PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

To study the various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a

cell depends.

NAME: Om Sandip Solanki

CLASS: XII
ROLL NO:

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 CERTIFICATE
Name: Om Sandip Solanki

Roll No.:

Class: XII

School:

This is certified to be the bonafide work of the student in the Biology Laboratory during the
academic year 2023-24.

Teacher in charge Signature:

Examiner’s Signature:

Principal’s Signature:

Date:

School Seal:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me with the
possibility to complete this project. I would like to thank my Physics
teacher___________________, whose valuable guidance has helped me complete this
project. His/her suggestions and instructions have served as a major contributor towards the
completion of the project.

I take this opportunity to thank our head of the institution______________, who was always
supportive and helpful in fulfilling all our academic requirements.

Last but not the least; I would like to thank all my classmates who have helped me to complete
this project.

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 INDEX

Sl. No. Objective Page No.

1 Introduction 5

2 Aim 6

3 Materials Required 6

4 Principle 7

5 Theory 8

6 Application 9

7 Procedure 12

8 Observations 13

9 Result 15

10 Precautions 15

11 Sources of error 15

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 INTRODUCTION
In the field of physics, the internal resistance and electromotive force (EMF) of a cell are
critical parameters that determine the cell’s performance. The internal resistance of a cell
refers to the resistance offered by the cell to the flow of current within it, while the EMF is the
potential difference between the two electrodes of the cell when it is not connected to any
external circuit.

The aim of this physics investigatory project is to study the various factors that influence the
internal resistance and EMF of a cell. Understanding these factors is crucial for optimizing the
performance of a cell and designing efficient circuits.

The performance of a cell is affected by several factors, including the separation between the
electrodes, temperature, surface area of electrodes, and the concentration of electrolyte used.

In this project, we will investigate the effects of each of these factors on the internal resistance
and EMF of a cell. We will conduct experiments to measure the performance of different cells
under varying conditions, and analyze the data to draw conclusions about the relationship
between these factors and the performance of the cell. The findings of this project will have
practical implications for the design and optimization of circuits that utilize cells.

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 AIM
 To study the various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a cell depends.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

● Potentiometer
● Two one-way keys
● Battery
● Rheostat
● Galvanometer
● Ammeter
● Resistance box
● Jockey
● Set square
● Connecting wires
● Sand paper

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 PRINCIPLE
It works on the principle that when a constant current flows through a wire of uniform cross-
sectional area, potential difference between its two points is directly proportional to the
length of the wire between the two points.

Relation between e.m.f, potential difference, and internal resistance of a cell

If a cell of emf E and internal resistance r, connected to an external resistance R, then the
circuit has the total resistance (R+r). The current I in the circuit is given by,

or

Hence,

This means, V is less than E by an amount equal to the fall of potential inside the cell due to its
internal resistance.

From the above equation,

Or; The internal resistance of the cell,

THEORY

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Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current offered by the cells and
batteries themselves resulting in the generation of heat. Internal resistance is measured in
Ohms. The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by its electrolyte to the low of
ions. Electrical resistivity is a fundamental property of a material that measures how strongly it
resists electric current.

The internal resistance of a cell

● is directly proportional to the distance between the electrodes.
● is inversely proportional to the surface area of the electrodes in electrolyte.
● decreases with increase in temperature of electrolyte.
● is inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte.

The internal resistance of a cell is given by:

Relationship between internal resistance (r) and emf (e) of cells given by.

Where, e = EMF i.e. electromotive force (Volts), I = current (A), R = Load resistance, and r is the
internal resistance of a cell measured in ohms.

On rearranging the above equation we get;

APPLICATION
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Measurement of EMF is helpful in-

a.) Determination of equilibrium constant:

Equilibirum constant for an reaction can be determined from the value of cell potential by
employing the following relation

b.) Determination of solubility of sparingly soluble salt:

The Mathematical relation is given by

c.) Determination of valence:

The expression for the E.M.F of E, of a concentration cell

Where n is the valency of the metallic ion in the solution, while C1 and C2 are the
concentrations of the ions in the two half cells.

d.) Determination of thermodynamic function:

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Free energy:

Where n is the number of moles of electrons transferred and is equal to the valence ion
participating in the cell reaction.
F stands for Faraday and is equal to 96,500 coulombs.
E is the emf of the cell.

Enthalpy:

e.) Determination of pH of a solution:

A half-cell is set up with the test solution as electrolyte. The emf of the cell depends on the
concentration of H+ ions or the pH of the solution. The emf of the half-cell in determined by
coupling it with another standard half-cell and measuring the emf of the complete cell.

The commonly used standard electrodes are:

i. The hydrogen electrode
ii. The quinhydrone electrode
iii. The glass electrode

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By measuring the potential difference, hydrogen ion concentration can be calculated using
Nernst equation which gives the relationship between Hydrogen ion concentration and
Voltage or Potential.

f.) Potentiometric Titration:

Definition—A potentiometric titration is the one in which the equivalence point is detected by
measuring the changes in potential of suitable electrode during the course of reaction.

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 Procedure
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper, and make connections
according to the above circuit diagram.
2. Tighten plugs of the resistance box
3. Check the e.m.f of the battery and cell - make sure the e.m.f of the battery is more than
that of the cell, otherwise the null (balance) point will not be maintained.

To study variation of internal resistance with distance of separation:

1. Keep both electrodes at a distance of 16cm
2. Take maximum current from the battery, making the rheostat resistance small.
3. Without inserting plug in key 2, adjust the rheostat so that a balance point is obtained
on the last wire of the potentiometer.
4. Now determine the position of this null point, accurately using a set square, and
measure the balancing length between the point and end P.
5. Bring in plugs in both keys K1 and K2 ; at the same time take out resistance of about 1-
5W from the shunt resistance box connected in parallel with the cell.
6. Next, slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire to acquire the null point.
7. From this measure the balancing length, l2, from the point P. Record all these
observations.
8. Now, space the electrodes so that they’re 12 cm apart, remove the plugs of keys K1 and
K2, wait for some time and repeat steps 4-7.
9. Once again, keep the electrodes 9 cm apart and repeat the above-mentioned steps to
obtain another set of observations.

To study variation of internal resistance with area of electrodes:

1. As all factors are kept constant, increase the area of electrodes in the electrolyte by
dipping them at different depths into the electrolyte for each observation made.
2. Repeat steps 4-7 to obtain three such observations.

To study variation of internal resistance with concentration of electrolyte:

1. Keeping all other factors constant again, reduce the concentration of electrolyte by
adding varied amounts of distilled water for different observations.
2. Repeat each step to obtain three such observations.

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 Observations
S.No. Ammeter Position of null point Shunt Internal
Table forReading
effect of separation between electrodes Resistance Resistance
(A) With R (L1) Without R (L2) R Internal r
S.No. Separations Balancing Balancing rld
between point l1 point l2 (cm) resistance
electrodes d r
1. (cm)
(cm)
1.

2.

2.
3.

3.

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Table for effect of temperature

Temperature L1 (cm) L2 (cm) Internal Tr

Resistance
T (degrees C) Resistance
R
S.No. r

1.

2.

3.

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 Result
1.Internal resistance of a cell increases with increase in distance between the electrodes.

2. Internal resistance increases with decrease in the common area of electrodes immersed in
the electrolyte.

3. Internal resistance increases with decrease in concentration of the electrolyte

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 Precautions

1. The connection should be neat, clean and tight

2. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations are to be taken.
3. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the wire gently.
4. The ammeter readings should remain constant for a particular set of observations .

Sources of Error
1. The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.
2. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and material density
throughout its length.
3. End resistances may not be zero.

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