ENGINEERING

DRAWING

1
 INTRODUCTION

Our world has become the one where computers are used to solve many
problems quickly and accurately. We use calculators to solve arithmetical
problems, word processors to check spelling and grammar in texts and computer-
aided design (C.A.D.) programs to do much of our drawing for us. However, in the
same way that we need to know what [+, - , ¿ and ÷] mean when we press that
symbol on a calculator, and we need to be able to write a text before we can ask a
word processor to check it, in the same way we need knowledge and understanding
of geometric and engineering drawing before we can use computers to help us with
design. These understandings can come through studying and using this book.
This book deals with the material which is covered in two semester courses at
Azerbaijan State Oil and Industry University.
The purpose of this book is to give students a good basis for understanding
and mastering engineering drawing.
Engineering drawing is purely a practical subject, the subject which has to be
known thoroughly by all engineers and technicians. Engineers express their ideas
in design using engineering drawing language which provides means of
communication no matter where an engineer comes from. In order to use this
language one has to know principles and conventions which make up the grammar
of graphical language. But there is even one more important thing and that is the
ability to visualize a complicated object in three dimensions from two dimensional
drawings. The ability to visualize is important for accurate preparation of drawing
by designers.
The most effective way of improving your ability to visualize is to do graded
exercises in the visualization of the space in which points, lines, planes, figures and
solids are placed in different relation to one another. A whole set of such exercises,
introducing you step by step to proficiency in visualization, is provided by
descriptive geometry and engineering drawing. Descriptive geometry and machine
building drawing are therefore something more than a theoretical basis for
engineering drawing. It is a key for making your mind flexible and skillful in your
future work as creative designers.
This book covers a range of topics directly related to the most commonly used
branches of a shortened course of engineering drawing. It includes the following
parts: the rules of making drawings, descriptive geometry and machine-biulding
drawing. The book consists of ten chapters. Each chapter has several questions and
assignments at the end of it. They are arranged so that they might require
knowledge from an earlier chapter but not from a later one. In Appendix 1 it is
given the English-Russian-Azerbaijani Glossary of the terms used in the book.
Appendix 2 contains symbols and conventional designations of the basic concepts
in engineering drawing.

2
 PART I
THE RULES OF MAKING
DRAWINGS

3
 CHAPTER І
PREPARATION OF DRAWINGS
1.1. Lettering

Most notes on drawings are done in capital letters although this is not always
so. Two identical alphabets and numbers printed differently are shown below.
Most draftspersons develop great skills in printing by hand. If you need to print, try
both standard and italic, and develop a style that suits you.

Standard lettering:

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890

Italic lettering:

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890

1.2. Drawing Sheet

Sizes of drawings typically comply with either of two different

standards, ISO (World Standard) or ANSY/ASME14 (American), according to the
following table:
Table 1.1
ISO a drawing size(mm) ANSY/ASME14(American)

A4 210x297 A 8.5ııx11ıı
A3 297x420 B 11ııx17ıı
A2 420x594 C 17ııx22ıı
A1 594x841 D 22ııx34ıı
A0 841x1189 E 34ııx44ıı

The metric drawing sizes correspond to international paper sizes. A full set
of pencils would have the following nib sizes: 0.13, 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0,
1.5, and 2.0 mm. However, the International Standardization Organization (ISO)
calls for four pencil widths and sets a color code for each: 0.25 (white), 0.35

4
(yellow), 0.5 (brown), 0.7 (blue); these nibs produce lines related to various text
character heights and the ISO paper sizes.

Fig. 1.1

Most paper comes in standard sizes. The largest sheet you are likely to use is
A0 and the smallest A4. If your drawing paper has no frame, then draw one. A
minimum of 20 mm from left side and 5 mm from other sides are used on A0 and
A1 from the edge of the paper to the frame line. A minimum of 10 mm from left
side and 3 mm from other sides are used on A2, A3 and A4.
All ISO paper sizes have the same ratio aspect; one to the square root of 2,
meaning that a document designed for any given size can be enlarged or reduced to
any other. Given this ease of changing sizes, it is common to copy or print a given
document on different paper sizes, especially within a series, e.g. a drawing on A3
may be enlarged to A2 or reduced to A4.
The U.S. customary “A-size” corresponds to “letter” size, and “B-size”
corresponds to “ledger” or “tabloid” size. There were also once British paper sizes,
which went by names rather than alphanumeric designations.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Y14.2, Y14.3, and
Y14.5 are commonly referenced standards in the U.S.

5
 1.3. Scales

The objects we encounter in our day-to-day life are usually either too large
or too small to be drawn to their true size. For instance, a car or a building can be
drawn to its true size if, and only if, we use a piece of paper that is large enough to
accommodate the true dimensions of that car or building. But as we have noted
above, the largest size of paper (under ISO standard) is A0 (841-mm X 1189-mm),
which is much smaller than these objects. The discrepancy between the actual sizes
of objects and the size of the papers we use for drawing necessitates us to prepare
drawings that are either smaller or bigger in size than the actual objects. This is
only possible through the use of scales.
Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an object shown in the drawing
to the real linear dimension of the same element of the object (Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2

The scale must depend on the size of the object; a miniature electronic
component may be drawn 100 times larger than it really is, whilst some maps have
natural dimensions divided by millions.

Fig.1.3

The scale of 1:1 (read as one-to-one) implies that the object has been drawn
to its true size (Fig. 1.3).

6
 A scale of 2:1 (read as two-to-one) implies that the object has been enlarged
twice of its true size. A scale of 1:2 (read as one-to-two) implies that the object has
been reduced to its half size, etc.
The recommended scales in Engineering Drawing are:

True size scale 1:1

Reduction scales 1:2 1:5 1:10
1:20 1:50 1:100
1:200 1:500 1:1000
Magnification 2:1 5:1 10:1
(enlargement) 20:1 50:1 100:1
scales 200:1 500:1 1000:1

As compared with the actual sizes, the views are reduced or magnified to
definite number of times. This number is called the numerical scale.
State Standard establishes the following scales:
a) reduction scales
1:2- drawings made to one half of the actual size;
1:2,5- drawings made to one to two and a half of the actual size;
1:4- drawings made to one fourth of the actual size;
1:5; 1:10; 1:15; 1:20; 1:40; 1:50; 1:75; 1:100; 1:200; 1:400;
1:500 ; 1:800; 1:1000.
b) Magnification (enlargement) scales.
2:1- drawings made to twice of the actual size;
2,5:1- drawings made to two and a half of the actual size;
4:1- drawings made to four times of the actual size;
5:1 ; 10:1 ; 20:1 ; 40:1 ; 50:1 ; 100:.
It must be remembered that whatever the drawing scale (reduction or
magnification scales) are used, we should always indicate the actual dimensions
of the object on the drawing, regardless of their reduced or magnified dimensions.

1.4. Framing and Title Block (Main Inscription) on Drawing

Working drawings of machine details show not only the shape of these parts
and all the dimensions, but also contain definite technical instructions. You may
well have to add information to your finished drawing and this should be shown in
blocks. This information could include:
a) Title;
b) Your name;
c) Your location (college or company);
d) The scale of the drawing;
e) The system of projection used

7
 f) Date;
g) Instructions regarding the finish of the surface of the detail;
h) The name of the material the given detail is made of;
i) The designation (number) of the detail, its name and other information.
This information is given in a special box in the lower right corner of the
drawing, called the main inscription or title block (Fig. 1.4).

Fig.1.4

From the first position (1) of the main inception we learn the name of the
part represented in drawings.
The drawing symbol is indicated in the second position (2).
The name and grade of the material from which the detail is made, as well as
the standard number for this material, are indicated in the third position (3).
The drawing symbol, which indicates the category of the drawing, is written
in the fourth position (4). Drawings designed for trial series are marked with letter
A, written in the first square. Mass production drawings are marked by letter B,
written in the second square.
In the fifth position (5) we write the net weight of the detail in kilograms.
The scale of the drawing is indicated in the sixth position (6), the number of
the sheet in the seventh position (7), and the total number of sheets we write in the
eighth position (8).
The name of the factory and department is given in the ninth position (9).
Their posts are written in the tenth position (10), and their full names in the
eleventh position (11).
The twelfth position (12) is reserved for their signatures, and the date, on
which the drawing is signed, is written in the thirteenth position (13).
Perfectly rectangular working space is determined by drawing the border
lines. They may be drawn at equal distances of about 20 mm from left-side hand
edges of the paper, 5 mms from other sides (right-hand edges, top and bottom).
More space on the left-hand side is provided to facilitate binding of the drawing
sheets in a book form, if it is desired (Fig. 1.5).
8
 Fig. 1.5

To draw the borderlines we have to mark points along the left-hand edge of
the paper at the required distance from the top and bottom edges and through them,
we should draw horizontal lines with the T-square. Along the upper horizontal line,
mark two points at required distance from the left-hand and right-hand edges, and
draw vertical lines through them with the aid of T-square and a set-square. Erase
the extra lengths of lines beyond the points of intersection.

1.5. Line Styles

Technical drawing lines are used for different purposes to provide specific
information for designers, manufacturers and others. looking at the drawing the
person who will read drawings has to learn what they mean. Line types are also a
means of communication between draftsperson.
Continuous thick line: is used to depict visible outlines of object.
Continuous thin line: is used to depict dimension lines, backside section
lines, implied axis lines and to state the code of the planes, at diagonal lines which
are used to show plane surface, intersection, leader, hatching.
Dashed thin lines: is used do depict invisible/hidden lines representing
invisible edges on the objects.
Dashed thick line with dots: is used to state the special places/surfaces
which will be processed additionally similar to coat, to harden etc.
Dashed thin lines with dots: is used to depict axis lines of symmetrical
drawings, in front of section planes.
Chain thin line with thick ends: is used to depict cutting plane and to draw
the trace at section planes.

9
 Continuous thin zigzag line: is used when free hand lines are drawn by
tools.
Free hand line: is used to depict limits of partial and interrupted views and
sections.

Fig. 1.6

The lines used for drawings are classified into several groups depending on
their designation. The most common types of lines are the following:
a) Visible outlines;
b) Hidden outlines;
c) Center lines;
d) Dimension and extension lines.
The lines showing the visible outline of the objects and their components are
the heaviest ones (Fig.1.7), their thickness varies from 0.6 to 1.5 mm. The greater
thickness of these lines as compared to other lines makes the drawing of the object
more legible.
To distinguish the visible outlines from the hidden ones, the latter is drawn
in broken lines.
In the top and left- hand views (Fig.1.7) broken lines indicate the cylindrical
bore in the front and rear walls of the detail. In the main view, the same type of
lines indicates the thickness of the right-hand wall and base.
Broken lines are drawn according to the following rules:
a) Dashes must be one half or one.
b) Each dash must not be longer than 2…8 mm.
c) All dashes must be of equal length.
d) The space between the dashes must be about a fourth of their length.
Any object, which сan be divided into two equal and absolutely identically
shaped sections, is said to be symmetrical in shape. The line, dividing the drawing
of a symmetrically shaped object into two identical halves, is called the axis of
symmetry.

10
 Fig 1.7

In Figure 1.6, we can see two symmetrical representations of a detail-its left-

hand view and its top view. The first view is symmetrical about its vertical axis,
while the second view is symmetrical about horizontal axis.
In the drawing of a detail, if it is a circle, we usually draw two axes of
symmetry intersecting each other at right angles through its center. The axis of
symmetry drawn in circles is called center line. Center and axial lines are drawn in
dots and dashes according to the following rules.
a) The thickness of dot and dash lines must be one half or one third that of
the visible outline in the given drawing.
b) Each dash must be approximately 5…30 mm long.
c) There must be equal (approximately 3…5) spaces between each dash with
a dot in the center of each space.
Center lines should intersect each other in the center of their dashes, the
point of intersection indicating the position of the circle center.
Dimension lines indicate the detail of the object to which the dimension
figures refer (Fig. 1.8). They must be drawn parallel to the section, dimensions of
which they indicate. They may also be drawn within the outline of the drawing of
the detail (dimensions 18 and 40), but it is preferable for them to be outside the
outline (dimensions 8, 18, 36, 54 and 80 in the same figure).

11
 Fig.1.8

Fig. 1.9
Figure 1.9 shows the other example of line conventions in engineering
drawing.

1.6. Dimensioning

When an engineering drawing is made, dimensioning is of vital

importance. All the dimensions, necessary to make the articles drawn must be on
the drawing and they must be presented so that they can be easily read, easily
12
found and not open to misinterpretation. A neat drawing can be spoilt by bad
dimensioning.
If the dimensions between adjacent elements are assigned by a chain and
distance between these elements, arrows are not required, then in this case, it is
allowed to replace arrows with the notches, drawn on at an angle of 45 0 to
dimensional lines(Fig. 1.10, c).

a) b) c)
Fig. 1.10

Dimension figure, indicating diameter lengths, is always preceded by the

standard symbol ∅ (Fig. 1.11). This symbol allows us to reduce the number of
views in the drawings of “arcular” parts : cylinders, cones and so on.

Fig. 1.11

As shown in Figure 1.12 the letter R, is a conventional symbol used for the
word “radius”, must always precede the figures indicating the length of the radius.

13
 Fig.1.12

One end of the radius dimension line always terminates in an arrowhead,

touching the line of the arc of the circle; the other end indicates the center of the
arc. Located on a center or axial line it should be marked with a dash.
Many parts of machines have several conical surfaces called tapered
chamfers or bevels. They are often made at an angle of 45 ; in such cases the
dimensions consist of inceptions, the first figure of which indicates the height of
the truncated cone and the second one indicates the magnitude of the angle. For
example 1,5x450 (Fig. 1.13).

Fig. 1.13

In current productions, the accuracy of the dimensions of details may vary.

i.e., it may deviate from the nominal specified size.
Engineering drawings are usually dimensioned in millimeters. There are
many rules about how to dimension a drawing properly, but it is unlikely, that two
people will dimension the same drawing in exactly the same way. However, take
into account, that when dimensioning you must be particularly neat and concise,
thorough and consistent. The following rules must be adhered to when
dimensioning:
1. Projection lines should be thin ones and should extend about 1 mm from
the outline to 3 -6 mm past the dimension line (Fig. 1.14).
14
 Fig.1.14

2. The dimension line should be a thin line and terminate with arrowheads at
least 3 mm long and these arrowheads must touch the projection lines.
3. The dimension may be inserted within a break in the dimension line or be
placed on top of the dimension line (Fig.1.10, c).
4. The dimensions should be placed so that they are read from the bottom of
the paper or from the right-hand side of the paper.
5. Dimension lines should be drawn outside the outline, whenever possible,
and should be kept well clear of the outline.

Fig.1.15

6. Overall dimensions should be placed outside the intermediate dimensions.

7. Center lines must never be used as dimension lines. They may be used as
projection lines.
8. Diameters may be dimensioned in one of two ways. Either dimension
directly across the circle (not on a center line), or project the diameter to outside
the outline. “Diameter” is denoted by the symbol φ placed in front of the
dimension (Fig.1.11).
9. When dimensioning a radius, you must, if possible, show the center of the
radius. The actual dimension for the radius may be shown on either side of the
outline but should, of course, be kept outside if possible. The word radius must be
abbreviated to R and placed in front of the dimension (Fig.1.12).
10. When a diameter or a radius is too small to be dimensioned by any of the
above methods, a leader line may be used. The leader line should be a thin line and
should terminate on the detail that it is pointing to with an arrowhead or, within an
outline, with a dot. Long leader lines should be avoided even if it means inserting

15
another dimension. The leader line should always meet another line at an acute
angle.

a) b) c)
Fig. 1.16
11. Dimensions should not be repeated on a drawing. It is necessary to put
on a dimension only once, however many views are drawn. There is one exception
to this rule. If, by inserting one dimension, it saves adding up lots of small
dimensions then this is allowed. These types of dimensions are called “auxiliary
dimensions” and are shown to be so either by underlining the dimensions or
putting them in brackets.
12. Unless unavoidable, do not dimension hidden detail. It is usually
possible to dimension the same detail on another view.
13. When dimensioning angles, draw the dimension lines with a compass;
the point of the compass should be on the point of the angle (Fig.1.16, c). The
arrowheads may be drawn on either side of the dimension lines, and the dimension
may be inserted between the dimension lines or outside them. Whatever the angle
is, the dimension must be placed so that it can be read either from the bottom of the
paper or from the right-hand side (Fig.1.17).

Fig.1.17

14. If a lot of parallel dimensions are given, it avoids confusion as the

dimensions are arranged so that they are all easier to read (Fig.1.20).
15. If a lot of dimensions are to be shown from one projection line (often
referred to as a datum line), either of the methods shown in Figures 1. 16,a and b
may be used. Note that in both methods, the actual dimension is close to the
arrowhead and is not in the center of the dimension line.
16
 16. If the majority of dimensions on a drawing are in one unit, it is not
necessary to put on the abbreviation for the units used, i.e. cm or mm. In this case,
the following note must be printed on your drawing.
Unless otherwise stated, dimensions are in millimeters!
17. If a very large radius is drawn, whose center is off the drawing, the
dimension line is drawn with a single zig-zag in it (Fig.1.18).

Fig.1.18
18. Dimensioning small spaces raises its own problems and solutions. There
is one or two more rules that do not require illustrating.
19. If the drawing is to scale, the dimensions put on the drawing are the
actual dimensions of the component and not the size of the line on your drawing.
20. Square is denoted by the symbol “□” placed in front of the dimension.
It applies only in cases where the image does not give a complete picture of the
square shape. In those cases where the square shape is clearly visible on the
drawing, indicate the lengths of two sides of the square (Fig. 1.19).

