σ3 = 15 MPa
Stress (σ)
σ3 = 10 MPa
σ3 = 5 MPa
σ3 = 0
Strain (ε)
Fig. 13: Typical results of increasing confining stress on the strength of the sample
Fig. 14: Triaxial compression test using Hoek cell (IBM, 2014)
Piston
Hoek cell
Specimen
Piston Jacket
Specimen
Jacket Hoek cell
Hand Operated
Triaxial Confining
Pressure Gauge
Unit
Fig. 15: Hand Operated Triaxial Confining Pressure Gauge Unit with Hoek Cell and
Specimen Jacket-insert in Geology Laboratory, UMaT, Tarkwa (Photo by Olaleye)
(c) Tensile Strength
❑ Tensile strength of rock material is the ultimate strength in tension.
❑ Maximum tensile stress the rock material can withstand.
❑ Rock material generally has a low tensile strength.
❑ The low tensile strength is due to the existence of microcracks in the rock.
Rock fails suddenly in tension with a small strain.
❑ Tensile strength of rock materials can be obtained from:
✓ direct tensile test;
✓ Brazilian test; and
✓ flexure test.
(c) Tensile Strength (cont'd)
➢ Direct tensile test on rock material is not commonly performed due to the difficulty in
sample preparation.
➢ The most common tensile strength determination is by the Brazilian tests.
Fig. 16: Rock material in tension

(d) Brazilian Strength Test
▪ Brazilian strength test is an indirect tensile strength test for the

determination of tensile strength of rock material.
▪ Cylindrical specimen of diameter approximately equals to 50 mm and

L/D = 1 is prepared (Fig. 17).
▪ The cylindrical surfaces should be free from obvious tool marks and any
irregularities across the thickness.
▪ End faces shall be flat to within 0.25 mm and square and parallel to
within 0.25°.
(d) Brazilian Strength Test (cont'd)
Fig. 17: Brazilian tensile test

(d) Brazilian Strength Test (cont'd)
▪ The tensile strength of the rock is calculated from failure load (P),
specimen diameter (D) and specimen thickness (t) by using eqn.
(20):
0.636 P
t = (20)
Dt
▪ Reporting of results includes description of the rock, orientation of

the axis of loading with respect to specimen anisotropy, water
content and degree of saturation, test duration and loading rate,
mode of failure.
BRAZILIAN STRENGTH TEST
Example
An indirect tensile strength test was conducted on a cylindrical rock core
sample and subjected to a failure load of 8 kN which made the sample to fail
longitudinally after 15 seconds of loading. Given that the radius of the rock
sample is 23 mm and the thickness-to-diameter ratio is 1:1, determine the
indirect tensile strength value of the sample.
0.636 P
Solution t =
Dt
P = 8 kN; Radius = 23 mm; D = 46 mm (0.046 m); t = 46 mm (0.046m);
σt = 0.636 x 8 = 5.09 = 2,390kN/m2 = 2.39MPa
0.046 x 0.046 0.00213
(e) Point Load Strength Index Test
❑ Point load test of rock cores can be conducted diametrically and axially
(Fig. 18).
❑ It can also be performed on irregular rock samples.
❑ In diametrical test, rock core specimen of diameter D is loaded between
the point load apparatus across its diameter
❑ The length-to-diameter ratio for the diametrical test should be greater
than 1.0
❑ For axial test, rock core is cut to a height between 0.5 D to D and is
loaded between the point load apparatus axially.
(e) Point Load Strength Index Test (cont'd)
Source: GeoTech Systems Equipment Manual

Fig. 18: Point load test
❑ Load at failure is recorded as P. Uncorrected point load
strength, Is, is calculated as:
P
Is = 2 (21)
De
where De, the "equivalent core diameter", is given by:

De2 = D2 for diametrical test.
= 4 A /π for axial, block and lump tests.
A = H D = minimum cross-sectional area of a plane through the

loading points.
➢ The point load strength is corrected to the point load strength at
equivalent core diameter of 50mm.
➢ For De ≠ 50 mm, the size correction factor is:
F = (De/ 50)0.45
(22)
The corrected point load strength index, Is(50) is: Is(50) = F Is (23)
Fig. 19: Specimen shape

requirements for
(a) diametral test;
(b) axial test;
(c) block test; and
(d) irregular lump test
ISRM: POINT LOAD TEST
Fig. 20: Typical modes of failure

for valid and invalid tests:
(a) valid diametral test;
(b) valid axial test;
(c) valid block test;
(d) invalid core tests; and
(e) invalid axial test
❖ The point load test was originally used to determine the tensile strength
of rocks.
❖ The maximum load which fails the rock is point load index (Is).
❖ The strength index is obtained as a ratio of failure load to the square of
the distance separating the platen contact points as given by:
Is = P/D2 (24)
where, Is is the point load index (MPa), P is the point load (KN),
D is the diameter (m)
➢ The Is varies according to the diameter, D of the rock.

