Scientific Methods

What is the scientific method?

• The scientific method is a step-by-step approach to answering science questions and solving
problems. It ensures the credibility and reproducibility of experimental evidence.
• The scientific method is used in all sciences—including chemistry, physics, geology, and
psychology. The scientists in these fields ask different questions and perform different tests.
However, they use the same core approach to find answers that are logical and supported
by evidence.

How do scientists learn?

Scientists use three things to learn about the physical and natural world.
They are:
• observation (looking at things)
• research (gathering information)
• experiments (trying things to see what happens)
The Steps of Scientific Method
1. Observation- information obtained primarily
observation through the senses (seeing, hearing, touching,
and so on).
Report 2. Questions- Scientists ask a question about what
Questions
conclusion they see.
3. Background Research- Scientists research to
find the background information already known
about the topic.
Background
Analyze
results
Scientific Research 4. Hypothesis- A hypothesis is a guess based on
information: what some people call “an
Method educated guess.
5. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
6. Test with experiment- Scientists design an
Hypothesis
Test with experiment to the hypothesis.
experiment 7. Analyze results- Scientists look at the results to
see if the hypothesis.
Prediction 8. Report conclusion- Scientists share their
results with other scientists and public.
Scientific method example: Failure to toast
Let's build some intuition for the scientific method by applying its steps to a practical
problem from everyday life.

1. Make an observation.
Let's suppose that you get two slices of bread, put them into the toaster, and press
the button. However, your bread does not toast.

1. Observation: the toaster won't toast.

2. Ask a question.
Why didn't my bread get toasted?

2. Question: Why won't my toaster toast?

3. Propose a hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a potential answer to the question, one that can somehow be tested. For example, our
hypothesis in this case could be that the toast didn't toast because the electrical outlet is broken.

3. Hypothesis: Maybe the outlet is broken.

4. Make predictions.
A prediction is an outcome we'd expect to see if the hypothesis is correct. In this case, we might predict that if
the electrical outlet is broken, then plugging the toaster into a different outlet should fix the problem.

4. Prediction: If I plug the toaster into a different outlet, then it will toast the bread.
 5. Test the predictions.
To test the hypothesis, we need to make an observation or perform an experiment associated with the
prediction. For instance, in this case, we would plug the toaster into a different outlet and see if it toasts.

5. Test of prediction: Plug the toaster into a different outlet and try again.
• If the toaster does toast, then the hypothesis is supported—likely
correct.
• If the toaster doesn't toast, then the hypothesis is not supported—likely
wrong.
Example: Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin

In 1928 Dr Alexander Fleming returned from a holiday to find mould

growing on a Petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria.

1) Observation: He noticed the mould seemed to be preventing

the bacteria around it from growing.
2) Question: Why?
3) Research:
4) Hypothesis: He soon identified that the mould ( Fungus)
produced a self-defence chemical that could kill bacteria.
5) Test Experiments:
6) Analyze results
7) Report Conclusion
How are hypotheses tested?
• When possible, scientists test their hypotheses using controlled experiments.
• A controlled experiment is a scientific test done under controlled conditions, meaning that just one (or a
few) factors are changed at a time, while all others are kept constant.
• A controlled experiment is defined as an experiment in which all the variable factors in an experimental
group and a comparison control group are kept the same except for one variable factor in the
experimental group that is changed or altered.
 Experimental Design
1. Define variables and controls

• Establishing variables and controls is the first step toward designing an experiment:

• Variables
• Variables are things that can vary, or change. Some variables reflect a change over time.
• The temperature at noon is a variable because it varies from day to day, depending on the weather and time
of year. If you collect this data for many years, you can predict the temperature at noon for a particular date.
You would base your prediction on how warm and cold it has been on that same date in the past. When a
measurement changes from subject to subject, it is also a variable.
• Height is a variable because it changes from person to person.
 There are two types of variables:

Independent variables are the ones you start with in an experiment. This variable is independent
because it does not depend on what happens in the experiment. Scientists may apply or change
variables to see what effect they have.
Dependent variables are what you want to learn about by performing your experiment. They are
changes that depend on the independent variables. The dependent variable depends on the
independent variable, and not vice versa.