Fig.1.19

21. Taper is denoted by the symbol “ ” "Diameter” placed in front of the

dimension (Fig. 1.20, a). Skew is denoted by the symbol “ ∠ ” placed in front of the
dimension too (Fig. 1.20, b).

17
 a) b)
Fig. 1.20
The above 21 rules do not cover all aspects of dimensioning (there is a new
set on tolerance dimensions alone) but they should cover all that if necessary.
Dimensioning properly is a matter of applying common sense to the rules
because no two different drawings can ever raise exactly the same problems. Each
drawing needs to be studied very carefully before you begin to dimension it.
Examination questions often ask for only five or six “important” dimensions
to be inserted on the finished drawing. The overall dimensions, namely, length,
breadth and width - are obviously important but the remaining two or three are not
so important.

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER I

1. How many types of letters are used in engineering drawing?

2. What is the difference between standard lettering and italic lettering?
3. How many types of scales are used in engineering drawing?
4. How many types of drawing lines do you know and what is the purpose of
each type?
5. What are the rules of writing dimension indicated in vertical dimension lines?
6. What are the rules of writing dimension indicated in parallel dimension lines?
7. What common types of lines do you know?
8. When do we use visible and hidden outlines?
9. What are the rules of drawing broken lines?
10. What space must be between the dashes?
11. What space must be between dot and dashes?
12. What must be the thickness of broken lines?
13. What line is called the axis of symmetry?
14. What lines are called the center lines?
15. What rules do you know to draw the center lines?
16. List out and draw the standard thickness of lines that are used in engineering
drawing.
17. Enumerate the rules of dimensioning.
18
18. Give the shape identification symbols for diameter.
19. Give the shape identification symbols for radius.
20. Give the shape identification symbols for square.
21. What is the meaning of the symbol ∅ before the dimension figure?
22. What does letter R in front of the dimension figure signify?
23. Why do we write figure with plus and minus sign, as, for example 250 ± 0 , 15
…? When do we indicate dimensions?
24. How can you calculate upper and lower tolerance?
25. Are zero tolerances indicated in drawings?
26. What do you know about nominal size?
27. What does the symbol 1:2 mean in a drawing?
28. What types of the scales do you know?
29. In what cases do you use scales reduction?
30. In what cases do you use scales magnification?
31 What is the procedure of preparing a scale?
32. In which part of the drawing do we write the information about the material
the object is made of; its name, symbol and other data?
33. How is the main inscription or the title block called?
34. Why are the dimensions indicated in the drawing?
35. Why is dimensioning of an object important?
36. How do we add letters and symbols in dimensioning?
37. Where should the dimension figures be written in the drawing?
38. What must the distance between parallel dimension lines, and the distance
between dimension and contour lines be?
39. How must the dimension lines be located in the drawings?
40. In what cases must the arrows of the dimension lines be drawn from outside
the extension lines?
41. Can contour or axial lines be used as dimension lines?
42. In what case should the incline be in the drawing?
43. What is the meaning of the symbol “ ” before the division figure?
44. What is the meaning of the symbol “∠ ” before the division figure?
45 Explain chain dimensioning and parallel dimensioning with the help of
simple sketches.
46. Describe the drawing sheet designation and its sizes as per 1SO-A series.

19
 CHAPTER II
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
This chapter is concerned with the construction of plane geometrical
figures. Plane geometry is the geometry of figures consisting of two-dimensional
figures, that have only length and breadth. Solid geometry is the geometry of three-
dimensional figures.
If we examine the pictures of the object given in the drawings, we can see
that they consist of different types of lines.
Let’s look at these drawings (Fig. 2.1). In the first drawing we can see
straight lines only, in the second one - circles and straight lines, in the third one -
straight lines, circles and arcs of circles.

Fig.2.1

These examples show that in order to make drawings on paper or metal we

must learn how to draw various geometrical figures. There are an endless number
of plane figures but we will concern ourselves only with more common ones – the
triangle, the quadrilateral and well known polygons.
This can only be attained after a study of the methods of geometrical
constructions which we are going to discuss in this chapter.

20
 2.1. Dividing and Constructing Lines and Angles

Let’s practise several problem solutions.

Task 1. Divide straight line AB into two equal parts (Fig. 2.2).
The solution is as follows:
1. Set the supporting leg of your compass at
point A of line AB.
2. Set the legs of your compass over at any
distance slightly greater than half of the length of
line AB.
3. Draw an arc from A as the center.
4. Transfer the supporting leg of the compass to
the opposite point B of line AB, without
changing the distance between the legs.
5. Draw an arc intersecting the first arc at points
C and D with the same radius, from point B,.
6. Draw a straight line through points C and D, Fig.2.2
where the two arcs intersect.

This line divides line AB into two equal parts. It is important to note that
line CD which divides AB into two equal parts intersects AB at the right angles.
Task 2. Draw a line perpendicular to the given straight line AB from point C
on that line (Fig.2.3).
Solution.
1. Set the supporting leg of your compass on the given point C.

Fig. 2.3
2. Draw the compass legs apart from any distance that will be less than the
distance between point C and nearest end of straight line AB.
3. Draw two short arcs cutting line AB at K and F with this radius and from
center C.
21
 4. Set the supporting leg of the compass on the point of intersection of one
of the arcs and line AB.
5. Double the distance between the compass legs.
6. Draw a short arc from K above point C.
7. Set the supporting leg of the compass on the intersection of the second arc
and line AB (point F).
8. Draw a short arc above C, intersecting the first arc at point D with the
same radius.
9. Join the point of intersection D with point C by a straight line.
Straight line CD will be the required perpendicular.
Task 3. Divide an angle in two equal parts (Fig.2.4).
Solution.
1. Set legs of your compass at any length of R shorter than the length of the
side of the given angle.
2. Set the supporting leg of the compass at point O, which is the apex of the
angle.

Fig.2.4
3. Draw an arc cutting both sides of the angle at points A and B with radius
R.
4. Set the supporting leg of the compass on point A, where the arc intersects
the side of the angle.
5. Set the legs of the compass at a somewhat greater length than half of arc
AB.
6. Describe a short arc beyond arc AB with this radius R.
7.Transfer the supporting leg of the compass to the other point of
intersection of the arc and the side of the angle (point B).
Task 4. Divide right angle into three equal parts (Fig. 2.5).
Solution.
1. Set legs of your compass with the same radius R, shorter than the length
of the side of the given angle.

22
 Fig.2.5
2. Set the supporting leg of the compass on the apex of angle O.
3. With radius R, from point O, draw an arc, cutting both sides of the angle
at points A and B.
4. Set the supporting leg of your compass at one of the points (A), where the
arc intersects the side of the angle.
5. Draw an arc intersecting first arc at point C with the same radius R.
6. Transfer the supporting leg of your compass to the second point B, where
the arc intersects the side of the angle.
7. Draw the second arc to intersect the first arc at point D with the same
radius R.
8. From the points of intersection D and C draw straight lines to the apex of
angle O. The lines OD and OC will divide the right angle into three equal parts.
Only the right angles can be divided into three equal parts by the method
described in this task.
Task 5. Construct an equilateral triangle with the given length of one side of
AB (Fig. 2.6).
Solution
1. Draw a straight line somewhat longer than line AB.

Fig.2.6

2. Set your compass at a length equal to that of line AB.

23
 3. Set the supporting leg of your compass at point C and draw an arc, which
cuts the line D at point B.
4. Draw a small arc to intersect the first arc at point A with the same radius
R.
5. Join points A, B, and C, with straight lines.
The obtained triangle is an equal triangle constructed from the given length
of one of its sides.
Task 6. Divide a line into a number of equal (i.e. seven) parts (Fig.2.7).

Fig. 2.7

2.2. Tangency Lines

A tangent to a circle is a straight line that touches the circle at one point.
Every curve ever drawn could have tangents drawn to it, but this paragraph is
concerned only with tangents to circles. These have wide applications in
engineering drawing since the outlines of most engineering details are made up of
straight lines and arcs. Wherever a straight line meets an arc, a tangent meets a
circle.
It is important to point out that arcs merge into each other so gradually that
when we look at the drawing it is impossible to say where one arc ends and the
other begins.
This gradual transition of a straight line into a curved line, or of one curve
into another is called tangency.
The point at which one line merges into another is called the point of
tangency.
A tangent to a circle is a straight line that touches the circle at one point.
Every curve ever drawn could have tangents drawn on it, but this chapter is
concerned only with tangents to circles. They have wide applications in
engineering drawing since the outlines of most engineering details are made up of
straight lines and arcs. Wherever a straight line meets an arc, a tangent meets a
circle.
Let’s consider a simple case, where it is necessary to draw an arc tangent to
a straight line at point A. For this purpose, we first join the point A with the center

24
of the arc and then, from point A, we draw a straight line perpendicular to the
radius of the arc (Fig. 2.8).

Fig. 2.8

Let’s take another example to draw the arc tangent to the other arc.
Two arcs can only be drawn tangent to each other if their point of tangency
lies on the straight line joining the center of these two arcs (Fig 2.10).
The solution is as follows:

Fig.2.9

1. The supporting leg of a compass is set on the given center O.

2. With the compass set a leg at a length with radius R 1 an arc is drawn to
intersect the straight line.
3. From the point where this arc intersects the straight line, draw a distance
equal to the second given radius R2 marked off on the line.
Thus obtained point O2 will be the center of the second arc, while the point
where the first arc intersects the straight line will be the point of tangency.
4. From the point O2 as center, another arc is drawn after the compass is set
at the length equal to R2.
Let’s consider another example, where two arcs are tangent to the third arc.

25
 Usually when such contours are drawn or marked out the radii of all three
arcs are given as well as the location of centers O 1 and O2 of the two tangential
arcs. Then the problem becomes tangential arc. This center is found as follows:
1. The compass is set at the length equal to the sum of the radii of the first
arc R1 and the tangential arc R2.
2. The supporting leg of the compass is set in the center O1 of the first arc.
3. With this radius, equal to R 1+R2 and from the center O1 a small area is
drawn.
4. From point O2, as the center, with a radius equal to the sum of the radii
R1+R2, draw the second arc intersecting the first arc at point O3.
5. The points of tangency, A 1 and A2 according to the above rule, will be on
the lines joining the centers of the tangent arcs.
6. The construction is completed by drawing an arc from the center O 3 with
radius R2.
Task. Construct an oval if its length and width are known (Fig.2.10).
The solution is as follows:
1. Draw two axes of symmetry intersecting each other at right angles, at
point O.
2. On the vertical axis of symmetry arrange out given width of the oval; half
of this width must be above O, and the other, below O. In the same way, arrange
out the length of the oval on the horizontal axis.
3. Join the two short arcs of intersection; describe when the dimensions of
the oval are arranged out on the vertical and horizontal axes at points C and B with
a straight line.
4. With a radius equal to half of the length of the oval (OB), and from the
center O, draw an arc between the horizontal and vertical axes, cutting the vertical
axis at point E.
5. From the center C, with radius CE draw an arc intersecting the straight
line CB at point F.
6. Bisect the straight line FB. The line passing through the center of FB will
intersect the lower part of the vertical axis at point R and the horizontal axis at L.
7. From center O, and with the radius equal to OL, draw a short arc cutting
the left half of the horizontal axis at point M.
8. From the center O and with the radius equal to OR, draw an arc
intersecting the vertical axis at point N.
9. Draw a straight line from R through point M; from point N, draw straight
lines through points M and L.
10. From center R and with the radius of RC draw an arc between the
extensions of RM and RL. With the same radius and from center N describe an arc
between the extensions of NL and NM.
11. From centers M and L, with a radius equal to MA or MB, draw arcs to
join the previously described arcs.

26
 Fig.2.10

2.3. Blending of Lines and Curves

It is usually only very simple type of engineering detail that has an outline
composed entirely of straight lines. The inclusion of curves within the outline of a
component may occur for several reasons: to eliminate sharp edges, thereby
making it safer to handle; to eliminate a stress center, thereby making it stronger;
to avoid extra machining, thereby making it cheaper; and last, but by no means
least, to improve its appearance. This last reason applies particularly to those
industries that manufacture articles to sell to the general public. Nowadays it is not
enough to produce vacuum cleaners, food mixers or ball-point pens functional and
reliable. It is equally important to make them attractive so that they, and not the
competitors’ products, are the ones that catch the shopper’s eye. The designer uses
circles and curves to smooth out and soften an outline. Modern machine-shop
processes like cold metal forming, and the increasing use of plastics and laminates,
allow complex outlines to be manufactured as cheaply as simple ones, and the
blending of lines and curves plays an increasingly important role in the
draftsperson’s world.
Blending is a topic that students often have difficulty in understanding and
yet there are only a few ways in which lines and curves can blend. When
constructing an outline that contains curves blending, do not worry about the point
of contact of the curves; rather, be concerned with the positions of the centers of
the curves. A curve will not blend properly with another curve or line unless the
center of the curve is correctly found. If the center is found exactly, the curve is
bound to blend exactly too.
To find the center of an arc, with radius R, which blends with two straight
lines meeting at right angles (Fig. 2.11, a):
27
a) b) c)
Fig.2.11
Construct lines, parallel with lines AB and BC, and distance R away, to
intersect at O.
O is the required center.
Find points T1 and T2.
Draw an arc with center O through points T1 and T2.
This construction applies only if the angle is a right angle. If the lines meet
at any angle other than 90°, use the construction shown in Fig. 2.12, b and c.
To find the center of an arc, with radius R, which blends with two straight
lines meeting at any angle (Fig. 2.11, b and c):
Construct lines, parallel to lines of the angle and with distance R, to intersect
at O.
O is the required center.
Draw lines, perpendicular to lines AB and BC, find points T1 and T2.
Draw an arc with center O through points T1 and T2.
To find the center of an arc, with radius R, which blends with a line and a
circle, center O1, radius R (Fig. 2.12):
Construct a line, parallel to the given line, with distance R. The center must
lie somewhere along this line.
Draw an arc to intersect the parallel line in O 1 with center B, with radius R
+R1.
O1 is the required center.
Join points O1 and O, to find point N1.
Draw perpendicular line to AB, to find point N2.
Draw an arc with center O through points N1 and N2.
To find the center of an arc, with radius R, which blends with two circles,
centers O1 and O2, radii R1 and R2, respectively:
There are two possible blending - shown in Figs. 2.13 and 2.14.
If an arc, with radius R is blended with a circle, with radius R1, the center of
the arc must be at distance R from the circumference and hence R + R1 (Fig. 2.14)
from the center of the circle.

28
 Fig. 2.12

Draw an arc with center O1, with radius R+R1,.

Draw an arc to intersect the first arc in O with center O2, radius R + R2,.
O is the required center.
Join points O and O1, to find point N1. Then join points O and O 2, to find
point N2.
Draw an arc with center O through points N1 and N2.
This blending is referred to as external blending.

Fig.2.13 Fig.2.14

The example of an external blending is shown in Figure 2.14.

If an arc, with radius R, is to blend with a circle, radius R1, the center of the
arc must be at distance R from the circumference and hence R - R1 (Fig. 2.13) from
the center of the circle.
Draw an arc with center O1, radius R - R1.
Draw an arc to intersect the first arc in O with center O2, with radius R - R2.
O is the required center.
Join points O and O1, to find point N1. Then join points O and O 2, to find
point N2.
Draw an arc with center O through points N1 and N2.
This blending is referred to as internal blending.
29
 To join two parallel lines with two equal radii, the sum of which equals to
the distance between the lines (Fig. 2.15):
Draw the center line between the parallel lines.
Drop a perpendicular to meet the center line in O1 from a point A.
Draw an arc to connect the center line in B with center O1 and radius O1A.
Produce AB to meet the other parallel line in C.
Erect a perpendicular from point C to connect the center line in O2.
Draw arc BC with center O2, radius O2C.

Fig. 2.15

To join two parallel lines with two equal radii, R, the sum of which is more
than the distance between the lines (Fig. 2.16):
Draw the center line between the parallel lines.
Drop a perpendicular from point A, and mark AO1 = R on it.
Draw the center line between the parallel lines.
Drop a perpendicular from point A, and mark off AO1 = R on it.
Draw an arc with center O1, with radius R to connect the center line in B.
Produce AB to connect the other parallel line in C.
Erect perpendicular CO2 = R from C.
Draw arc BC with center O2, with radius R.

Fig. 2.16
30
 In practice very often we have to construct curves. Ellipse, parabola and
hyperbola are called conic sections because these curves appear on the surface of a
cone when cutting they become typical cutting plane.
Figure 2.18 shows construction of sinusoid. We have to divide given circle
with radius R into 12 equal parts. From the point O 1 draw a horizontal line O1A, the
length of which is equal to the circumference (L = 2πR). This line is also divided
into 12 equal parts. From these points draw horizontal lines, and from points on
line AB - vertical lines, then find the intersection of the corresponding straight
lines. The resulting points are sinusoid points. Connecting them smoothly, we get a
sinusoid.