➢ The product of the point load index and the constant K gives the
compressive strength given by:
σc = KIs (25)
where σc is the compressive strength and K is the constant
➢ The rock specimen should have a minimum length of 1.5 x D

in order to have a minimum end effect.
Table 5: The constant K matched with core sizes of rock
Core Size, mm Constant, K

Dimensionless
20 17.5
30 19
40 21
50 23
54 24
60 24.5
Table 6: Point Load Strength Classification (Broch and Franklin, 1972)
Point Load Strength Equivalent Uniaxial
Term
index (MPa) Compressive Strength (MPa)
Extremely high strength Over 10 Over 160
Very high strength 3 - 10 50 - 160
High strength 1-3 15 - 60
Medium strength 0.3 - 1 5 - 16
Low strength 0.1 - 0.3 1.6 - 5
Very low strength 0.03 - 0.1 0.5 - 1.6
Extremely low strength Less than 0.03 Less than 0.5
POINT LOAD STRENGTH INDEX TEST
Example
A cylindrical rock core sample of length 90 mm having a length-to-
diameter ratio of 2.5:1 is subjected to a failure load of 45 kN during a
point load strength test in the laboratory. If loading is applied
continuously on the sample at a constant rate such that failure occurs
in 25 seconds, determine the corrected point load strength index of
the rock.
Solution
Failure load, P = 45 kN; Length = 90 mm (0.09m) and length-to-
diameter ratio = 2.5:1.
Therefore, De = 36 mm (0.036m)
P
Is = 2
De
Is = 45 = 45 = 34,722.22 kN/m2 or kPa = 34.722 MPa
0.0362 0,001296
Corrected point load strength index, Is(50) = F Is

where F = (De / 50)0.45 = (36/50)0.45 = 0.720.45 = 0.86
Therefore Is(50) = F Is = 0.86 x 34.722 MPa = 29.86 MPa
(f) Shear Strength
❑ Shear strength of a rock expresses the ability of that rock to resist
deformation or external forces.
❑ It is used to describe the strength of rock materials, to resist deformation
due to shear stress.
❑ A rock is said to possess high shear strength when its two components;
cohesion forces and angle of internal friction are high.
❑ Cohesion is a measure of internal bonding of the rock material.
❑ Internal friction is caused by contact between particles, and is defined by
the internal friction angle, ϕ.
(f) Shear Strength (cont'd)
✓ Shear strength may be positive or negative.
✓ It is positive when the rock resists the forces equally.
✓ It is negative when it cannot shear or resist all the forces and which will
lead to deformation of the rock.
✓ Shear strength of rock material can be determined by direct shear test and
by triaxial compression tests (Fig. 22).
✓ Shearing action is caused by two forces acting in opposite directions along

a plane of weakness (fracture, fault, bedding plane, etc.) that is inclined at
some angles to the forces.
Fig. 21: Rock material under shear Fig. 22: Portable Shear Box (IBM, 2014)
✓ With a series of triaxial tests conducted at different confining pressures,
peak stresses (σ1) are obtained at various lateral stresses (σ3).
✓ By plotting Mohr’s circles, the shear envelope is defined, which gives the
cohesion and internal friction angle (Fig. 23).
✓ The shear strength (τ) of the material is characterized by cohesion (c) and
a friction angle (ϕ), that are related by the equation (26).
τ = c + σ tanϕ (26)
Fig. 23: Mohr’s Circle

❑ A Mohr’s envelope can be drawn by varying the values of

confining pressure (σ3).
❑ If there are three unequal principal stresses, then we have σ1, σ2,
σ3.
❑ In drawing the Mohr’s circle of envelope, the diameter of each

circle is found from σ1 - σ3 and divide by 2 to get the radius which
can be used to draw the circle.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
❑ Describe shear strength;
❑ Understand the concept of Elasticity, Poisons ratio, Young modulus;