Control groups
▪ When scientists test medicines, they often use control groups to make sure that they are seeing real
results.
▪ A control group is used for comparison.
2. Create a procedure. A procedure is a step-by-step process for conducting the experiment or study, including specifics
about the data that will be collected and how it will be recorded.

3. List and gather the required materials. Before starting an experiment or study of any sort, the scientist needs to gather
all the supplies needed, including, in some cases, participants for the experiment or study.

4. Conduct the experiment or study. It’s show time! Scientists conduct the experiment or study and record the results.

5. Analyze the data. Analysis can be as simple as looking at the data or it may involve plugging it into a spreadsheet,
rearranging it, using it to create graphs, and so on.

Draw conclusions or not. The results may lead to certain conclusions, may be inconclusive, or may bring up other questions
that need to be answered first. In some cases, the conclusions reveal a problem in the design of the experiment or study or
the way it was performed.
• The results of a test may either
support or contradict—oppose—a
hypothesis.
• Results that support a hypothesis
can't conclusively prove that it's
correct, but they do mean it's likely
to be correct.
• On the other hand, if results
contradict a hypothesis, that
hypothesis is probably not correct.
• Unless there was a flaw in the test—
a possibility we should always
consider—a contradictory result
means that we can discard the
hypothesis and look for a new one.
 Example of Controlled experiment

✓ Suppose I decide to grow bean sprouts in my kitchen, near the window. I put bean seeds in a pot
with soil, set them on the windowsill, and wait for them to sprout.
✓ However, after several weeks, I have no sprouts.
✓ Why not?
✓ Well...it turns out I forgot to water the seeds.
✓ So, I hypothesize that they didn't sprout due to lack of water.
✓ To test my hypothesis, I do a controlled experiment.
✓ In this experiment, I set up two identical pots. Both contain ten bean seeds planted in the same type
of soil, and both are placed in the same window. In fact, there is only one thing that I do differently
to the two pots:
Controlled experiments
What are the key ingredients of a controlled experiment?

Panel 1: Two identical pots are prepared. 10 bean seeds are added to each pot. The pots are placed near the
window.
Panel 2: One pot (experimental group) is watered. The other pot (control group) is not watered. The
independent variable is the amount of water given.
Panel 3: In the experimental (watered) pot, 9/10 seed sprout. In the control (unwatered) pot, 0/10 seeds
sprout. The fraction of seeds that sprout is the dependent variable.
 Exercises
1. A farmer notices that the tomato plants in his field grew more tomatoes than the tomato plants under a tree by the barn. He
also noticed that the tree protected the plants under it from the rain.
QUESTION: Which part of the scientific method is this?
A. Observation
B. Question
C. Hypothesis
D. Analyze results

2. The farmer of the tomato plants wonders, “Do you grow more tomatoes when you give a plant more water?”
QUESTION: Which part of the scientific method is this?
A. Observation
B. Question
C. Hypothesis
D. Analyze results

3. The farmer thinks his tomato plants will grow more fruit if they receive more water.
A. Observation
B. Question
C. Hypothesis
D. Experiment
E. Analyze results
4. The farmer grows two rows of tomatoes. The farmer waters one row with 1 liter of water per plant per week. The farmer waters
the second row with 2 liters of water per plant per week. The farmer does this for one month.
Which part of the scientific method is this?
A. Background research
B. Experiment
C. Hypothesis
D. Report results

5. After one month of watering, the farmer measures the height of the tomato plants in each row. He compares the two rows. He
counts how many tomatoes are growing on each plant, and compares the two rows.
Which part of the scientific method is this?
A. Background research
B. Hypothesis
C. Experiment
D. Analyze results

6. A scientist traveling in Kenya has suffered terribly with nasal allergies for decades. He discovers a group of people who don’t
have any allergies. Most of the people are infected with hookworm. He hypothesizes that hookworms may cure his allergies, so
he introduces the parasite into his system. Which step(s) in the scientific method did he skip?
(A) observation, research, and hypothesis
(B) research and variables and controls
(C) research, hypothesis, variables and controls, and procedure
(D) hypothesis, variables and controls, procedure, and materials
7. Janice is testing two different fertilizers to see which works better. She uses Fertilizer A on the vegetable garden
in her backyard and Fertilizer B on her flower garden in the front of her house. The plants in the vegetable garden
grow three times faster and larger than the plants in her flower garden. She concludes that Fertilizer A is the
better product. What is wrong with the design of Janice’s experiment?
(A) It has no well-defined variables.
(B) She did not propose a hypothesis.
(C) It has no well-defined controls.
(D) Janice forgot to do her research.