Fig. 2.17

2.4. Dividing of Circle into a Number of Equal Parts

In practice, we often face with the necessity of dividing the circle into
equal parts. For example, in manufacturing gears, flanges with holes are made in
the construction of regular polygons. Let’s pay attention to the example of dividing
a circle with radius R into three equal parts (Fig. 2.18). We deviate from the circle
of arbitrary point A and from that point a radius equal to the radius of the circle
that holds the arc. This arc intersects the circle at points 1 and 2. The intersection
point of circle with center line is the third point. These points divide the circle into
three equal parts.

Fig. 2.18 Fig.2.19

31
 The dividing of the circle into six equal parts is drawn in the same way
(Fig. 2.19).
Now let’s consider the dividing of the circle into five equal parts (Fig.
2.20). One of the five division points is 1. Divide the segment OD in two equal
parts (Fig.2.20, a). In order to do this, we use the rule of division line segment into
two equal parts. This point will be point A. Then from point A with radius R 1 = 1A
draw arc which intersects the horizontal axis at circumferential point B (Fig.2.20,
b).

а) b) c) d)
Fig. 1.20
From point 1 we draw an arc with radius R 2 = 1B, which intersects the
circle at points 2 and 5. Taking these points for the centers, we draw the same arc
with radius R2, crossing the circle at points 3 and 4 (Fig.2.20, c).
Thus, the circle is divided into five equal parts. We connect these points by
straight lines, as shown in Figure 2.20, d, we shall get a regular pentagon inscribed
in a circle.

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER II

1. What are the rules of dividing the straight line into two equal parts?
2. What are the rules of drawing a line perpendicular to the given straight line
from a given point on that line?
3. What are the rules of dividing an angle into two equal parts?
4. What are the rules of dividing a right angle into three equal parts?
5. What are the rules of drawing a perpendicular to the straight line?
6. What distance must be between the legs of the compass if you want to divide
the straight line into two equal parts?
7. What are the rules of drawing a right angle with the help of the compass and
the ruler?
8. What are the rules of drawing a parallel line to the given line?
9. What are the rules of constructing 60° angle?
10 What are the rules of constructing 90° angle?
.
32
11 What are the rules of constructing 45° angle?
.
12 What are the rules of constructing 30° angle?
.
13 What are the rules of dividing a line into a number of equal parts?
.
14 What are the rules of constructing tangency line to the circle?
.
15 What are the rules of constructing an oval according to its length and width?
.
16 Find the center of an arc, with radius R, which blends with two straight lines
. meeting at right angles.
17 Find the center of an arc, with radius R, which blends with two straight lines
. meeting at any angle.
18 Find the center of an arc, with radius R, which blends with a line and a circle,
. center O1, radius R.
19 Find the center of an arc, radius R, which blends with two circles, centers O1
. and O2, radii R1 and R2, respectively?
20 Define an internal blending.
.
21 Define an external blending.
.
22 Join two parallel lines with two equal radii, the sum of which equals to the
. distance between the lines.
23 Join two parallel lines with two equal radii, R, the sum of which is greater
. than the distance between the lines.
24 What are conic sections and why are they called so?
.
25 What are sinusoids and what are the rules of their constructions?
.
26 Explain the rules of dividing the circle into three equal parts.
.
27 Explain the rules of dividing the circle into six equal parts.
.
28 Explain the rules of dividing the circle into five equal parts.
.

33
 PART II
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY
Gaspard Monge (1746 ― 1818) was sworn not to divulge the above
method and for 15 years it was a jealously guarded military secret. Only in 1794,
he was allowed to teach it in public at the Ecole Normale, Paris where Lagrange
was among the auditors. “With his application of analysis to geometry, this devil
of a man will make himself immortal”, exclaimed Lagrange.

34
 CHAPTER III

METHODS OF PROJECTIONS. ORTHOGONAL

PROJECTIONS. PLANES OF PROJECTIONS.
GASPARD MONGE’S METHOD. POİNT.
3.1. Central Projections

In descriptive geometry the construction of plane geometry drawings,

representing three dimensional designs of objects, is based on the method of

35
projections (The word “projection” comes from the Latin projicere – to hurl or
throw).
If all the rays emanate from a single point to the plane of projection, a
projection method is called the central projection.
The point, the rays emanate from, is called the center of projection.
Let’s consider the example of production of projection points A, B, C
(triangle ABC) by the central projection (Fig. 3.1).
Through points A, B and C a straight line passes to pierce plane α at points A',
B', C'. These points are called the central projection of points A, B, C (triangle
ABC). Points A, B, C are termed the original points, point S - the center of
projection, the plane α – plane of projection, and the straight line SAA', SBB'
SCC' – the projection line or projector.

3.2. Parallel Projections

If the center of projection S is considered to lie at infinity, it means that all the
projecting rays are parallel. In order to draw these rays it is necessary to know the
direction of projections. The representations obtained in this way are called
parallel projections.

Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3

This method does not apply in technical drawing, but at the same time is quite
widely used in architecture and the design of various engineering structures.
Figure 3.2 shows the construction of the parallel projection of triangle ABC
on the plane of projection α. The lines, to which the projection rays AA', BB', CC'
are parallel, show the direction of projection.

3.3. Orthogonal Projections

A special case of the parallel projection is right-angle projection.

In engineering practice right-angle projection is the most widely used because
of its comparative simplicity, the precision of construction it allows, and
possibility of obtaining dimensions without distortion. Right-angle projection is
usually termed orthographic or orthogonal projection.
36
 Figure 3.3 shows the construction of the orthogonal projection of triangle
ABC on the plane of projection α.
The method of orthogonal projection consists of projecting an object on
three mutually perpendicular planes by ray’s orthogonal (perpendicular) to these
planes (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4

3.4. Three Coordinates and Three Projections of Point

The three planes employed for the purpose of orthogonal projections are
called planes of projection. They intersect each other at the right angles (Fig. 3.5,
a).
One of the planes of an orthogonal projection is horizontal and is called the
horizontal plane of projection; the other is the frontal plane of projection (in
front of viewer). The third plane is profile it called the profile plane of projection
(in profile of viewer).
A horizontal plane is parallel to leveled ground and it is denoted by H. The
top view (Plan) is drawn on it.

a) b) c)
Fig. 3.5

37
 The plane, which is parallel to a frontal wall is called frontal plane and is
denoted by F. The front view is drawn on it.
The plane, which is parallel to a profile wall is called profile plane and is
denoted by P. The side view is drawn on it.
Planes employed for projections of front view, top view and side view are
called principle planes of projections. They are also known as reference planes.
These planes intersect at right angles to each other. These are frontal plane,
horizontal plane and profile plane. They are assumed to be transparent planes.
Planes H, F and P are infinite, opaque and perpendicular. The projection on
F is called the front view or the elevation of the object.
The projection on H is called the top view or the plan. The projection on P
is called the left view of the object. The projection planes intersect in pairs and
define three axes: x-, y-, z, which may be regarded as a system of rectangular.
Cartesian coordinates in space with the origin at O. Each coordinate axis is divided
into half-lines by point O.
The line of intersection of the H and F planes of the projections is called the
coordinate axis, designated ox,where x is absiss. The line of intersection of the H
and P planes of the projections is called the coordinate axis, designated oy, where
y- is ordinate. The line of intersection of the P and F planes of the projections is
called z coordinate axis, designated oz, where z- is applicate.
Suppose that at a certain distance from these projection planes is point A.
We find the projections of point A on the projection planes. For this purpose from
this point we draw perpendiculars to plane H, F and P. Point A' is the horizontal
projection of point A, A" is the frontal projection of point A, and point A''' is the
profile of point A.
The projecting of details in space is a difficult process, so very often we
use their complex drawing. Complex drawing is called the drawing, in which the
same plane projection parts produced in different planes of projections are
combined.
This method was first proposed by French scientist Gaspard Monge and is
known as the Gaspard Monge’s method (Figs. 3.5, b).
In this method of bringing planes H and F into coincidence, the projections
A" and A' will be located on a single perpendicular to the x-axis, and the distance
AxA'- from the horizontal projection of A to the X-axis – will be equal to the
distance from point A itself to the F plane, while distance AxA"–from the frontal
projection of point A to the x- axis –to the distance from point A itself to the H
plane. To obtain a conplex drawing, consisting of the above-indicated projections,
planes H and F are rotated to coincide about the x-axis as shown by the arrows (2)
and (3).
On complex drawings the point and its projections are not depicted. The
straight line, connecting different projections of a point is called communication
line.
Figure 3.5, c shows the final version of complex drawing where we can see
that all projection planes are coincident. In this figure, the x-and z- axes, which lie
38
in the stationary planes F are depicted only once, while the y-axis is indicated
twice. This is due to the fact that as the y-axis rotates together with plane H, it
coincides (ortographically) with the z-axis,but the same axis coincides with the x-
axis when rotating together with plane F.
Each of the orthogonal projections of A is defined by only two coordinates,
since it is located on the plane.
In an orthographic representation (Fig. 3.5, c) where all projection planes are
coincident, the projections A' and A" will be on a single perpendicular to the x-
axis, and the projections A" and A''' will be situated on a single perpendicular to
the z-axis.
As for the projections A' and A''', we see that they are joined by the line –
segments A'Ay and A'''Ay which are perpendicular to the y- axis. However, since
this axis occupies two positions in the orthographic representation, the line
segment A'Ay cannot be an extension of A'''Ay.

Fig. 3.6
In Figure 3.6, the x-and z- axes, which lie in the stationary planes F, are
depicted only once, while the y-axis is indicated twice. This is due to the fact that
as the y-axis rotates together with the plane H, it coincides (ortographically) with
the z-axis,but the same axis coincides with the x-axis when rotating together with
plane P.

Table 3.1
Octant Signs of coordinates
x y z

I + + +
II + - +
III + - -
IV + + -

39
 V - + +
VI - - +
VII - - -
VIII - + -

Distance y from the horizontal projection of a point to the coordinate axis is

equal to the distance from the point to the frontal plane of projection.
Distance z from the vertical projection of a point to the coordinate is equal to
the distance from the point to the horizontal plane of projection.
Coordinate z is positive for points located above the horizontal plane of
projection and negative for those situated below that plane.
Coordinate y is positive for points located in front of the vertical plane of
projection and negative for those situated behind that plane.

3.5. Four Quadrants. Projections of Different Points to

Planes of Projection

When the planes of projection are extended beyond the line of intersection
they divide the space into four dihedral angles or four quadrants, which are usually
numbered as shown in Figure 3.7. The detail may be situated in any of the
quadrants, its position relative to the planes is described above, below H and in
front or behind the F. The projections are obtained by drawing perpendiculars from
the detail to the planes, i.e. by looking from the front and from above. Then they
are shown on a flat surface by rotating one of the planes as it has already been
explained. It should be remembered that the first and the third quadrants are always
open out to the planes while rotating. The positions of the views with respect to the
reference line will change according to the quadrant in which the object may be
situated.
When considering orthogonal, projectionist assumes that object is located in
the first quadrant at an infinite distance from the planes of projection. Since these
planes are opaque, the viewer can see only those points, lines and figures situated
within the confines of the first quadrants.
The point is the most simple of geometric elements, which does not have
the size. It is used in solving of many geometric problems.
A point may be situated in space in any of the four quadrants formed by the
two principal planes of projection or may lie in one or both of them.
When constructing projections, bear in mind that the orthogonal projection
of a point on a plane is the foot of the perpendicular dropped from the point to the
plane.
Let’s denote points in space by capital letters A, B, C,etc.
Now we will consider the position of points in the fourth space and construct
their complex drawings (Figs. 3.7 and 3.8).
40
 1. The point is located in the I quarter.
If a point is located in the first quarter t (point A), after the planes
coincide, its frontal projection will be above the x-axis, horizontal projection will
be under the x-axis.

Fig. 3.7

2. The point is located in the II quarter.

If a point is located in the second quarter (point B), after the planes
coincide, both projections will be above the x-axis.
3. The point is located in the III quarter.
If a point is located in the third quarter (point C), its horizontal projection
after the planes coincide, is above the x-axis,and its frontal projection is below the
x-axis.
4. The point is located in the IV quarter.
If a point is situated in the fourth quarter (point D), then its both
projections will be below the x- axis.
Points M, K, F, and E are located on the projecting planes.

41
 Fig. 3.8
5. The point is located on plane H.
If a point is located on the H(point E), the point coincides with its horizontal
projection E', frontal projection lies on the x-axis.
6. The point is located on plane H1.
If a point is located on H1 (point F), the point coincides with its horizontal
projection F', frontal projection lies on the x-axis.
7. The point is located on plane F.
If a point is located on the F(point K), the point coincides with its frontal
projection K", horizontal projection lies on the x-axis.
8. The point is located on plane F1.
If a point is located on the FI (point M), the point coincides with its frontal
projection F", horizontal projection lies on the x-axis.
9. The point is located on the x-axis.
If a point is located on the x-axis, its horizontal and frontal projections
coincide with each other and are located on the x-axis.

OUTCOMES

- If the point is in one of the quarters of the space, then none of its
projection lies on the x-axis.
-If the point is located on the plane of projection, one of the projections of
this point lies on the x-axis;
- If the point is located on the x-axis, the two projections of this point also
lie on the x-axis.
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER III

1. What are the methods of projections?

2. What is the central projection?
3. What is the center of projection?
4. What is the plane of projection?
5. What is the parallel projection?
6. What is the difference between central and parallel projections?
42
7. Describe the method of orthogonal projection.
8. What is an orthographic projection of an object?
9. How are reference planes denoted?
10 What different types of planes do you know?
.
11 What is the principle plane of projection?
.
12 What is the horizontal plane of projection?
.
13 What is the frontal plane of projection?
.
14 What is the profile plane of projection?
.
15 What is the coordinate axis (the axis of projection)?
.
16 What is a plan?
.
17 What is the communication line?
.
18 What are four quadrants?
.
19 How many quadrants are planes H and F divided into?
.
20 What serves as a boundary between the following pairs of quadrants: II, III
. and IV, I and IV, II, III and I?
21 What quadrants are situated above the horizontal plane of projection, below
. the horizontal plane of projection, in front of the frontal plane of projection,
behind the frontal plane of projection?
22 Does one projection of a point determine the position of that point in space?
.
23 How are the points of space usually denoted?
.
24 What is the position in space, in rotation to plane H of a point, the frontal
. projection of which is a) above the reference line Ox, and b) below it?
25 Does an orthographic drawing make any sense if the perpendiculars dropped
. from the projections of a point on the coordinate axis do not meet?
26 What is the meaning of the expression “Given: a point in space”?
.
27 How can the position of a point in space be found from its projections?
.
28 How do we designate the distance from a point of space to the horizontal
. plane of projection, to the frontal plane of projection?
29 What coordinate is determined on an orthographic representation by the
. horizontal projection of a point, by the frontal projection of a point?

43
30 What is the sequence of finding the profile projection of a point with its given
. horizontal and frontal projections?
31 How is the distance between a point and the planes of projection determined
. (if the orthographic projections of this point are given)?
32 How are the following projection planes: horizontal, frontal, profile
. designated?
33 What coordinates define the horizontal projection of a point, the frontal
. projection of a point, the profile projection of a point?
34 What determines the distance from a point in space to the profile plane on an
. orthographic drawing?
35 What is the position of a point if any of its two coordinates is equal to zero?
. (For instance, x=0, z=0)
36 What is the position of a point if any of its coordinates is equal to zero?
.
37 In which case is the point located in the I quarter?
.
38 In which case is the point located in the II quarter?
.
39 In which case is the point located in the III quarter?
.
40 In which case is the point located in the IV quarter?
.
41 In which case is the point located on plane H?
.
42 In which case is the point located on plane HI?
.
43 In which case is the point located on plane F?
.
44 In which case is the point located on plane FI?
.
45 In which case is the point located on the x-axis?
.
46 What is the Gaspard Monge’s method?
.
47 What is the complex drawing?
.

44
 CHAPTER IV
STRAIGHT LINE
4.1. Positions of Straight Lines Relative to Projection Planes

A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. A straight line is
infinite; it may be defined by two points, or by a point and angles of inclination to
the projection planes. In most cases, it is defined by a line segment, i.e. part of the
line between two given points. In order to construct the projection line, we need to
find the projection of its endpoints and connect them. The length of the projection
of the line cannot be more than its true value. A straight line is read as it is
indicated in space, for example AB is indicated on the complex drawing as (A' B',
A" B", A'''B''').
With regard to the plane of projection, a straight line can take an oblique
position (general position) and special positions (be perpendicular and parallel to
the planes of the projections). Let’s consider these positions.
1. An oblique line is inclined to all three planes of projection, or this line is
not parallel to any of the planes of projection. (Fig.4.1)

45
 Fig. 4.1
Figure 4.1 shows line AB represented orthographically. It is specified
orthographically by the projections of two points: A and B. By connecting line
projections of these points with straight lines, we get the projections of the line-
segment.
It is seen that all three projections of the line are inclined to the reference
lines, i.e. to the x, y and z axes. Each of the projections - A' B', A" B", A''' B''' -
is shorter than AB itself in space.
2. A horizontal line.
A straight line parallel to the horizontal plane of projection H is called a
horizontal line or simply a horizontal (Fig. 4.2). All points of a horizontal is at the
same distance from plane H, the frontal projection of a horizontal is parallel to the
reference line x-axis. The profile projection is parallel to the y-axis.