(f) Shear Strength
❑ Shear strength of a rock expresses the ability of that rock to resist
deformation or external forces.
❑ It is used to describe the strength of rock materials, to resist deformation
due to shear stress.
❑ A rock is said to possess high shear strength when its two components;
cohesion forces and angle of internal friction are high.
❑ Cohesion is a measure of internal bonding of the rock material.
❑ Internal friction is caused by contact between particles, and is defined by
the internal friction angle, ϕ.
✓ Shear strength may be positive or negative.
✓ It is positive when the rock resists the forces equally.
✓ It is negative when it cannot shear or resist all the forces and which will
lead to deformation of the rock.
✓ Shear strength of rock material can be determined by direct shear test and
by triaxial compression tests (Fig. 22).
✓ Shearing action is caused by two forces acting in opposite directions along

a plane of weakness (fracture, fault, bedding plane, etc.) that is inclined at
some angles to the forces.
Fig. 21: Rock material under shear Fig. 22: Portable Shear Box (IBM, 2014)
✓ With a series of triaxial tests conducted at different confining pressures,
peak stresses (σ1) are obtained at various lateral stresses (σ3).
✓ By plotting Mohr’s circles, the shear envelope is defined, which gives the
cohesion and internal friction angle (Fig. 23).
✓ The shear strength (τ) of the material is characterized by cohesion (c) and
a friction angle (ϕ), that are related by the equation (26).
τ = c + σ tanϕ (26)
Fig. 23: Mohr’s Circle

❑ A Mohr’s envelope can be drawn by varying the values of

confining pressure (σ3).
❑ If there are three unequal principal stresses, then we have σ1, σ2,
σ3.
❑ In drawing the Mohr’s circle of envelope, the diameter of each

circle is found from σ1 - σ3 and divide by 2 to get the radius which
can be used to draw the circle.
(g) Elasticity
❖ Elasticity of rock is the ability to change form under the effect of external force and
return to the original form or shape when the force is removed.
❖ Every solid material deforms under action of a load (stress).
❖ To every kind of stress, there is a corresponding strain.
❖ If the stress is not too large, the strained material will recover its unique natural
shape when the external loads are removed.
❖ The property of recovery from strain is called elasticity.
❖ If a material recovers completely, it is called perfectly elastic.
❖ If the material does not recover completely, it is said to be in an elastic state.
(g) Elasticity (cont'd)
➢ In applying elastic principle to rock, the following assumptions are made:
▪ the rock is assumed to be a continuous, homogenous, linear, elastic and isotropic
(the group of material whose mechanical property does not depend on the
direction of applied force is said to be isotropic)
▪ deformation (strain) of the loaded rock materials is so small and they
may be neglected in setting up-equilibrium condition.
➢ Hooke’s law states that deformation of a body is proportional to action force,

which can be expressed as eqn. (27).
PL
l = (27)
AE
where ∆l is the absolute deformation (m);
P is the force (KN),
L is the length of sample before deformation (m);
E is the coefficient of proportionality and
A is the cross sectional area of the sample.
l
=  is called relative longitudinal or axial strain.
l
P/A = σ, axial stress and E = σ /ε (kg/cm2) and called modulus of elasticity.
Ԑr = radial strain
Ԑ = axial strain
µ = Poisson ratio
σ = axial stress
E = modulus of elasticity
❑ Ratio of stress to strain within the elastic limit is a constant which is
defined by Hooke as the Modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus (E).
❑ Different types of stresses and their corresponding strains within elastic
limit are related which are referred to as elastic constants.
❑ There are three elastic constants:
❑ Young's modulus or Modulus of elasticity (E) = Normal stress
Normal strain
❑ Shear modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (G) = Shear stress
Shear strain
❑ Bulk modulus (K) = Direct stress
Volumetric strain
❖ The elasticity of the rock is characterized by a modulus of elasticity, E and
poison’s ratio, μ.
❖ Elasticity is understood to be the proportionality constant between normal stress

in the rock and relative deformation that correspond to it.
❖ Poison’s ratio is the proportionality constant between the longitudinal and

lateral deformation.
❖ The magnitude of E for rocks range between 0.03 x 104 to 1.7 x 103 MPa.
❖ These values depend upon mineralogical composition, porosity of rock, type of
deformation and the magnitude of applied load.
➢ There are two ranges used to describe deformation of the rock:
(a) elastic deformation:

✓ occurs when all of the deformation caused by the stress is restored upon
its release.
(b) plastic deformation:
✓ when stress that is below a critical threshold value is released, all of
the deformation is restored.
✓ However, if the applied stress exceeds the threshold value,
permanent deformation results due to the load.
✓ This means that when the load is removed, there is a permanent
alteration to the original shape of the rock or material.
Fig. 24: Six types of uniaxial stress-strain curves (Deere and Miller, 1966)
(h) Plasticity
o Plasticity of a solid material is the property of the material to be
continuously and permanently deform.
o Property to change shape in any direction without rupture, under the
stress exceeding the yield value of the material.
o In a plastic state, permanent deformation may occur without fracture.
o The term ‘fracture’ implies the appearance of distinct surface of
separation in the material.
(i) Strain
▪ Materials that are subjected to a load, whether it is compressive, tensile, or
shear, will deform and either stretch or shrink in length.
▪ This action is referred to as ‘strain’ and is described mathematically as:
(28)
where L is length and ΔL is the change in length.
▪ The ratio between stress and strain is referred to as the 'Modulus of Elasticity’
or Young's Modulus and is denoted as E. Mathematically:
P/ A 
E= = (29)
L / L 
(i) Strain (cont'd)
▪ Another rock strength parameter is a property that describes the