8. Patsy Sherman, a chemist at 3M, was working on developing a rubber substance that would not deteriorate
when exposed to jet aircraft fuels. She mistakenly splashed some on her shoe and noticed several weeks later that
the areas on her shoe that had the substance on them looked nearly new, while areas without the substance were
dirty and stained. She assumed the substance must have been responsible for preserving the shoe. To confirm her
suspicions, Patsy needed to conduct
(A) research
(B) experiments
(C) observation
(D) analysis
9. Which statement best describes a hypothesis?

A. The facts collected from an experiment are written in the form of a hypothesis.
B. A hypothesis is the correct answer to a scientific question.
C. A hypothesis is a possible, testable explanation for a scientific question.
D. A hypothesis is the process of making careful observations.

10. How should the control group in this experiment be treated?

A. The control group should have plants growing at normal carbon dioxide level.
B. The control group should have plants growing in different amounts of water.
C. The control group should have plants growing at higher oxygen levels.
D. The control group should have plants growing at different carbon dioxide levels.
 Students in a class recorded their resting pulse rates and their pulse rates immediately after
exercise. The data is shown below. According to the data, the average pulse rate immediately after
exercise was higher than the average resting pulse rate.
Student Tested Resting Pulse Rate Pulse Rate after Exercise
Amrit 70 97
Riya 74 106
Maria 83 120
Levi 60 91
Max 78 122
Group Average 73 107

11. Which procedure would increase the validity of the conclusions from this experiment?
A. Eliminating the data where resting pulse rate is taken
B.

B. Increasing the number of times the activity is repeated

C. Changing the temperature in the room before and after exercise
D. Decreasing the number of students participating in the activity
12. After gathering results and conducting a thorough analysis, a scientist concludes that the results are inconclusive.
Which step should he go back to in the process?
(A) research
(B) hypothesis
(C) procedure
(D) it depends
Alysha wants to test the effect of different materials on the melting rate of ice. She finds the initial mass of four
pieces of ice. She then covers three pieces with either tinfoil, plastic wrap, or paper. The fourth piece is left
uncovered. After 30 minutes, Alysha calculates the final mass of each piece of ice to determine which melted
the fastest.

13. What are the independent and dependent variables in Alysha's experiment?

A. The dependent variable is the time the ice takes to melt, and the independent variable is the type
of cover material.
B The dependent variable is the type of cover material, and the independent variable is the mass of
the ice.
C. The dependent variable is the mass of the ice, and the independent variable is the type of cover
material.
D. The dependent variable is the mass of the ice, and the independent variable is the time the ice
takes to melt.
Read about scientific observation and answer the question below.
Scientists observed unusual plant and algae growth in a pond. They sampled the water and also discovered very
high concentrations of bacteria. Significant increases in the growth of plants, algae, and bacteria in ponds are often
caused by an excess of phosphates and nitrates in the water. The pond was fairly close to neighboring farmland,
and two streams carried water from the farm to the pond.
14. What could be a sound hypothesis about the growth in the pond?
(1) Runoff from the neighboring farm may be carrying excessive phosphates and nitrates from fertilizers into the
pond.
(2) Proximity to farmland is the cause of plant and algae growth in ponds and other bodies of water.
Questions 15 through 18 are based on this passage.
A majority of teenagers develop acne, but scientists still struggle to explain its cause. It has long been thought
that bacteria play a role, although until recently it was assumed that role was purely detrimental—contributing
to acne. However, a team of researchers began to wonder whether different strains of bacteria might impact
acne in different ways. The research team studied 49 individuals with acne and 52 individuals without acne, and
the researchers collected samples of bacteria from the nasal pores of all those individuals. The researchers
found that some combinations of bacterial strains were highly likely to be found in clear-skinned individuals,
while other combinations were highly likely to be found in individuals with acne.
After carefully analyzing their data, the scientists concluded that, while some bacterial combinations likely
contribute to acne, other bacterial combinations may actually help to ward it off. The researchers suggested
that, if further studies confirm these findings, we may want to treat acne by encouraging the growth of helpful
bacteria.
15. Use the boxes below to identify the researchers’ independent and dependent variables.