Fig. 4.2

The horizontal projection of the horizontal line gives its true length, i.e. │A'
B'│=│AB│.
3. A frontal line.
A line parallel to the frontal plane of projection F is called a frontal line or
simply a frontal (Fig. 4.3). All points of a frontal at at the same distance from
plane F. The horizontal projection of the frontal is parallel to the x-axis.
46
 Fig. 4.3

The profile projection is parallel to the z-axis, and the frontal projection is
equal in length to the projected frontal │A'' B''│=│AB│.
4. A profile line.
A line parallel to the profile plane of projection P is called a profile line or
simple a profile (Fig. 4.4).
All points of a profile line are at the same distance from plane P. The
horizontal and the frontal projections of the profile line are perpendicular to the x-
axis, and the length of the profile projection is the true length of the line in space:
│A''' B'''│=│AB│

Fig. 4.4

In a complex drawing, frontal and horizontal projections of the profile line

are perpendicular to the x-axis.
5. A horizontal-projecting straight line
When a line is perpendicular to one reference plane, it will be parallel to the
other one. A straight line perpendicular to the horizontal plane of projection is
called horizontal-projecting straight line.

47
 The horizontal projection AB coincides in the point A' ≡ B' (Fig. 4.5).

Fig. 4.5

Its frontal projection A'' B'' is equal to AB and perpendicular to the x-axis,
the profile projection A'''B''' is equal to AB and perpendicular to the y-axis.
6. A frontal-projecting straight line
A straight line perpendicular to the frontal plane of projection is called
frontal-projecting straight line. The frontal projection AB coincides in point A'' =
B'' (Fig. 4.6).
Its horizontal projection A' B' is equal to AB and perpendicular to the x-axis,
the profile projection A'''B''' is equal to AB and perpendicular to the z-axis.

Fig.4.6

7. A profile-projecting straight line

A straight line perpendicular to the profile plane of projection is called
profile-projecting straight line. The profile projection AB coincides in point A'' B''
(Fig. 4.7).

48
 Fig. 4.7
Its horizontal A' B' and frontal A''B'' projections are equal to AB and parallel
to the x-axis. The profile projection AB coincides at point A''' = B''' (Fig. 4.7).

4.2. Relative Position of Points and Lines

If a point in space lies on a straight line, the projections of that point also lie
on the corresponding projections of the straight line.
To illustrate it let the line given there be
line m, its projections m' and m''; and a point A is
on line m (Fig.4.8).
Figure 4.8 shows that a horizontal
projection of point (A') is located on the
horizontal projection of line m', a frontal
projection of point (A'') is located on the
horizontal projection of line m''.

Fig. 4.8

4.3. True Length of Straight Line Segment. Method of

Right Triangle

Method of right triangle is used to determine the true length of straight line
segment.

49
 Fig. 4.9
Let’s determine the true length of straight line segment AB (Fig. 4.9).
We find the length of the remote end of this line segment from plane H - Z A and ZB
segments. After that, we find the difference between these segments: ΔZ = ZB - ZA.
From point B' we draw the perpendicular to line A' B', and here postpone segment
ΔZ. Points B1 we connect to point A'.
Straight line segment A'B1' is the hypotenuse of the triangle A'B'B1'. Its
length is equal to the length of the line segment AB, and the angle α is the angle
between line AB and plane F.
Thus the true length of line in the orthographic drawing is constructed as the
hypotenuse of right triangle, one side of which is equal in length to one of the
projections of the line and the second side of which is equal to the difference
between the distance of the extreme points of the line from the plane of projection.

4.4. Traces of Line

The trace of line is the point in which the line intersects a projection plane.
In the general case the line may intersect all three planes of projection and have
three traces: the horizontal trace - H (H', H'', H'''), the point of intersection of the
line with the H plane, the frontal trace -F (F', F'', F'''), the point of intersection of
the line with the F plane, and the profile trace - P (P', P'', P'''), which is the
intersection with the P plane.

50
 Fig. 4.10

In Figure 4.10, an oblique line segment AB is shown in a system of two

planes of projection and let us find its horizontal and frontal traces. These traces
are defined as points in which a line intersects its projections.
The foregoing peculiarities in the positions of projections of traces permit to
formulate the following rules for an orthographic construction of traces:
1. To construct the horizontal trace H of a line, prolong the frontal
projection A''B'' to intersection with the x-axis. The obtained point H'' AB is the
frontal projection of the required trace H. Through point H'' AB erect a perpendicular
to the x-axis. Prolong the horizontal projection A'B' of the line segment AB to
intersect the perpendicular from point H'AB.
2. To construct the frontal trace F of a line, prolong its horizontal
projection to intersection with the x-axis. The obtained point F' AB is the horizontal
projection of the required trace F. Through point F’ erect a perpendicular to the x-
axis. Prolong the frontal projection A''B'' of the line segment AB to intersect the
perpendicular from point F''AB.
The horizontal and vertical traces of a line in a system of three planes of
projection will be determined by the same rules as those given above. The only
added requirement will indicate the profile projections of these points.

4.5. Relative Positions of Two Straight Lines

Two straight lines may occupy the following relative positions in space:
1) They may be in parallel;
2) They may intersect;
3) Non intersect (skew lines).
1. Parallel straight lines
The corresponding projections of parallel lines are in parallel to each other
(Fig. 4.11, b).
51
 If through the given parallel lines m and n projecting planes pass, they are in
parallel and their intersections with the planes of projection give two parallel lines.

a) b) c)
Fig 4.11

2. Intersecting straight lines

In this case the lines have a common point, the projections of which are A'
and A'' lying on a single perpendicular to the x-axis (Fig.4.11, a). Thus, if lines
intersect, the points of intersection of their line projections must lie on a single
perpendicular to the coordinate axis.
3. Non-intersecting or skew straight lines
If the lines do not intersect and are not parallel to each other, then the points
of intersection of their similar projections do not lie on a single perpendicular to
the axis (Fig. 4.11, c).

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER IV

1. What is a straight line?

2. What is an oblique line?
3. What is a horizontal line?
4. What is a frontal line?
5. What is a profile line?
6. What is a horizontal-projecting straight line?
7. What is a frontal-projecting straight line?
8. What is a profile-projecting straight line?
9. When is the projection of a straight line equal to its true length?
10 When does a straight line become a point?
.
11 How many projections of a line are required to determine its position in
. space? Why is one projection insufficient for this purpose?
12 How are the projections of a horizontal line located?
.
52
13 How are the projections of a frontal located? How are the projections of a
. profile located?
14 The straight line is on the frontal plane of a projection. How are its frontal,
. horizontal and profile projections located?
15 The straight line is on the horizontal plane of a projection. How are its frontal,
. horizontal and profile projections located?
16 The straight line is on the profile plane of a projection. How are its frontal,
. horizontal and profile projections located?
17 What is the position of a line if its two principal projections are located on the
. reference axis?
18 How is the true length of a line determined by means of the right triangle
. method?
19 How can a line given on the orthographic drawing by two projections be
. divided in the ratio m:n?
20 In which case does a point in space lie on a straight line? Show it on complex
. drawing.
21 Define method of right triangle.
.
22 What is a trace of a straight line and how are projections of traces constructed
. on an orthographic drawing with the projections of a given straight line?
23 How are the horizontal and frontal traces of a line constructed?
.
24 Give the definitions of parallel, intersecting and skew lines.
.
25 How are two parallel lines shown on the orthographic drawing?
.
26 How are two intersecting lines shown on the orthographic drawing?
.
27 How are two non-intersecting (or skew) lines shown on the orthographic
. drawing?
28 Draw 45o inclined lines, show its true length.
.
29 Draw 60o inclined lines, show its true length.
.
30 Draw 30o inclined lines, show its true length.

53
 CHAPTER V
PLANE
5.1. Ways of Plane Representation on Drawing

The position of a plane in space may be determined by:

1) Three points not lying on a straight line (Fig. 5.1, a);
2) A straight line and a point not lying on the line (Fig. 5.1, b);
3) Two intersecting lines (Fig. 5.1, c);
4) Two parallel lines (Fig. 5.1, d);
5) A triangle or any other plane geometrical figure (Fig. 5.1, e);
6) Traces (Fig. 5.2).

a) b) c) d) e)
Fig. 5.1

5.2. Traces of Plane

The traces of a plane are lines along which the given plane intersects the
planes of projection. An oblique plane (not perpendicular to any of the projection
planes) has three traces: horizontal, frontal and profile.
When solving problems of descriptive geometry it is often convenient to
judge the position of plane relative to the projection planes from its traces.
The planes in space are designated by the letters α , β , γ .., and the traces, by
the same letters with the subscript H for the horizontal trace α H , β H , γ H ..., the
subscript F for the frontal trace α f , β f , γ f …, and the subscript P for the profile
trace α P , β P , γ P .
The oblique plane P is shown in Figure 5.2.
The traces α H α f α P intersect in pairs on the axis in points α x α y and α z , which
are called vanishing points(or the points of convergence of the traces)

54
 Fig. 5.2

Each of the traces of the plane coincides with its similar projection, and the
other two (different projections) lie on the axis. For example, a horizontal trace of
the plane coincides with its horizontal projection, but its frontal projection lies on
the x-axis and its profile projection lies on the y-axis.

5.3. Various Plane Positions Relative to Projection Planes

With regard to the plane of projection, plane can be parallel (level plane),
perpendicular (projecting plane), and at an angle (plane of general position).
1. A horizontal plane
The plane, which is parallel to the horizontal plane of projection H is called
a horizontal plane (Fig. 5.3).
The horizontal plane is perpendicular to the frontal and the profile planes of
projection.

a) b) c)

Fig. 5.3

Figure 5.3, b shows a complex drawing of a horizontal plane in traces. As it

is seen from the drawing, a frontal trace of horizontal plane is parallel to the x-axis
and this plane has no horizontal trace.

55
 Figure 5.3, c shows a horizontal plane in a triangle ABC. This triangle which
is projected on plane F, will be in its true size, but its frontal projection is a
straight line, parallel to the x-axis.
Frontal trace of the horizontal plane possesses collecting properties.
2. A frontal plane
The plane, which is parallel to the horizontal plane of projection F is called a
horizontal plane (Fig. 5.4).
The frontal plane is perpendicular to the horizontal and the profile planes of
projection.

a) b) c)
Fig. 5.4

Figure 5.4, b shows a complex drawing of a frontal plane in traces. As it is

seen from the drawing, a horizontal trace of frontal plane is parallel to the x-axis
and this plane has no frontal trace.
Figure 5.3, c shows a frontal plane in a triangle ABC. This triangle is
projected on plane F in its true length, and its horizontal projection is the straight
line parallel to the x-axis.
Horizontal trace of the frontal plane possesses collecting properties.
3. A profile plane
The plane, which is parallel to the profile plane of projection P is called a
profile plane (Fig. 5.5).
The horizontal and frontal traces of profile plane are perpendicular to the x-
axis.
This plane has no profile trace. Its both traces possess collecting properties.
The profile projection of this figure will be of true size.
4. A horizontal projecting plane
The plane, which is perpendicular to the horizontal plane of projection H is
called a horizontal projecting plane (Fig. 5.6).
The distinguishing feature of this plane in an orthographic representation is
the perpendicularity of the frontal trace α f to the x-axis .The angle between α f and
x-axis will be a right angle, because α f is a line of intersection of two planes that
are perpendicular to H.

56
 Fig. 5.5
The horizontal projections of all points and figures lying on this plane will
coincide with the horizontal trace α H . Its horizontal trace possesses collecting
properties.

Fig. 5.6

5. A frontal projecting plane

The plane, which is perpendicular to the frontal plane of projection F is called
a frontal projecting plane (Fig. 5.7).
The distinguishing feature of this plane in an orthographic representation is
the perpendicularity of the horizontal trace α H to the x-axis .The angle between α H
and x-axis will be a right angle, because α H is a line of intersection of two planes
perpendicular to F.

Fig. 5.7

57
 The frontal projections of all points and figures lying in this plane will
coincide with the horizontal traceα F . Its frontal trace possesses collecting
properties.
6. A profile projecting plane
The plane, which is perpendicular to the profile plane of projection P is called
a profile projecting plane (Fig. 5.8).

Fig. 5.8

Its profile trace α P possesses collecting properties, horizontal and frontal traces
are parallel to the x-axis.
7. An oblique plane

Fig. 5.9

An oblique plane is inclined to all three planes of projection; this plane is not
parallel to any of the planes of projection (Fig. 5.9).

5.4. Principal Lines of Plane.

The straight lines lying on a given plane and parallel to the planes of
projections are called the principal lines of that plane.
1. The horizontal of a plane
A straight line lying in a given plane and parallel to the horizontal plane of
projection H is called the horizontal of that plane (Fig.5.10).

58
 A horizontal of a plane, as any horizontal in space, is projected on the frontal
plane of projection F as a line parallel to the x-axis.

Fig. 5.10

If the plane is given by its traces (Fig. 5.10, b), the construction of a
horizontal lying in it may also start with drawing of the horizontal projection of the
horizontal. Since the horizontal projection of the horizontal of a plane is parallel to
the horizontal trace of that plane.
2. The frontal of a plane
A straight line, lying on a given plane and parallel to the frontal plane of
projection F is called the frontal of that plane (Fig. 5.10).
A frontal of a plane as any frontal in space is projected onto the horizontal
plane of projection H as a line parallel to the x-axis.

5.5. Lines on the Given Plane

The elements determining a plane are sufficient to allow straight lines and
point contained on the plane to be constructed.
As it is known from geometry, a straight line is contained on plane if two
points of the line lie on that plane.
A point lying on the plane is located on the straight line contained on that
plane. Hence, to construct the projections of the point, first it is necessary to
construct the projections of the straight line and then, on its projections to mark the
projections of the point. The projections of the point must lie on the line
projections of the straight line.

59
 For instance, if the plane is
given on the orthographic drawing
by triangle ABC (Fig. 5.11), it is
possible to construct the projections
of any line, such as m, lying in the
given plane. Take two points 1 and 2
on the sides AB and BC of the
triangle. Each projection of the
points 1 and 2 must belong to the
corresponding projections of the
lines AB and CD. Joining the similar
projections of these points (1 and 2),
we have the projections 1'2' and 1''2''
of line 12. The constructed line
belongs to the given plane since they
have two points in common.
Fig. 5.11

5.6. Points on the Given Plane

The construction of points contained on the given plane may be reduced in

general to drawing an auxiliary line passing through a point and lying on a plane.
For instance, if the plane is
determined by the parallel lines AB
and CD (Fig. 5.12) in order to
construct a point K lying on the
given plane.
First, we draw a straight line
through point K intersecting the
straight lines AB and CD. This line
must be parallel to the x-axis.
Next, with the help of projecting
lines passing through points 1'' and
2'' the points 1and 2 are determined
as shown by arrows. Fig. 5.12

Through points e and f the horizontal projection 1'2' of the auxiliary line 12 is
drawn. Line 12 lies on the given plane since they have two points in common.
Taking an arbitrary point K on line 12, we determine its projections on the
similar projections of that line.
Point K lies on the given plane since the point is situated on the straight line
contained on that plane.

60
 QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER V

1. How many positions of plane in space do you know? List them.

2. How can a plane in space be determined?
3. Name the methods of specifying a plane on a drawing.
4. What is a trace of a plane?
5. What is meant by the term “an oblique plane”?
6. How many traces does an oblique plane have on three plane systems of
projection? List these traces.
7. What is meant by the term ”a projecting plane”?
8. What is meant by the term ”a horizontal projecting plane”?
9. What is meant by the term ”a frontal projecting plane”?
10. What is meant by the term “a profile projecting plane”?
11. What is meant by the term ”principal lines of plane”?
12. Define the position of the projections of the horizontal line lying on the given
plane.
13. Define the position of the projections of the frontal and profile line lying on
the given plane.
14. Define the position of the projections of profile line lying on the given plane.
15. What is the necessary condition for locating of straight line on the given plane?
16. What is the necessary condition for locating of point on the given plane?
17. How is the point lying on the plane constructed?
18. How can it be checked whether a point is contained on plane?
19. What is the necessary condition for line given by its traces to be located on the
plane given by the traces of that plane?
20. How are the traces of the plane constructed when it is given by two intersecting
lines?
21. How are the traces of the plane constructed when it is given by two intersecting
lines in case one of two lines is parallel to the x-axis?

61
 CHAPTER VI
TWO PLANES. LINE AND PLANE
6.1. Relative Positions of Two Planes

Two planes in space may be either mutually parallel or intersecting.

1. Parallel planes
Two planes are parallel, if two intersecting lines of one plane are parallel to
two intersecting lines of the other (Fig. 6.1). We know that two parallel planes
intersect a third one along parallel lines. Thus, similar traces of parallel planes
are parallel.

Fig. 6.1

2. Intersecting planes
The line of intersection of two planes is a straight line. To find the line of
intersecting of two planes, two points or a point and the direction have to be
known.

Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3

Let’s first consider a particular case of intersecting planes when one of

them is parallel to the plane of projection. Figure 6.2 shows how to find
intersecting line of oblique and frontal planes (Fig.6.2).
By intersecting two oblique planes, we find the points of intersection of
62
 the same mentioned traces (Fig.6.3).
By joining these points, we obtain the projections of intersection line of the
given planes.
Attention should be paid to a particular case of intersection of two oblique
planes when two corresponding traces of the planes are parallel.
The intersection line of planes α and β - AB is parallel to the horizontal
traces of the given planes (Fig. 6.4).