amount of lateral extension (strain) of a material that is under a
vertical (axial) strain:
lateral strain B / B
= (30)
axialstrain L / L
where B is in terms of lateral dimensions.

(i) Strain (cont'd)
❖ Intact rock laboratory test is associated with strength characteristics as with
any other material.
❖ Laboratory tests are usually perform on intact rock i.e. rock without
discontinuity.
Fig. 25: Discontinuities (Number of Joint Sets

(i) Strain (cont'd)
Fig. 26: (a) Rock mass and intact rock and (b) stress-strain plot
(i) Strain (cont'd)
Stress =
load
area
(
N / m3 ) or Pa )
(31)
changeinlength
Stain = (32)
original length
stress
Deformation modulus = ( Pa) (33)
strain
radial strain
Poisson’s ratio (μ) = (34)
axial strain
(B) Mechanical Properties of Rocks (cont'd) (i) Strain (cont'd)
Crack initiation and propagation occur in a fractured structure
under dynamic loading, resulting in structure failure or crack
arrest.
(1) Crack closure (σcc) occurs during
the initial stages of loading when
preexisting cracks orientated at an
angle to the applied load close.
(2) Crack initiation (σci) represents the

stress level where microfracturing
begins.
(3) Crack damage (σcd) is the point of

critical energy release or damage
stress threshold.
Fig. 27: Stress–strain diagram showing the stages of crack development (Martin 1993)
MN 586
MINE ROCK
MECHANICS
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UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

MINE ROCK MECHANICS

Course Code: MN 586

❑ The course is designed primarily for students in mining

❑ However, it also meets the needs of students in other field

❑ As a theoretical oriented course, the focus is to impart

▪ physical properties of rock (density, porosity,

• All students must attend the lecture sessions as they will

This course will be graded as follows:

Final Examination 60%

Hudson, J. A. and Harrison, J. P. (1995). Engineering Rock Mechanics

❑ Understand the significance of rock mechanics;

❑ Distinguish between rocks and normal construction materials;

❑ Outline the uses and economic importance of rocks; and

❑ State the characteric features the defines the strength of rocks.

❑ But rocks present in nature have several geological discontinuities, such

❑ The behaviour of a rock mass subjected to a change in stress is

❑ Several major failures of dams and rock slopes have occurred

❑ Nowadays, tall structures, high dams, lengthy tunnels, and

❑ Thus, for an exact analysis and proper prediction of the

❑ Rock mechanics is the subject concerned with the response of rock to

❑ Disturbance can be man-induced or natural.

❑ Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical

❑ It is that branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to

❑Rocks are aggregates of crystals and amorphous particles which may

❑Rock is made up of minerals bounded together by forces of molecular

❑ Common features of accessible rocks:

o they are broken up by discontinuities.

o fluid under pressure is frequently present both in open joint

and in the pores of the rock.

o due to the nature of deposition of rock aggregates, the lithology

varies and so, many rocks can be encountered at a time.

❖ Rock as one of the most commonly used construction material is

❖ To avoid structural failure associated with rock,

➢ Rock mechanics is a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe

➢ Properties of the natural geomaterials are unknown and uncontrollable.

Complex nature of rock

Fig. 1b: Phyllite Rock Exposure along Government Hill Road,

Uses of Rocks as Engineering Materials

❑ For example, polished granite facing stone is exported all over

❑ Rocks may also contain many important ores as accessories or

❑ Certain mafic intrusives are sources of chromium, titanium,

Fig. 1c: Crushed Granite Aggregates

Fig. 1d: Countertops

Fig. 1e: Tile Sink, Backsplash and Counter

Fig. 1f: Tile Flooring and Wall Panels

Fig. 1g: Building Stone

Fig. 1h: Facing Stone

Fig. 1i: Paving Stone

Fig. 1j: Monument

Fig. 1k: Slabs

Characteristics that Determine Rock Strength

▪ Outline the field application of rock mechanics;

▪ State and define the index properties of rocks;

Mine Model Formulation - Conceptualization of site characterization

Design analysis - Selection and application of mathematical and computational

Rock performance monitoring - measurement of the operational response to mining