16. What was the researchers’ hypothesis?

A. Combinations of bacteria are a major cause of acne.
B. Different kinds of bacteria may impact acne differently.
C. We may want to change the way we treat acne, treating it by encouraging the growth of beneficial
bacteria.
D. Some combinations of bacteria may actually help ward off acne.
17. What conclusion did the researchers reach based on their data?
A. Combinations of bacteria are a major cause of acne.
B. Acne sufferers have more types of bacterial strains in their facial pores than do non-sufferers.
C. The way we currently treat acne is misguided.
D. Some combinations of bacteria may actually help ward off acne.

Question 18 is based on the following information.

Suppose that you notice your right knee hurts every time you play softball. You suspect that one of the
movements involved in playing softball is causing your knee to hurt, but you are not sure which movement
is the culprit. You decide to do a scientific investigation to find out more.
4. Match each of the following steps of the scientific method with a phase of your investigation (listed
below the table).
i) You make a list of each of the movements involved in softball. In the off season (when you are not playing entire games),
you plan to perform each movement several times without performing the others.
ii) Based on the data you collected in your experiment, you think it is likely that stopping suddenly after running a short
distance is indeed the cause of your knee pain.
iii) Based on your experience, you make a guess about which of the movements involved in playing softball puts the greatest
stress on the knees. You suspect that it may be stopping suddenly after running a short distance.
iv) After performing each movement in isolation, record how your knee feels. Let your knee recover between tests of each
type of movement.
 What is data?
• Experimental data (singular: datum) are observations made during the experiment Numbers are one kind
of data. But data is more than just numbers. Data is information that is collected, measured, and recorded.
Scientists use data to make conclusions and share results.

Types of data
• The two major types of data are qualitative and quantitative:

Qualitative data is information about a quality. Descriptions of colors, texture, or a process are all qualitative

data. You can put qualitative data into a category. You can categorize data in many ways.

For example, a soccer ball can be categorized as new or used. People might be babies, children, or adults. Test

questions might be in the difficult category or the easy category.

Quantitative data is information about a quantity, or number. The number of soccer balls, the birth weight of

infants, the price of flour, and a score on a test are all quantitative data.
Sampling
▪ A sample is a small quantity of the thing you are measuring.
Random samples
• Random samples help scientists collect accurate data. A random sample means that
each object in the sample has an equal chance of being chosen from the overall set
of objects being studied. For example, a farmer wants to know how many insects are
in his apple orchards.
• He would not have a good sample if he only selected trees near the road. A better
option is to randomly select the trees from all over the orchard
Variability and repetition

• Especially in biology (which studies complex, living things), there is often variation in the material
used for an experiment that the experimenter cannot see.

• Because of this potential for variation, biology experiments need to have a large sample size and,
ideally, be repeated several times.

• Sample size refers to the number of individual items tested in an experiment. Having more samples
and repeating the experiment more times makes it less likely that we will reach a wrong conclusion
because of random variation.

• Biologists and other scientists also use statistical tests to help them distinguish real differences from
differences due to random variation (e.g., when comparing experimental and control groups).
 Showing data
• You can show data in words,
numbers, or using pictures called
diagrams.
• Diagrams showing number data are
called graphs or charts. They make it
easy to see patterns in data and find
information.

Line graphs
• A line graph is good at showing
continuous data. Scientists often use
line graphs to show the results of their
experiments. With a line graph, they
can show the relationship between
variables.
Charts
▪ Charts are a kind of graph. You can use charts to show information in categories. Hair color,
types of fruits, or countries where people were born are variables that are also categories.
▪ Charts are not good for continuous data, like line graphs. They present data that can be
counted in separate chunks.