Fig.6.4 Fig.6.5

Similarly, if the frontal traces of two intersecting planes are parallel, the
line of intersection is the frontal common to both planes and if the profile traces
of the planes are parallel, the line of intersection is profile line common to the
planes.
Another particular case is intersection of two horizontal (or frontal)
projecting planes when two corresponding traces of the plane are parallel (Fig.
6.5).
α and β – are two frontal projecting intersecting planes. Front traces of these
planes α F and β F intersect at point A'. Horizontal traces αH and βH are parallel to
each other, so the horizontal projection of the line of intersection of the planes
will be parallel to these traces. Thus, the line of intersection of the planes will
be frontal projecting straight line AB.

6.2. Method of Auxiliary Section Planes

In some cases, the definition of projection line of intersection of two planes

by conventional methods is not possible. In this case we can use the auxiliary
planes. Figure 6.6,a shows two oblique planes, given by their traces. Let’s define
the line of intersection of these planes, using the method of auxiliary section
planes.

63
 a) b) c)

d) e) f)
Fig. 6.6
Horizontal traces of planes α and β intersect at point A' (Fig. 6.6, b). Frontal
traces don’t intersect in this size of drawing. So we draw auxiliary horizontal
section plane γ (Fig. 6.6, c). Then we draw a consistent projection of the
intersection lines of planes α and γ (Fig. 6.6, d) and β and γ (Fig. 6.6, e); lines m
(m', m") and n (n', n"). We find the points of intersection of these lines - points B'
and B'' (Fig. 6.6, f).
AB is the intersection line of planes α and β .

6.3. Line cutting Plane.

The problem of this section is one of the basic problems of descriptive

geometry.
A line cutting a plane gives a point. Projecting planes are used as auxiliary
planes because of the simplicity with which these planes, passing through straight
line may be shown on the drawing, due to the collecting properties of the traces of
such planes.
The solution of problems on the intersection of line and plane involves three
stages:

64
 a) b)

c) d)
Fig. 6.7
1. We draw the auxiliary projecting plane (in certain cases the level plane)
through the given straight line m. (Fig. 6.7, b).
2. We find the intersecting line12 of two planes - α and β (Fig. 6.7, c).
3. Finally, point D will be the point of intersection of the given line m with the
constructed line 12 (Fig. 6.7, d).
Figure 6.8 shows how to construct intersection line of oblique plane given by
traces with the straight line. The auxiliary plane β passing through line m is
horizontal projecting plane (Fig.6.8, b).

65
 a) b)

c) d)
Fig. 6.8
Trace α H coincides with projection m (Fig.6.8, c). The line 12 is the line of
intersection of planes α and β . The intersection of projections m'' and 1''2''
determines the frontal projection D'' of point D, which is the point of intersection
of line m on plane.
The horizontal projection D' of point D is found by drawing through D' a line of
recall to intersecting line m' (Fig.6.8, d).

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER VI

1. When are two planes parallel?

2. What gives the intersection of two planes?
3. How can a line of intersection of two oblique planes be constructed?

66
4. How can a line of intersection of two oblique planes be constructed, if
their corresponding traces are parallel?
5. Construct the intersection line of two horizontal (or frontal) projecting
planes, if their corresponding traces are parallel.
6. What is the method of auxiliary section planes?
7. What are auxiliary planes used for when constructing the line of
intersection of two planes?
8. How is it possible to determine whether the given line and plane are
parallel?
9. How can a straight line be drawn through the given point parallel to the
given plane?
10 Draw the plane, parallel to the given plane.
.
11 Draw the straight line, parallel to the given plane.
.
12 Which planes are most frequently used as auxiliary planes?
.
13 Which planes are generally used as auxiliary ones for determining the
. plane of intersection of a given line in a plane?
14 What constructions are required to determine the point of intersection
. of line on plane?
15 When is the intersection point of line with plane without auxiliary
. constructions determined? How is this done?
16 What is the necessary condition for perpendicularity of straight line to
. plane?
17 What are the positions on an orthographic drawing of the projections of
. straight line, which is perpendicular to plane given by its traces?
18 What is the necessary condition for perpendicularity of two planes?
.
19 Are two planes mutually perpendicular, if their similar traces are
. perpendicular?
20 Which lines of the plane are the most frequently used for drawing of the
. two mutually perpendicular planes?

67
 CHAPTER VII
SOLIDS

A solid has three dimensions, length, breadth and thickness. To represent a

solid on a flat surface having only length and breadth, at least two orthographic
views are necessary. Sometimes additional views projected on auxiliary planes
become necessary to make the description of a solid complete.
Solids may be divided into two main groups: polyhedra and solids of
revolution.

7.1 Polyhedra

A variety of spatial figures is common in engineering, construction and

architecture. Closed spatial figure bounded by plane polygons is called a
polyhedron. A polyhedron, defined as a solid bounded by planes is called faces.
The lines of intersection of two adjacent faces of a polyhedron are called edges.
The point of intersection of the edges is called the apex of the polyhedron.
Polyhedra are the simplest spatial figures. The most common polyhedra are
cube, prism and pyramid. Table 7.1 shows some of the types of polyhedra.
Table 7.1

Cube Square pyramid Pentagonal pyramid

Triangular prism Hexagonal prism Pentagonal prism

68
 Tetrahedron Octahedron Dodecahedron

A prism is polyhedron with an n-side polygon base, another congruent

parallel base (with the same rotational orientation), and n other faces (necessarily
all parallelograms) joining corresponding sides of the two bases. All cross-
sections, parallel to the base faces are congruent to the bases. Prisms are named for
their base, so a prism with a pentagonal base is called a pentagonal prism. The
distance between the bases of the prism is called the height of the prism.

Fig, 7.1

Figure 7.1 shows how a square prism is unfolded and its development
obtained. Note that corners in the undeveloped solid are shown as dotted lines in
the development.
A right prism is a prism in which the joining edges and faces
are perpendicular to the base faces. This applies if the joining faces are rectangular.
If the joining edges and faces of a prism are not perpendicular to the base faces,
such prism is called an oblique prism.
For example, a parallelepiped is an oblique prism the base of which is
a parallelogram, or equivalently a polyhedron with six faces are all parallelograms.
A truncated prism is a prism with nonparallel top and bottom faces.

69
 A pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting a polygonal base and a
point, called the apex. The distance from the apex of the pyramid to its base is
called the height of the pyramid.
A right pyramid has its apex directly above the centroid of its base. Non-
right pyramids are called oblique pyramids.

Fig. 7.2
A triangle-based piramid is more often called a tetrahedron.
Figure 7.2 shows how a tetrahedron (triangle pyramid) is unfolded and how
its development is obtained.

7.2 Construction of Complex Drawing of Polyhedra

Construction of the complex drawing of polyhedron begins with the

construction of the projection of its base. As an example, let’s consider the
construction of a complex drawing of a regular triangular prism whose base lies in
the horizontal plane of projection (Fig. 7.3). First, let’s construct the projection of
the bottom base of the prism. As for the condition of the problem it is located on
the plane H, the horizontal projection A'B'C' is equal to the true length of the base
and is located below the x-axis and a frontal projection A''B''C'' lies on the x-axis.
Next we construct the projection of the upper base of the prism. The
horizontal projection of the upper base A'1B'1C'1 prism coincides with the horizontal
projection of the bottom base and a frontal projection of the upper base A''1B''1C''1
is parallel to the frontal projection of the lower base at a distance equal to the

70
height of the prism. We join the similar points of the bases and get the projection
of the prism edges. Then we construct a profile projection of the prism.
For a more accurate image of polyhedron projection it is necessary to show
its visible and invisible elements. Visible element is the element, which is closer to
the observer. Invisible elements on the complex drawing are shown in dashed lines
and visible elements – in continuous thick line.

Fig. 7.3

7.3. Solids of Revolution. Cylinder and Cone

In mathematics, engineering, and manufacturing a solid of revolution is

a solid figure obtained by rotating a plane curve around some straight
line (the axis) that lies on the same plane.
In its simplest form, a cylinder (from Greek κύλινδρος – kulindros, "roller,
tumbler") is the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a
given straight line called the axis of the cylinder. The solid enclosed by this
surface and by two planes perpendicular to the axis is also called a cylinder. It is
one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes.

71
 Fig .7.4
In common use a cylinder is taken to mean a finite section of a right circular
cylinder, i.e., the cylinder with the generating lines perpendicular to the bases, with
its ends closed to form two circular surfaces, as in the figure (right). Figure 7.4
shows a right circular cylinder with radius r and height h.
A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a
flat base (frequently, though not necessarily, circular) to a point called the apex or
vertex.
The term "cone" sometimes refers just to the surface of this solid figure, or
just to the lateral surface.
The axis of a cone is the straight line (if any), passing through the apex,
around which, the base (and the whole cone) has a circular symmetry.
In common usage in elementary geometry, cones are assumed to be right
circular, where circular means that the base is a circle and right means that the
axis passes through the center of the base at right angles to its plane. Contrasted
with right cones are oblique cones, in which the axis does not pass perpendicularly
through the center of the base. In general, however, the base may be of any shape
and the apex may lie anywhere (though it is usually assumed that the base is
bounded and therefore has finite area, and that the apex lies outside the plane of the
base).
A cone with a polygonal base is called a pyramid.

Fig. 7.5
72
 Figure 7.5 shows a right circular cone and an oblique circular cone.

7.4. Construction of the Complex Drawing of Cylinder

Construction of the complex drawing of a right circular cylinder begins with

the construction of projection of the center of cylinder base (Fig. 7.6). In our
example, the lower base is located on the horizontal plane of projection. The upper
base of the cylinder is parallel to the lower base, so the horizontal projections of
the two bases are the same circles and they are in the equal magnitude of their true
size. The frontal projection of lower base is straight line located on the x-axis.
Frontal projection of the upper base is equal and parallel to that line. The
distance between these projections is the height of the cylinder. Profile projections
of bases are also equal in length and parallel to each other by line segments.
Connecting the endpoints of these lines, we find the frontal and horizontal
projection of the cylinder. As it can be seen from the figure, these projections are
rectangles.

Fig. 7.6

Let’s consider a point on the surface of the cylinder M and N, as shown in

Fig. 7.6. Frontal projection of point M (the point M'') is visible, and the frontal
projection of point (the point N'') is invisible.

7.5. Construction of Complex Drawing of Cone

73
 Construction of the complex drawing of a right circular cone begins with the
construction of horizontal projection of the cone base – the point O' (Fig. 7.7).
From this point we draw a circle, a radius equal to the radius of the base - R1
This circle is a horizontal projection of the base of the cone and is equal to
the true size of the base. In our example, the base is located on the horizontal plane
of projection. Therefore, a frontal projection of the base will lie on the x-axis and
the profile projection on the y-axis. Their lengths are equal to the diameter of the
base. The horizontal projection of the cone apex coincides with the center of the
base (S' ≡ O'). We draw the line in the height of the cone and perpendicular to the
x-axis and y-axis through the frontal and profile projections of base. We obtain
frontal and profile projections of the apex (S'' and S'''). Connecting obtained
projection of cone apex with the end of the line segment projections of base; we
obtain frontal and profile projections of cone.

Fig.7.7

Let’s determine visible and invisible elements of the cone. The base of the
cone in horizontal projection is invisible. Therefore, all points of the base, except
for the points located on the perimeter, are invisible dots.

7.6. Intersection of Polyhedron with Plane

When we intersect polyhedron with the plane we get the geometrical figure,
its shape depends on position and type of polyhedron and the cutting plane. Let’s
construct a section of the pyramid ABCDS with frontal projecting plane α
(Fig.7.8).

74
 Fig. 7.8
We find the points of intersection of the frontal trace of plane α H with edges
А'S', B'S', D'S' and C'S' – these are 1", 2", 3", 4". Then we find the horizontal
projections of these points - 1', 2', 3' and 4' and connect the horizontal and frontal
projections of points 1, 2, 3 and 4.
The quadrilateral 1'2'3'4 ' is horizontal projection of section of the pyramid
with frontal projecting plane. Its frontal projection is located on the frontal trace of
the plane α.

Fig. 7.9

Figure 7.9 shows the construction of the section of the prism by frontal
projecting plane.

75
 7.7. Intersection of Polyhedron with Straight Line

When we intersect a straight line with the plane we get two points which are
called entry point and exit point.
1. We carry out the projecting plane through the given straight line.
2. We build intersection of polyhedron with this plane.
3. We define required points of this section with a straight line.
In Figure 7.10 is shown the determination of points of intersection of
pyramid ABCDS with a straight line m. Through a straight line the frontal
projecting plane α is carried out. After that we build intersection of pyramid with
this plane – a quadrangle 1' 2 '3' 4'.

Fig. 7.10

This quadrangle intersects with straight line m' at points E' and K' which are
horizontal projections of intersection points of straight line with polyhedron. We
find frontal projections of these points – points E'' and K''.

7.8. Intersection of Solid of Revolution with Plane

By intersecting a solid of revolution with the plane, we get the figure the
form of which depends on type of this solid of revolution, and also depends on the
position of a cutting plane.
As an example we determine the section of a cone by the frontal projecting
plane α (Fig. 7.11, a).

76
 a) b) c)
Fig. 7.11
On the complex drawing the frontal trace of the plane α is intersected with a
cone in points 1" and 6" (Fig. 7. 11, c). These points are characteristic points.
To determine additional points we use a method of cutting planes.
We draw the additional horizontal planes β 1, β2, β3 and β4 (Fig. 7.11, b). The
plane β1 intersects cone on circle with radius R 1. We show this section on
horizontal projection (we draw a circle with radius R 1). The frontal trace of the
plane β1 is intersected with frontal trace of the plane α at point 2". The horizontal
projection of this point is on the constructed circle – point 2'. Similarly we build
points 3", 4", 5" and 3', 4', 5'. We connect consistently constructed horizontal
projections of points and receive cone section of the plane α.

a) b)
Fig. 7.12

Let’s determine the figure which we get when intersecting of the inclined
cylinder with the frontal projecting plane (Fig. 7.12, a). We find characteristic
points – points 1", 3" and 6". To determine additional points we draw the element
77
of cylinder and find frontal projections of intersection points of this element of
cylinder with frontal trace of the plane – points 2", 4" and 5". We mark
respectively horizontal projections of these points and consistently we connect
them.
This figure is the section of cylinder with the plane (Fig. 7.12, b).

7.9. Intersection of Two Cylinders

In Figure 7.13 is shown construction of intersecting of projections of two

cylinders by using the method of auxiliary planes.

Fig. 7.13

We begin construction with the image of projections of those points positions

of which can be defined directly from drawing – projection of points 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Auxiliary horizontal planes β1, β2, β3 and β4 are drawn for the determining of
additional points.
These planes intersect the vertical cylinder on a circle, equal to diameter of
this cylinder, and the horizontal cylinder on the rectangles parallel to the horizontal
plane of projections.
Let’s consider the plane β1. It intersects the vertical cylinder on a rectangle,
element of this cylinder on a profile projection we designate with points 5''' and 6"'.
Horizontal projections of these points lie on element of the horizontal cylinder –
points 5' and 6'. From these points we draw vertical straight lines and find their
frontal projections – points 5" and 6".

78
 Similarly we construct projections of points 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Having
connected these points, we receive projections of cylinder section.

7.10. The Intersection of Cone with Cylinder

Let’s construct intersection of the cone with cylinder (Fig. 7.14). We show
projections of points 1 and 2 – points of intersection of top and low element of
cylinder with left element of the cone.

Fig. 7.14

To determine additional points, we use a method of the auxiliary planes. We

draw the auxiliary horizontal planes β 1, β2, β3 and β4. The plane β1 intersects a cone
on the circles with radius R1, and the cylinder on a rectangle element of the cone
on a profile projection we designate with points 3''' and 4'''. Horizontal projections
of these points are 3' and 4' on circle with R 1 radius. From these points we draw
vertical straight and find frontal projections – points 3'' and 4''.
Similarly we construct projections of points 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Having
connected these points, we receive projections of section of cylinders. Then on a
horizontal projection we show visible and invisible parts of section.

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER VII

79
1. Which dimensions do solids have?
2. What is polyhedron?
3. What are the faces of polyhedron?
4. What are the edges of polyhedron?
5. What is the apex of polyhedron?
6. What types of polyhedra do you know?
7. What is the pyramid?
8. What is the prism?
9. What is the height of the prism?
10 Show the development of a square prism.
.
11 What is the right prism?
.
12 What is the oblique prism?
.
13 What is the parallelepiped? Is parallelepiped a right prism or an oblique
. one?
14 What is the truncated prism?
.
15 What is the height of the pyramid?
.
16 What is the right pyramid?
.
17 What is the oblique pyramid?
.
18 What is the tetrahedron?
.
19 Show the development of tetrahedron.
.
20 What is the right cylinder?
.
21 What is the axis of the cylinder?
.
22 What is the cone?
.
23 Construct the complex drawing of prism.
.
24 Construct the complex drawing of cylinder.
.
25 Construct the complex drawing of cone.
.
26 What do we get when the plane intersects polyhedron?
.
27 What are the rule of intersecting of polyhedron with a plane?

80
.
28 What are the rules of intersecting of polyhedron with straight line?
.
29 What are the rules of intersecting of solids of revolution with plane?
.
30 What are the rules of intersecting of two cylinders?
.
31 What are the rules of intersecting of cylinder with cone?
.

PART III
MASHINE BIULDING
DRAWING

81
 CHAPTER VIII
PROJECTION DRAWING

8.1. Views

People learned to draw pictures of the objects around them long before they
learned to write. Drawings carved by primitive people on rocks, the walls of caves
and so forth have survived to our days.

82
 Many drawings of human being, animals, fish and other objects, made by
our forefathers thousands years ago, have been found on the eastern shore of lake
Onega and on the shores of the White sea. These drawings were carved on granite
rocks with stone tools.
In Russia rock drawings are found along the Yenisei River, in the Altai
Mountains, in Kazakhstan and other places.
The ability to make simple drawings helped man to develop his first written
language. There were no words or characters in ancient writing. The ideas of
objects were conveyed by pictures of these objects. Stories of military campaigns,
battles and hunting were recorded in these “picture” languages.
The ancient people drew on the bark of trees, stone, bone, leather and other
materials. Meanwhile, they learned to make a material called papyrus used
especially for writing and drawing.
Alongside with the rise of a bulding technique, people began to use pictures
for building houses, palaces, temples and fortresses.
At first, these drawings consisted only of a single picture showing what the
object would look like in view from above. This picture was called a plan. Later,
people began to add a front view of the object to this plan. The drawings were
improved by the addition of other “views” of the object represented in them.
Let’s consider these “views” more carefully.
Parts are made in factories and they are assembled into machines or other
articles according to drawings.
A drawing is the representation on a plane surface of an object that precisely
and fully gives its shape and contains all the information needed for its
manufacture and inspection.
A drawing tells the draftsperson what the shape and size of the part must be,
what material it is to be made of, how its surface must be completed and a great
deal of other information of readable part is to be made.
On receiving a drawing for a job, the worker must read it, after close
studying the drawing, he must understand all the information contained in it.
In order to be able to read drawings, first of all we must have a clear idea of
how to depict machine parts in them.
Let’s now discuss the question of what side of an object we must look at in
order to represent a given view. As an example let’s take a simple object, part.
Every representation contained in drawings is the view of the part from one
of six sides: front, left, right, top, bottom and rear (back) (Fig. 8.1).

83
 Fig.8.1

When drawing each view, the object must be looked at directly, as shown by
the arrows in Figure 8.1. Here it is important to note that all the arrows indicating
the direction of the object look at right angles to each other (Fig. 8.2).

The main view, which is obligatory for every drawing, is the front view as it
is the shape of the part, and is described as the main view for that reason. Other
views are: left-side view, right hand view, top view, front view, bottom view
and back (or rear) view (Fig. 8.3).

84
 Fig. 8.2

Most objects in the world today are created in 3 dimensions, they display
height, width, and length hence the term 3D (Three dimensional). Most
orthographic drawings are drawn showing these three dimensions (Fig. 8.3).

Fig. 8.3
All six views are given in drawings only in very rare cases, when the
depicted part has a very complicated shape. Usually, two or three views are quite
sufficient.
85
 The three most common views drawn on technical drawing are: main view,
right- hand view and top view. The person creating the part may need other views
to better visualize it in order to properly manufacture it.
Let’s first study how object is drawn in three views. A drawing of an object
starts with a representation of the main (front) view. To draw this view we must
look at the part so that our eyes are exactly opposite its center. In this position,
only its wide front face A will be visible. We cannot see its top and bottom faces,
as the former is located above the top edge and the latter-below its bottom edge.
Let’s draw the rectangular contour of the part: the base of this rectangle will
be equal to the width of the detail, and the height- to its length.
Let’s then measure the length and width of the detail, and write its
dimensions (in millimeters) on the drawing (40 and 20 mm in Fig 8.3).

a) b) c)
Fig. 8.3

To draw the top view we must look at the part so that our eyes or “line of
sight” is directed downwards. But we can see the same thing by turning the object
to ourselves through 90° i.e., by turning its top towards us.
It’s very important to note that an object is always turned to describe a right
angle to its initial position.
By turning the detail to 90° toward us we can see its upper face B, which has
the shape of a rectangle, the base of which is equal to the width, and the height- to
the thickness of the part (Fig. 8.3, b).
The plan must be located strictly under the main view, as shown in the
drawing (Fig. 8.3, b). After you have drawn the plan indicate the thickness of the
part -12mm.
Now, let’s put the part in the third position, so that its left –hand side faces
us. First return it to its initial position and then turn it through an angle of 90 ° to
the right position (Fig. 8.3, c). In this position, we can see its left-hand side ”c”

86
which, like the first two sides, is rectangular in shape. The left- hand view is drawn
to the right of the main view and on the same level.

Fig. 8.4

Figure 8.4 shows the projection of parts in space and on the complex
drawing. The lines of recall and axis on complex drawings are not shown.

8.2. Sectioning

Suppose that you make a drawing of a box. You draw the box in
orthographic projection and are pleased with the result. But someone comes along
and says, quite reasonably, “It is a good drawing, but, after all, a box is only a
container and you haven’t shown what is inside the box; surely it is that what is
important”. And of course, he is right.
It is often vital to show both what is inside an object and outside it. In
orthographic projection, this is shown in section.
Drawings should give a clear and precise picture not only of the appearance
of an object but also of its interior construction. As we know, invisible or hidden
outlines of objects are drawn in broken lines. However, the drawings will be clear
and comprehensible if the projections contain as few broken lines as possible.
In this case, in order to make a drawing clearer and more comprehensible,
we usually use a sectional view or section.
A sectional view or section is a conventional representation in which a part
of an object or machine is imagined to be cut or broken away so as to expose the
interior.
Figure 8.5 shows the process of obtaining images of the subject on
horizontal and frontal planes of projections.

Fig. 8.5

Note carefully the following rules:

87
 1. The point where the section is made is denoted by a cutting plane. This is
drawn with a thin chain dot line which is thickened where it changes direction and
for a short distance at the end. The arrows point in what direction the section is
projected.
2. Where the cutting plane cuts through solid material, the material is
hatched at 45 °.
3. When a section is projected, the remaining visible features which can be
seen on the other side of the cutting plane are also drawn on the section.
4. It is not common to draw hidden detail on a section.
There are several types of sections: simple section; full section; broken out
section; offset or complicated section, revolved section and so on. Let’s consider
some of them.
To show to the cross-section of the shaft and the depth of a key-way, we
have conventionally cut the shaft by a plane running perpendicular to its axis and
passing through the key-way. This plane is called the cutting plane (Fig. 8.5). On
the drawing the direction of the cutting plane is indicated by a line with
arrowheads. This line is called the section line or the trace of cutting plane.

Fig. 8.6

The arrows indicate the direction in which the figure of the section must
rotate to bring it on plane of the drawing.
Depending on the direction of the cutting plane, sections are classified as
frontal sections (when the cutting plane is parallel to the frontal plane of
projection), horizontal sections (when the cutting plane is parallel to the horizontal
plane of projection) and profile sections (when the cutting plane is parallel to the
profile plane of projection).
Figure 8.6 shows construction of frontal section of detail.

88
 Fig. 8.7
Figure 8.7 shows construction of profile section of detail.

Fig. 8.8

Figure 8.8 shows construction of horizontal section of detail.

If the sectional views are made by a single cutting plane, such sections are
called simple sections.
Sectional views, in which the cutting plane cuts across the whole object,
showing the entire view in section, are called full sections.
Therefore the view and the corresponding section from a symmetrical figure
drawings may be simplified to one representation instead of two separate
representations (view and section) by joining half of the view with half of the
corresponding section. In these cases it is always preferable to locate the section to
the right of the vertical axis or below the horizontal axis.

89
 Fig. 8.9

Figure 8.9 shows half of the main view combined with half of the
corresponding vertical section. Such combinations of half of view and half of
section help to give a picture of an object’s exterior and its internal construction
with a single representation.
İf the cutting plane is at an angle to the
horizontal plane projection, this section is
called the inclined section. Figure 8.10
shows construction of profile section of
detail.
The section is made along the plane A-
A. The arrows indicate the direction of view
of the observer. The section is projected on
plane, parallel to the cutting plane, and then it
is combined with the frontal plane of
projection.
If an object has a hole or recess, partial
sections are drawn i.e. only a portion of the
object is given in section. The section, that is
used to determine the detail only in limited Fig. 8.10
place is called a local section (Fig. 8.11).
The local section is always shown as wavy line drawn by hand. This line
should not coincide with any other lines of the image. A local section gives a
complete representation about sizes and shape of the hole.

Fig. 8.11
90
 Sections, made with two or more cutting planes are called complicated
sections.
Complicated sections, made with parallel planes are called stepped sections.
Stepped sections may be frontal, profile and horizontal.

Fig. 8.12
Figure 8.12 shows a stepped section produced by three frontal parallel
intersecting planes.
Complicated sections, formed by two or more intersecting planes are called
broken sections.
Figure 8.13 shows a broken section of detail by two intersecting planes.
When dimensions are written on
sections we must do the following:
- the dimension line must be drawn
above of the axis of symmetry;
-the dimension line extends slightly
beyond the axis of symmetry;
-the arrow is drawn only on one side of
the dimension line.
Position of the cutting plane is indicated
in the drawing by cutting line. The initial and
final dashes must not cross the contours of the
corresponding image(Fig.8.14).
Fig. 8.13

Fig. 8.14

The thickness of the dashed lines is 1.5 smaller than the thickness of the
continuous thick line. In the initial and final dashes the arrows, indicating the

91
direction of gaze should be put. Arrows should be applied at a distance of 2 ... 3
mm from the end of the dash. Letters are applied about arrow. The section should
be noted as “A-A”.

Fig. 8.15

Figure 8.15 shows the section of asymmetrical detail. The cutting frontal and
profile planes are designated with A-A and B-B.

8.3. Construction of the Third Projection of Detail on Two

Given Projections
Construction of the third projection of detail on two given projections is of
training character. It allows you to develop the capacity for spatial thinking; it
helps to better understand the details of the construction.
Usually, in the educational process are given
front (main) view and a top (plan) view, and you
have to construct a profile(left-side) view, or
frontal and profile views are given, and you have to
construct a horizontal(top) view.
Figure 8.16 shows the main view and top
view of detail, and is required to construct the left,
i.e., profile projection. To do this, we first need to
get acquainted with the construction of details, to
create a complete picture of its geometric forms.
This detail can be broken down into two
mutually perpendicular prisms.
Lower prism has a length of 50 mm, a width
of 40 mm and a height of 15 mm.
The upper prism has a prismatic groove with Fig. 8.16
dimensions 10x15 mm. Sizes of the upper prism are: length 30 mm , width 10 mm,
height 40 mm.
Fig. 8.16 shows the sequence of the construction of the missing third –
profile projection.
92
 1. The profile projection is always situated on the same level with the frontal
projection, so we draw horizontal lines of recall (Fig. 8.17, a).

a) b)

d) c)
Fig. 8.17
2. This detail is symmetrical, so we draw a symmetry axis of the profile
projection. Then we note dimensions on the profile projection characterizing the
width of the detail (Fig. 8.17, b).
3. We define corresponding points of intersection of horizontal and frontal
lines on the profile projection and join them (Fig.8.17, c).
4. We remove the unnecessary lines and show the necessary sections and
dimensions (Fig. 8.17, d).
Thus, we obtain the missing profile projection of detail.

8.4. Sketch and Working Drawing

93
 The rules of drawings, we are now acquainted with, must be remembered.
Very often before making a drawing, sketches are made.
What is a sketch? What is the difference between a working drawing and a
sketch?
Drawings made by hand and containing all the information necessary for
making the detail represented in them are called sketches. When machine parts are
designed, sketches are sometimes made and used for the manufacture of
experimental models. Sketches are drawn in approximate scales. Most of details
can be seen on an orthographic drawing than on an isometric, mainly because more
than one view is drawn. For this reason it is often advantageous for a draftsperson
to make an orthographic sketch.
What is a working drawing?
Technical drawings, according to which machine parts are manufactured and
assembled at factories, as well as repaired are called working drawings.
In working drawings, machine parts are represented in their finished form,
i.e. the form into which they have to be assembled.
Let’s consider the sequence of sketch detail construction(Fig. 8.18):
1.We draw on a sheet of the outer frame and the frame that limits the
drawing. We show border of the title block. Then we draw rectangles with thin
lines, within which views of detail and center lines will be located (Fig. 8.18, a).
2. Draw the visible elements of detail with contour lines (Fig. 9.18, b).
3. Draw the invisible elements of details with dashed lines (Fig. 9.18, c).
4. Show necessary sections (Fig.8.19, d).
5. Draw dimension lines and extension lines (Fig 9.19, e).
6. Show dimensions and fill the title block (Fig. 9.19, f).

a) b)

94
c) d)

f) e)
Fig. 8.18
In practice, based on the finished sketch engineers create working drawing of
detail.

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER VIII

1. What is the plan?

2. How many views does every representation contain in a drawing?
3. What is the main view?
4. How many dimensions do objects create in the world today? What are they?
5. What is the left-hand side view?
6. What parts are not sectioned?
7. When is sectioning of an object important?
8. What angle are inclined section lines at?
9. What is the frontal section?
10 What is the horizontal section?
.
11 What is the profile section?
95
.
12 What is the cutting plane?
.
13 What is the simple section?
.
14 What is the half – section?
.
15 What is the full section?
.
16 What is the inclined section?
.
17 What is the local section?
.
18 What is the complicated section?
.
19 What is the stepped section?
.
20 What is the broken section?
.
21 What is the difference between full section and half section?
.
22 What angle must the hatch be done at?
.
23 Describe the different types of sectional views with suitable examples.
.
24 What are the rules of construction of the third projection of detail on two
. given projections?
25 What is a sketch?
.
26 What is a working drawing?
.
27 What is the difference between a working drawing and a sketch?
.
28 Write brief notes on the preparation of working drawings.
.

96
 CHAPTER IX
AXONOMETRIC DRAWING
Drafted by an orthographic projection details give providing information
about their shape and size, but these projections don’t give a spatial representation
of the detail. In order to get a better understanding of the details, there is a need to
construct its spatial image. For the presentation of detailed drawings, this system
has been found to be far superior to all others. The system has, however, the
disadvantage of being very difficult to understand by people not trained in its
usage. It is always essential that an engineer is able to communicate his ideas to
anybody, particularly to people who are not engineers, and it is therefore an
advantage to be able to draw using a system of projection that is more easily
understood. The method of full representation of the object (detail) on the drawing
is called axonometry.
In an axonometric drawing, the projection rays are drawn parallel to each
other and perpendicular to the plane of projection.
An axonometric drawing which has all three axes divided by equal angles is
isometric drawing.
An axonometric drawing which has two axes divided by equal angles is
dimetric drawing.
On a trimetric drawing, the relationship of the angle between axes to each
other is none of the above.
We shall study two methods of making pictorial views of objects according
to the rules of axonometric drawing: isometric and Dimetric projections. Isometric
and oblique projections present the more pictorial view of an object.

97
 Axonometric projection, in which the projecting rays are perpendicular to
the plane of projection, is called rectangular.
If projecting rays are inclined to the plane of projection, the projection is
called oblique.

9.1. The Main Parameters of Axonometric Projections

The main parameters of the axonometric projection are axonometric axes

directions and the distortion coefficient. The axis-x is a horizontal axis, the axis z
– the frontal axis and the y – axis has an angle of inclination of 45º in the oblique
frontal dimetric projection. The coefficients of the axes distortion are as follows:
Rx = Ks = 1, Ky = 0.5 (Fig. 10.1, a). So, dimensions along the y – axis must be
reduced in half. It is convenient to use the triangular rulers with angles 45º, 45º and
90º for construction of oblique frontal dimetric projection.

a) b)
Fig. 9.1

In rectangular isometric projection angles between the axes of the

projections are 120º, distortion coefficients are K x = Ky = Kz = 0.82. To simplify
the process of constructing axonometry The State Standard proposed distortion
coefficients to be 1:1 (Fig. 9.1, b).

9.2. The Rectangular Isometric Projection

If you were to make a freehand drawing of a row of houses, the house

furthest away from you would be the smallest house on your drawing. This is
called the “perspective” of the drawing and, in a perspective drawing none of the
lines are parallel. Isometric drawing ignores perspective altogether. Lines are
drawn parallel to each other and drawings can be made with T-square and set
square. This is much simpler than perspective drawing.
Figure 9.2 shows a shaped block drawn in rectangular isometric projection.
You will notice that there are three isometric axes. They are inclined at 120° to
each other. One axis is vertical and the other two axes are at 30°
98
angle to it. Dimensions measured along these axes, or parallel to them, are true
lengths.
In isometric drawing true measurement can be made only along or parallel to
the isometric axes.
The faces of the shaped block shown in Fig. 9.2 are all at 90 ° to each other.
The result of this is that all of the lines in the isometric drawing are parallel to the
isometric axes. If the lines are not parallel to any of the isometric axes, they are no
longer true lengths.
Figure 9.3 illustrates the construction of an isometric projection of a
rectangle, whose sides are parallel to the axes of the projections.

Fig. 9.2

99
 Fig.9.3

An example of this is given in Fig. 9.4 which shows an isometric drawing of

a regular hexagonal prism. The hexagon is first drawn as a plane figure and a
simple shape, in this case a rectangle, is drawn around the hexagon. The rectangle
is easily drawn in isometric projection and the positions of the corners of the
hexagon can be transferred from the plane figure to the isometric drawing with a
pair of dividers.

Fig. 9.4

The dimensions of the hexagon should all be 25 mm and you can see from
Fig. 10.3 that lines which are not parallel to the isometric axes do not have true
lengths.

9.3. The Circles Drawn in Isometric Projection

Isometric projections of the circle on the projection plane are ellipses. When
constructing an isometric projection of the circle, axes of the ellipse are drawn
100
perpendicular to each other. Construction of the ellipse is a difficult process, so it
is replaced by oval.

Fig. 9.5

All of the faces of a cube are square. If a cube is drawn in isometric

projection, each square side becomes a rhombus. If a circle is drawn on the face of
a cube, the circle will change its shape when the cube is drawn in isometric
projection. Figure 9.5 shows how to plot the new shape of the circle.

Fig. 9.5

The circle is first drawn as a plane figure, and is then divided into an even
number of equal lines. The face of the cube is then divided into the same number
of equal lines. Center lines are added and the measurement from the center line of
the circle to the point where line 1 crosses the circle is transferred from the plane
drawing to the isometric drawing with a pair of dividers. This measurement is
applied above and below the center line. This process is repeated for lines 2, 3, etc.
The points that have been plotted should then be carefully joined together with a
neat freehand curve.
Since a circle can be divided into four symmetrical quadrants, it is really
necessary to draw only a quarter of a circle instead of a whole plane circle.
The dimensions which are transferred from the plane circle to the isometric view
are called “ordinates” and the system of transferring ordinates from plane figures
to isometric views is not confined to circles. It may be used for any regular or
irregular shape.
Non- isometric lines are located by determining the endpoints of the non-
isometric line.
101
 9.4. The Frontal Diametric Projection of Rectangle

Figure 9.8 illustrates constructing of the front dimetric projections of a circle

inscribed in a square. First, we draw the axis of oblique frontal dimetric projection.
If a plane figure is parallel to the frontal plane of projection, its dimetric
projection on this plane repeats itself without any changes of the shape. So,
dimetric projection of a plane figure, parallel to the frontal plane of projection, is
the same figure.
As an example, Figure 9.9 shows the construction of dimetric projection of
cube inscribed in the side faces of the circles.

Fig. 9.8

Fig. 9.9

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 9.5. Axonometric Projections of Detail

Figure 9.10 shows three views of detail, having prism shape. There are two
rectangular passes and one blind square hole in detail.
Detail is symmetric with respect to two mutually perpendicular axes. Drawn
details are given with sections. Let’s construct an axonometric projection of this
detail. More convenient and easy is the choice of an isometric projection. The
sequence of isometric projection construction of the details is shown in figure 9.1.
The sequence of dimetric projection construction of the details is shown in
Figure 9.12.

Fig. 9.10

Fig. 9.11

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 Fig. 10.12

9.6. Construction of Sections in Axonometric Projections

If it is necessary to get more information about the details we have to give

the section in axonometric projection. At the sectional part of axonometric view,
only that part of the details is hatched, which is directly in contact with the cutting
plane.

a) b)
Fig. 9.13

Unlike an orthographic projection, in axonometric projections hatching

angle is not 45º. Hatch direction depends on the type of axonometric projection
and the position of the truncated portion.
Figure 9.13 shows the direction of hatching, depending on the axonometric
projections. As it is noted above, in dimetric projecting the axis Y dimensions are
reduced in half. Accordingly, we have to mark an equal length of line segments on
X and Z axes, but by half of this line segment on Y axis. By joining the ends of
lines, we get a triangle, the sides of which show the direction of the hatch on the
dimetric projections (Fig.9.13, a).
The directions of the axes dimensions don’t change. In isometric projecting,
we have to mark an equal length segments on the axes X, Y and Z. Joining the
ends of lines, as in the first case, we get a triangle, the sides of which show the
direction of the hatch on the isometric projections(Fig. 9.13, b).

104
 Fig.9.14
Figure 9.14 shows examples of hatching on axonometric projections of
detail.

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER IX

1. What method is called the axonometry?

2. How are the projection rays drawn on axonometric drawing?
3. If a client of yours is having difficulty on visualizing a design, what type of
drawing would be the easiest to understand?
4. What is the isometric projection referred to as?
5. What is the dimetric projection referred to as?
6. What is the trimetric projection referred to as?
7. What is the rectangular isometric projection referred to as?
8. In what type of projection does each of the axes have different ratios of
foreshortening?
9. What type of axonometric drawing has equal foreshortening along two axis
directions and a different amount on the third axis?
10. How are lines of an isometric drawing that are not parallel to the isometric
axes called?
11. What angles must the edges of the cube be to each other in isometric
projection at?
12. What is the oblique projection referred to as?
13. What is the oblique frontal dimetric projection referred to as?
14. What are the main parameters of axonometric projections?
15. What is the difference between isometric and diametric projections?
16. Why is rectangular isometric drawing much simpler than perspective
drawing?
17. What is the isometric view of a circle?

105
18. Draw an isometric square.
19. Draw a frontal dimetric projection of rectangle.
20. What are the rules of constructing of sections in axonometric projection of
detail?

CHAPTER X
JOINTS
10.1. Threads

The thread is probably the most important single component in engineering.

The application of the thread to nuts, bolts, studs, screws, etc., provides us with the
ability to join two or more pieces of material together securely, easily and, most
importantly of all, not permanently. There are other methods of joining materials
together, but the most widely used ones – riveting, welding. It is true that these
methods are cheaper, but when we know that we might have to take the thing apart
again we use the screw thread. Since the thread is so important it is well
worthwhile looking at the whole subject more closely.
The standard thread, in this country, for many years was the whitworth; this
thread was introduced by Sir Joseph Whitworth in the 1840s. It was the first
standard thread; previously nut and bolt were made together and would fit another
nut or bolt only by coincidence. Meanwhile, it was a revolutionary step forward.
The BSW (British Standard Whitworth) thread and its counterpart the BSF
(British Standard Fine) thread were the thread standards in Britain until
metrication; and will probably be in use for many years.
However, the United States of America developed and adopted the unified
thread as their standard and countries using the metric system of measurement had
their own metric thread forms. It became increasingly obvious that an international
screw thread standard was needed.
The breakthrough came when it was decided that British Industry should
adopt the metric system of weights and measures. The International Standards

106
Organization (ISO) has formulated a complex set of standards to cover the whole
range of engineering components.
Their thread standard, the ISO, is now the international thread standard. The
ISO and unified thread profiles are identical. The unified thread standard is the
International Standard for countries which are still using imperial units.
Some thread forms are shown in Figure 10.1.

a) b) c) d)
Fig. 10.1

The triangular thread (Basic form of ISO thread) is shown in Figure 10.1, a.
You will note that the thread is thicker at the root than at the crest. This is because
the stresses on the thread are greater at the root and the thread needs to be thicker
there if it is to be stronger. In practice, since there is nothing gained by having the
root and crest of a nut and bolt in contact, and because “square” corners are
difficult to manufacture, the ISO thread form is usually modified to that shown in
Fig. 10.1,a. We can see that the contact will be only on the flanks.
The acme thread (Fig. 10.1, b) is extensively used for transmitting power.
The thread form is easier to cut than the square thread because of its taper and, for
the same reason; it is used on the lead screw of lathes where the half-nut engages
easily on the tapered teeth.
Fastening threads are usually vee threads. Vee threads result in higher
friction, which lessens the possibility of loosening. Vee threads are more
convenient to manufacture.
The square thread (Fig. 10.1, d) is now rarely used because the acme thread
has superseded it. Its main application is for transmitting power since there is less
friction than with a vee thread.
The Buttress thread (Fig. 10.1, c), combines the vee thread and the square
thread without retaining any of their disadvantages. It is a strong thread and has
less friction than a vee thread.

10.2. Drawing Threads

A thread drawn in full, would take too long a time on a drawing that has
several threads on it, and would be physically impossible on a small thread.
There are conventions for drawing threads which make life very much
easier. Let’s learn the methods of representing threads, shown in Figure 10.2 and

107
in Figure 10.3.

Fig. 10.2
The only conventional symbol, which shows whether the thread is right- or
left-handed is the second one. This is not much of an advantage because the thread
has to be dimensioned and it is a simple matter to state whether a thread is right- or
left-handed.
Left-hand threads are rarely met, and unless specifically stated, a thread is
assumed to be right-handed (table 10.1).
Figure 11.2 shows the convention for external threads. Figure 11.2 shows
the convention for internal threads.

Fig. 10.3

It should be that explained, on the drawings for internal threads, the thread
does not reach the bottom of the hole. When an internal thread is cut, the material
is first drilled a little deeper than is actually required. The diameter of the hole is
the same as the root diameter of the thread and is called the tapping diameter. The
cutting angle of the drill, for normal purposes, is 118° – almost 120°.
Thus, a 60 ° set square is used to draw the interior end of an internal screw
thread.
In the threaded connection sections in the images on the plane parallel to its
axis, it is shown only in the opening part of the thread, threaded rod of which is not
locked (Fig. 11.4).

108
 Fig. 10.4

Hatches in the sections and the cuts are performed along the line of the
external diameter of the thread to the internal diameter of the hole.
There are three characteristic diameters of threads: major diameter, minor
diameter, and pitch diameter: industry standards specify minimum (min) and
maximum (max) limits for each of these, for all recognized thread sizes. The min
limits for external (or bolt, in ISO terminology), and the max limits
for internal (nut), thread sizes are there to ensure that threads do not strip at the
tensile strength limits for the parent material. The min limits for internal, and max
limits for external, threads are there to ensure that the threads fit together.

10.3. Designation of ISO Threads

The coarse series ISO thread is only one of 12 different threads in the ISO
series. This thread, like the fine thread series, has a pitch which varies with the
diameter of the bolt. The remaining 10 thread series have constant pitches,
whatever the diameter of the thread is.
All the series except the coarse thread series are used in special
circumstances. The vast majority of threads used come from the coarse thread
series.
The method used on drawings for stating an ISO thread is quite simple. For
the metric thread forms and series you have to use letter “M”. The diameter of the
thread is stated immediately after “M”. Thus M12 is ISO thread form, 12 mm
diameter thread and M20 is ISO thread form, 20 mm diameter thread. In many
countries the designation shown above is used to denote coarse thread series. If a
thread is used from a constant pitch series, it is added after, so that M14X1.5 is a
14 mm diameter with a constant pitch of 1.5 mm.
However, the British Standard requires that the pitch will be included in the
coarse thread series. Thus, a thread with the designation M30X3.5 is coarse series
ISO thread with a pitch of 3.5 mm.

109
 A thread with the designation M16X2 is a coarse series ISO thread with a
pitch of 2 mm.
Table 10.1 shows examples of thread designations.
Table 10.1
Designation Transcript Designation Transcript
Metric thread, Metric thread,
diameter-42 diameter-42
mm, right – mm, left–
handed. handed.

Acme thread Buttress thread,

diameter-50 diameter-
mm, right – 32mm, pitch-
handed, pitch- 6mm.
12 mm.

Pipe Tapered
cylindrical internal and
thread, external
diameter - ¾ threads,
inch. diameter – ½
inch.

There are further designations concerned with the tolerances, or accuracy of

manufacture, but these are beyond the scope of this book.

10.4. Assembly Drawings

There are not many engineering items that are completely functional by
themselves. There are some of them, a spanner or a rule for instance, but even a
simple object like a wood chisel has three components and a good pair of
compasses may have 12 component parts. Each part should be drawn and
dimensioned separately and then a drawing made of all the component parts are put
together. This is called an “assembly drawing”. The student at school or college is
often instructed to draw the assembled components only and is shown the
dimensioned details in no particular order. If the assembly is particularly difficult,
the parts are often shown in an exploded view and the assembly presents no
difficulty. The assembled parts may form an object, which is easily recognizable,
but the real problem occurs when there seems to be no possible connection
between any of the component parts. In an examination, when loss of time must be
avoided at all costs, the order of assembly needs to be worked out quickly. The
only approach is to view the assembly somewhat like a jigsaw puzzle. The parts
must fit together and be held together, either because they interlock or there is

110
something holding them together. Try to look for similar details on separate
components. If there is an internal square thread on one component and an external
thread of the same diameter on another component, the odds are that one screws
inside the other. If two different components have two or more holes with the same
pitch, it is likely that they are joined at those two holes. A screw with an M10
thread must fit an M10 threaded hole. A tapered component must fit another
tapered component. The important thing, particularly in examinations, is to start
drawing. Never spend too long trying to puzzle out an assembly. There is always
an obvious component to start drawing, and, while you are drawing it, the rest of
the assembly will become apparent as you become more familiar with the details.

10.5 Nut, Bolt and Stud

We will see how to draw a standard nut and bolt with their principal
dimensions. There are, however, many other types of fastenings in everyday use in
industry, and some of them are shown later.
A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole (Fig. 10.5). Nuts are almost
always used opposite a mating bolt to fasten a stack of parts together.
The two partners are kept together by a combination of their threads’
friction, a slight stretch of the bolt, and compression of the parts. In applications
where vibration or rotation may work a nut loose, various locking mechanisms
may be employed: adhesives, safety pins or lock wire, nylon inserts, or slightly
oval-shaped threads. The most common shape is hexagonal, for similar reasons as
the bolt head – 6 sides give a good granularity of angles for a tool to approach from
(good in tight spots), but more (and smaller) corners would be vulnerable to being
rounded off. It takes only 1/6 of a rotation to obtain the next side of the hexagon
and grip is optimal. However polygons with more than 6 sides do not give the
requisite grip and polygons with less than 6 sides take more time to be given a
complete rotation. Other specialized shapes exist for certain needs, such as wing
nuts for finger adjustment and captive nuts for inaccessible areas.

Fig. 10. 5

A bolt is a form of threaded fastener with an external male thread (Fig.10.6,

a). Bolts use a wide variety of head designs, so do screws. These are designed to
111
engage with the tool used to tighten them. Some bolt heads instead lock the bolt in
place, so that it does not move and a tool is only needed for the nut end.

a) b)

Fig. 10.6

A threaded rod, also known as a stud, is a relatively long rod that

is threaded on both ends; the thread may extend along the complete length of the
rod (Fig. 10.6, b)
Bolts are thus closely related to, and often confused with screws. Figure 10.7
shows complex drawing of bolt in two projections. When we draw the bolt, its axis
has to be parallel to the title block (main inscription).

Fig.10.7

The Stud and Set Bolt (sometimes called a tap bolt or cap screw) are used
when it is impossible or impractical to use a nut and a bolt. Figure 10.8 and 10.9
show both in their final positions.

112
 Fig. 10.8

They are both screwed into a tapped hole in the bottom piece of material.
The top piece of material is drilled slightly larger than the stud or screw and is held
in position by a nut and a washer in the case of the stud, and by the head of the set
bolt and washer in the case of the set bolt. The stud would be used when the two
pieces of material were to be taken apart quite frequently; the set bolt would be
used if the fixing was expected to be more permanent.

Fig. 10.9

10.6. Flange joints

A flange is an external or internal ridge, or rim (lip), for strength, as the

flange of an iron beam such as an I-beam or a T-beam; or for attachment to another
object, as the flange at the end of a pipe, steam cylinder, etc.

113
 Fig. 10.10

Thus flanged wheels are wheels with a flange on one side to keep the
wheels from running off the rails. The term “flange” is also used for a kind of tool
used to form flanges. Pipes with flanges can be assembled and disassembled easily.

10.7. Pipe Joints. Fittings

A fitting is used in pipe systems to connect straight pipe or tubing sections,

to adapt to different sizes or shapes, and for other purposes, such as regulating or
measuring fluid flow. The term plumbing is generally used to describe conveyance
of water, gas, or liquid waste in ordinary domestic or commercial environments,
whereas piping is often used to describe high-performance (e.g. high pressure, high
flow, high temperature, hazardous materials) conveyance of fluids in specialized
applications. The term tubing is sometimes used for lighter-weight piping,
especially types that are flexible enough to be supplied in coiled form.

a) b) c) d) e)
Fig. 10.11

While there are hundreds of specialized fittings manufactured, some common

types of fittings are used widely in piping and plumbing systems. They are:
coupling (Fig. 10.11, a), reducers (Fig. 10.11, b), elbows (Fig. 10.11, c), tees (Fig.
10.11, d) and crosses (Fig. 10.11, e).
114
 Fig. 10.12

Figure 10.12 shows complex drawing of coupling joints.

10.8. Rivets and Riveted Joints

A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener (Fig. 10.23). Before installing, a

rivet consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. A rivet is used
to join two or more pieces of material together permanently. The enormous
advances in welding and brazing techniques, and the rapidly increasing use of
bonding materials have led to a slight decline in the use of rivets. However, they
remain an effective method of joining materials together, and, unlike welding and
bonding, require very little special equipment or expensive tools when used on a
small scale.

а) b)

Fig. 10.13

The most widely used rivets are round head rivets (Fig. 10.13, a) and
blind head rivets (Fig. 10.13, b). The rivet is usually supplied with one end formed

115
to one of these shapes. The other end is hammered over and shaped with a tool
called a “dolly”.
When rivets are used they must be arranged in patterns. The materials to be
joined must have holes drilled in them to take the rivets and these holes weaken the
material, particularly if they are too close together. If the rivets are placed too close
to the edge of the material, the joint will be weakened. The two basic joints are
called “lap and butt joints” (Figs. 10.14 and 10.15).

Fig. 10.14

Fig. 10.15

There is no limit to the number of rows of rivets, nor to the number in each
row, but the spacing, or pitch of the rivets, must be as it is shown in Fig. 10.15.
The most used types of rivets are: single row lap, double row lap, double row zig-
zag lap and double cover plate butt lap rivets.

10.9. Keys. Keyways

A key is a piece of metal inserted between the joint of shaft or hub to

prevent relative rotation between the shaft and the hub. One of the most common
applications is between shafts and pulleys.

116
 There is a wide variety of keys, designed for light and heavy duties, for
tapered and parallel shafts and to allow or prevent movement of the hub along the
shaft.

a) b) c)

Fig. 10.16

Feather keys and parallel keys (Fig. 10.16, a) are used when it is desired
that the hub should slide along the shaft, yet not allowing the rotation around the
shaft.
Woodruff keys (Fig. 10.16, b) are used on tapered shafts. They adjust easily
to the taper when assembling the shaft and the hub.
Taper keys (Fig. 10.16, c), are used to prevent sliding, and the gib head
allows the key to be extracted easily.
Saddle keys are suitable for light duty only since they rely on friction alone.
Round keys are easy to install because the shaft and the hub can be drilled
together but they are suitable for light duty only.

а) b)
Fig. 10.17

Figure 10.17 shows the sequence of key joints detail with the shaft via the
Feather keys (Fig.10.17, a) and Gib head (Fig. 10.17, b) keys.

Key Hub Shaft

117
 Fig. 10.18

Figure 10.19 shows the joints of the shaft to the hub via the feather key.
For a clearer picture of the shaft and the hub they are given in section. Figure 10.18
shows complex drawing of elements of this joints – shaft (Fig.10.19, a), hub
(Fig.10.19, b) and key (Fig. 10.19, c).
Shaft Hub Key

a) b) c)

Fig. 10.19

Assembly drawing of feather (parallel) key joint is shown in Figure 10.20.

Fig. 10.20

118
 Dimensions of keys are selected depending on the shaft diameter. In order
to show the key assembly, we have to give local section. The key is not hatched in
the longitudinal section.
In the section perpendicular to the axis of the shaft (section A-A), key is
hatched.
D – diameter of the shaft , b – width of the key, h – height of key, t1 and
t2 – the depth of the slot, under the key on the shaft and in the wheel , L – the
length of the key.
The length of the key depends on the operating conditions and should be 4-
5 mm smaller than the length of the wheel hub.

10.10. Welding joints

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials,

usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower
temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do
not melt the base metal. In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is
often added to the joint to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools
to form a joint that can be as strong as the base material. Pressure may also be used
in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce a weld.
Although less common, there are also solid state welding processes such as
friction welding or shielded active gas welding in which metal does not melt.
The four basic types of weld joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner joint,
and T-joint (a variant of this last is the cruciform joint). Other variations exist as
well—for example, double-V preparation joints are characterized by the two pieces
of material each tapering to a single center point at one-half of their height.
Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways (Table 10. 2).

Table 10.2
Kinds of welds A visual image of the weld The image and the symbol of the weld
seam seam on the complex drawing

Butt joint

119
Corner joint

Т-joint

Lap joint

Single-U and double-U preparation joints are also fairly common—instead

of having straight edges like the single-V and double-V preparation joints, they are
curved, forming the shape of a U. Lap joints are also commonly more than two
pieces thick—depending on the process used and the thickness of the material,
many pieces can be welded together in a lap joint geometry.
In the drawing, all kinds of welds represent the continuous thick line
(visible seam) and the dashed line (invisible seam).
Figure 10.21,a shows visual image details of the welding joint, and Figure
10.21, b - the complex drawing of welding joint with symbols of weld seams.

120
 а)
b)
Fig.10.21

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS TO CHAPTER X

1. What types of joints do you know?

2. Which applications provide us with the ability to join two or more pieces of
material together securely?
3. What is the triangular tread?
4. What is the acme thread?
5. What is the square thread?
6. What is the buttress thread?
7. What is the left-hand thread?
8. What is the right-handed thread?
9. How is the conventional symbol for external threads drawn?
10. How is the conventional symbol for internal threads drawn?
11. What is the cutting angle of the drill for normal purposes?
12. How many characteristic diameters do threads have?
13. How is the metrical thread form signed?
14. How is the right handed metric thread with diameter 42 designated? Draw
this thread.
15. How is the right- handed acme thread with diameter 50 designated?
16. How is the pipe cylindrical thread with diameter 3/4 inch designated?
17. How is the left–handed metric thread with diameter 42 designated?
18. How is the buttress thread with diameter 32 designated?
19. How are the tapered internal and external threads with diameter 1/2 inch
designated?
20. What is nut and how is it drawn?
21. What type of thread bolt belongs to external and internal one?
22. What is the thread rod?
23. How is the stud and the set bolt drawn?
121
24. What are the flange joints and where are they used?
25. What do fittings mean?
26. What type of fittings do you know?
27. When is the coupling used?
28. When are the reducers used?
29. When are the elbows used?
30. When are the tees used?
31. What is welding?
32. When are the feather keys and parallel keys used?
33. Where are woodruff keys used?
34. What are the taper keys used for?
35. What are the saddle keys?
36. What are the round keys?
37. What kinds of welds do you know?
38. What is the butt joint? Show its complex drawing and symbols
39. What is the corner joint? Show its complex drawing and symbols
40. What is the Т-joint? Show its complex drawing and symbols
41. What is the lap joint? Show its complex drawing and symbols

APPENDIX 1
CONVENTIONAL DESIGNATIONS AND SYMBOLS

a) Convensional designations of geometric elements and their projections:

1. A, B, C, D...- points in space;

2. a, b, c, d...- straight lines in space;
3. Principal lines:
h – horizontal;
122
 f –frontal;
p –profile;
4. (AB) – straight line passing through points A and B;
5. [AB) – ray beginning at point A;
6. [AB] – straight line segment, which is limited to points A and B;
7. α, β, γ, δ, ... – planes;
8. ∟ - right angle;
9. | |- distance between the geometric elements;
10. |AB|-distance between point A;
11. |Aa| - distance between point A and the straight line a;
12. |Aα| - distance between point A and the plane α;
13. |ab| - distance between straight lines a and b;
14. |αβ| - |Aα| - distance between planes α and β;
15. (a ^ b) – angle between straight lines a and b;
16. (a ^ α) – angle between the straight line a and the plane α;
17. (α,^ β) – angle between planes α and β;
18. Planes of projection:
H – horizontal plane of projection;
F - frontal plane of projection;
P - profile plane of projection;
19. x, y, z - coordinate axis
20. O – the point of intersection of the axes of the projections;
21. A' , A '' , A '' ' , B' , B' ' , B'' ' ,C ' , C '' ,C ' '' - respectively horizontal, frontal and profile
projections of points A, B, C;
22. a ' , a' ' , a '' ' , b ' , b' ' , b '' ' , c ' , c ' ' , c ' '' - respectively horizontal, frontal and profile
projections of straight lines a, b, c;

23. α , α ' ' α '' ' , β ' , β ' ' , β '' ' , γ ' , γ ' ' , γ '' ' - respectively horizontal, frontal and profile
projections of planes α , β , γ ;

24. αH, αF, αP – respectively horizontal, frontal and profile traces of planes α
A₀ , B₀ , C₀ , D₀ ... – auxiliary projection of points A, B, C, D (used when
the true lengh is determined).

b). Symbols forming connection between geometric elements:

1. = - equals;
123
2. ≡ - coincides;
3. ║ - parallel;
4. ¿ - perpendicular;
5. ⊃ - passes;
6. / - oblique.

c) Symbols indicating the end of operation:

1. Λ - conjunction “and” ;
2. V - conjuction “or” ;
3. ⇒ - conjuction “then” ((a║b Λ b║c) ⇒ a║c) ;
4. ⇔ - equivalent.

APPENDIX 2
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE BOOK

ENGLISH AZERBAIJAN RUSSIAN

Letters Şriftlər Шрифты
Sizes of drawing Formatlar Форматы
Scale Miqyas Масштаб
Reduction scale Kiçiltmə miqyası Масштаб уменьшения
Magnification scale Böyütmə miqyası Масштаб увеличения
Natural scale Həqiqi ölçü miqyası Масштаб натуральной
величины
Frame Çərçivə Рамка
Title block Künc ştampı Угловой штамп
Main inscription of Çertyojun əsas yazısı Основная надпись
124
 drawing чертежа
Line styles Xəttin növləri Типы линий
Continuous thick line Bütöv qalın xətt Сплошная толстая линия
Continuous thin line Bütöv nazik xətt Сплошная тонкая линия
Dashed line Ştrix xətt Штриховая линия
Dashed thin lines with Ştrix nöqtəli xətt Штрих-пунктирная линия
dots
Wavy line Dalğavari xətt Волнистая линия
Continuous thin zigzag Əsas bütöv nazik ziqzaq Сплошная тонкая
line xətt зигзаговая линия
Axis of symmetry Simmetriya oxu Ось симметрии
Hidden outlines Görünməyən xətlər Невидимые линии
Center lines Mərkəz xəttləri Центровые линии
Dimension lines Ölçü xətləri Размерные линии
Tapered chamfer Konik faska Коническая фаска
Parallel Paralel Параллель
Perpendicular Perpendikulyar Перпендикуляр
Bisector Bisektrisa Биссектриса
Blending Qovuşma Сопряжение
Internal blending Daxili qovuşma Внутреннее сопряжение
External blending Xarici qovuşma Внешнее сопряжение
Curve Əyri Кривая
Arc Qövs Дуга
Circle Çevrə Окружность
Radius Radius Радиус
Diameter Diametr Диаметр
Angle Bucaq Угол
Descriptive Tərsimi Начертательная
Projection Proyeksiya Проекция
Plane Müstəvi Плоскость
Methods of projections Proyeksiyalama Методы проецирования
metodları
Central projection Mərkəzi proyeksiyalama Центральное
проецирование
Center of projection Proyeksiyalama mərkəzi Центр проецирования
Parallel projection Paralel proyeksiyalama Параллельное
проецирование
Direction of projection Proyeksiyanın istiqaməti Направление проекции
Projection line (or Proyeksiyalayıcı xətt Проецирующая прямая
projector)
Orthogonal projection Ortoqonal Ортогональное
proyeksiyalama проецирование
Plane of projection Proyeksiya müstəvisi Плоскость проекции
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Plane geometrical figure Yastı həndəsi fiqur Плоская геометрическая
фигура
Space Fəza Пространство
Ray Şüa Луч
Surface Səth Поверхность
Point Nöqtə Точка
Coincide Üst-üstə düşür Совпадают
Frontal Frontal Фронталь
Horizontal Horizontal Горизонталь
Profile Profil Профиль
Infinite Sonsuz Бесконечная
Axis Ox Ось
Complex drawing Kompleks çertyoj Комплексный чертеж
Communication line Rabitə xətti Линия связи
Sketch Esgiz Эскиз
Principal planes of Əsas proyeksiya Основные плоскости
projection müstəviləri проекций
Quadrant Kvadrant Квадрант
Quarter Rüb Четверть
Straight line Düz xətt Прямая
Straight line segment Düz xətt parçası Отрезок прямой
Special position of Düz xəttin xüsusi Прямая особого
straight line vəziyyəti положения
General position of Düz xəttin ümumi Прямая общего
straight line vəziyyəti положения
Horizontal-projecting Horizontal- Горизонтально-
straight line proyektləndirici düz xətt проецирующая прямая
Frontal-projecting straight Frontal-proyektləndirici Фронтально-
line düz xətt проецирующая прямая
Profile-projecting straight Profil- proyektləndirici Профильно-
line düz xətt проецирующая прямая
Intersecting straight lines Kəsişən düz xətlər Пересекающиеся прямые
Non-intersecting (or Kəsişməyən (və ya Непересекающиеся (или
skew) straight lines çarpaz) düz xətlər скрещивающиеся)
прямые
True length(actual size) Əsil boy(həqiqi ölçü) Истинная величина
Trace of straight line Düz xəttin izi След прямой
Plan Üst görünüş Вид сверху
Elevation Baş görünüş Главный вид
Trace of plane Müstəvinin izi След плоскости
Intersecting planes Kəsişən müstəvilər Пересекающиеся
плоскости
Auxiliary Köməkçi Вспомогательная
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 Mutually Qarşılıqlı Взаимно
Method of auxiliary Köməkçi müstəvilər Метод вспомогательных
section planes üsulu плоскостей
Solids Fəza figurları Пространственные
фигуры
Polyhedra Çoxüzlülər Многогранники
Polyhedron Çoxüzlü Многогранник
Edge Til Ребро
Apex Təpə Вершина
Prism Prizma Призма
Base Oturacaq Основание
Right prism Düz prizma Правильная призма
Oblique prism Maili prizma Наклонная призма
Truncated prism Kəsik prizma Усеченная призма
Tetrahedron Üçbucaqlı Треугольная пирамида
piramida(tetraedr) (тетраэдр)
Development of Çoxüzlülərin açılışı Раскрытие
polyhedra многогранников
Visible and invisible Çoxüzlünün görünən və Видимые и невидимые
elements of polyhedron görünməyən elementləri элементы многогранника
Element of cylinder Silindrin doğuranı Образующая цилиндра
Element of cone Konusun doğuranı Образующая конуса
Curvilinear Əyrixətli Криволинейная
Lateral surface Yan səthi Боковая поверхность
Cutting plane Kəsici müstəvi Секущая плоскость
Technical drawings Texniki rəsm Технический рисунок
Working drawing Işçi çertyoj Рабочий чертеж
Detail Detal Деталь
View Görünüş Вид
Part Hissə Часть
Section Kəsim Разрез
Frontal section Frontal kəsim Фронтальный разрез
Horizontal section Horizontal kəsim Горизонтальный разрез
Profile section Profil kəsim Профильный разрез
Inclined section Maili kəsim Наклонный разрез
Simple section Sadə kəsim Простой разрез
Full section Tam kəsim(1/2 kəsim) Полный разрез(1/2)
Local section Yerli kəsim Местный разрез
Complicated section Mürəkkəb kəsim Сложный разрез
Stepped section Pilləli kəsim Ступенчатый разрез
Broken section Sınıq kəsim Ломаный разрез
Axonometry Aksonometriya Аксонометрия
Isometric projection İzometrik proyeksiya Изометрическая проекция
127
Rectangular isometric Düzbucaqlı izometrik Прямоугольная
projection proyeksiya изометрическая проекция
Oblique projection Çəpbucaqlı proyeksiya Косоугольная проекция
Perspective drawing Perspektiv rəsm Перспективное
изображение
The oblique frontal Çəpbucaqlı frontal Косоугольная
dimetric projection dimetrik proyeksiya фронтальная
диметрическая проекция
Distortion coefficient Təhrif əmsalı Коэффициент искажения
Assembly Yığım Сборка
Thread Yiv Резьба
Triangular thread Üçbucaq yiv Треугольная резьба
Acme thread Trapesvari yiv Трапециевидная резьба
Buttress thread Dayaq yivi Упорная резьба
Major diameter Xarici (böyük) diametr Внешний диаметр
Minor diameter Daxili (kiçik) diametr Внутренний диаметр
Pitch Yivin addımı Шаг резьбы
Crest Təpə Вершина
Root Əsas oturacaq Основа
Nut Qayka Гайка
Bolt Bolt Болт
Screw Vint Винт
Tapped hole Ikitərəfli dəlik Сквозное отверстие
Cap screw Bərkidici vint Крепежный винт
Stud Sancaq Шпилька
Self-locking nut Sıxıcı qayka Нажимная гайка
Spring washer Kətan kəndir Проволочная губка
Rivets Ştift Заклепки
Riveted Joints Ştift birləşməsi Заклепочные соединения
Round head rivets Yarımdairəvi başlıqlı Заклёпки с полукруглой
ştiftlər головкой
Single row lap Bircərgəli tikiş Однорядный шов
Double row lap Ikicərgəli tikiş Двухрядный шов
Tolerances Sadələşdirmələr Допуски
Left-hand thread Sol yiv Левая резьба
Right-hand thread Sağ yiv Правая резьба
Inch Düymə Дюйм
Tapered thread Konusvari Коническая резьба
Pipe thread Boru yivi Трубная резьба
Rod Çubuq Стержень
Threaded rod Yivli çubuq Стержень с резьбой
Shaft Val Вал
Key İşgil Шпонка
128
 Keyway İşgil üçün dəlik yeri Отверстие для шпонки
Pulley Qasnaq(blok) Шкив
Gib head key Konik işgil Коническая шпонка
Feather keys(parallel Prizmatik işgil Призматическая шпонка
keys)
Woodruff key Seqmentvari işgil Сегментная шпонка
Hub Oymaq Втулка
Weld qaynaq Сварка
Weld seam Qaynaq tikişi Сварной шов
Butt joint Uc-uca qaynaq Стыковое соединение
birləşməsi
Lap joint Üst-üstə qaynaq Нахлесточное соединение
birləşmə
Т-joint Tavrşəkilli qaynaq Тавровое соединение
birləşməsi
Corner joint Dirsək qaynaq Угловое соединение
birləşməsi
Visible seam Görünən tikiş Видимый шов
Invisible seam Görünməyən tikiş Невидимый шов
Coupling Mufta Муфта
Reducer Ötürücü Переходник
Elbow Bucaqlıq Угольник
Tee Üçboğaz Тройник
Cross Dördboğaz Крестовина

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