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Biology Test

Overview
The GRE ® Biology Test will be discontinued after the April 2021
administration. Scores on the test will continue to be reportable for five
years per GRE ® score reporting policy.

The test consists of approximately 188 five-choice questions, a number of which are
grouped in sets toward the end of the test and are based on descriptions of laboratory
and field situations, diagrams or experimental results.
The content of the test is organized into three major areas: cellular and molecular
biology, organismal biology, and ecology and evolution. In addition to the total score, a
subscore in each of these subfield areas is reported.

Content Specifications
The approximate distribution of questions by content category is shown below.

I. CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (33–34%)

Fundamentals of cellular biology, genetics and molecular biology are addressed. Major topics
in cellular structure and function include prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, metabolic pathways
and their regulation, membrane dynamics and cell surfaces, organelles, cytoskeleton, and cell
cycle. Major areas in genetics and molecular biology include viruses, chromatin and
chromosomal structure, genomic organization and maintenance, and the regulation of gene
expression. The cellular basis of immunity and the mechanisms of antigen-antibody
interactions are included. Attention is also given to experimental methodology.

A. Cellular Structure and Function (16–17%)

1. Biological compounds
Macromolecular structure and bonding
Abiotic origin of biological molecules
 2. Enzyme activity, receptor binding, and regulation
3. Major metabolic pathways and regulation
Respiration, fermentation, and photosynthesis
Synthesis and degradation of macromolecules
Hormonal control and intracellular messengers

4. Membrane dynamics and cell surfaces

Transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis
Electrical potentials and transmitter substances
Mechanisms of cell recognition, intercellular transport and communication
Cell wall and extracellular matrix

5. Organelles: structure, function, synthesis, and targeting

Nucleus, mitochondria, and plastids
Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes
Golgi apparatus and secretory vesicles
Lysosomes, peroxisomes, and vacuoles

6. Cytoskeleton: motility and shape

Actin-based systems
Microtubule-based systems
Intermediate filaments
Bacterial flagella and movement

7. Cell cycle: growth, division, and regulation (including signal transduction)

8. Methods
Microscopy (e.g., electron, light, fluorescence)
Separation (e.g., centrifugation, gel filtration, PAGE, fluorescence-activated cell
sorting [FACS])
Immunological (e.g., Western Blotting, immunohistochemistry,
immunofluorescence)

B. Genetics and Molecular Biology (16–17%)

1. Genetic foundations
Mendelian inheritance
Pedigree analysis
Prokaryotic genetics (transformation, transduction and conjugation)
 Genetic mapping

2. Chromatin and chromosomes

Nucleosomes
Karyotypes
Chromosomal aberrations
Polytene chromosomes

3. Genome sequence organization

Introns and exons
Single-copy and repetitive DNA
Transposable elements

4. Genome maintenance
DNA replication
DNA mutation and repair

5. Gene expression and regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes: mechanisms

The operon
Promoters and enhancers
Transcription factors
RNA and protein synthesis
Processing and modifications of both RNA and protein

6. Gene expression and regulation: effects

Control of normal development
Cancer and oncogenes
Whole genome expression (e.g., microarrays)
Regulation of gene expression by RNAi (e.g., siRNA)
Epigenetics

7. Immunobiology
Cellular basis of immunity
Antibody diversity and synthesis
Antigen-antibody interactions

8. Bacteriophages, animal viruses, and plant viruses

Viral genomes, replication, and assembly
 Virus-host cell interactions

9. Recombinant DNA methodology

Restriction endonucleases
Blotting and hybridization
Restriction fragment length polymorphisms
DNA cloning, sequencing, and analysis
Polymerase chain reaction

II. ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY (33–34%)

The structure, physiology, behavior and development of organisms are addressed. Topics
covered include nutrient procurement and processing, gas exchange, internal transport,
regulation of fluids, control mechanisms and effectors, and reproduction in autotrophic and
heterotrophic organisms. Examples of developmental phenomena range from fertilization
through differentiation and morphogenesis. Responses to environmental stimuli are
examined as they pertain to organisms. Major distinguishing characteristics and phylogenetic
relationships of organisms are also covered.

A. Animal Structure, Function and Organization (10%)

1. Exchange with environment
Nutrient, salt, and water exchange
Gas exchange
Energy

2. Internal transport and exchange

Circulatory, respiratory, excretory, and digestive systems

3. Support and movement

Support systems (external, internal, and hydrostatic)
Movement systems (flagellar, ciliary, and muscular)

4. Integration and control mechanisms

Nervous and endocrine systems

5. Behavior (communication, orientation, learning, and instinct)

6. Metabolic rates (temperature, body size, and activity)

B. Animal Reproduction and Development (6%)

1. Reproductive structures
2. Meiosis, gametogenesis, and fertilization
 3. Early development (e.g., polarity, cleavage, and gastrulation)
4. Developmental processes (e.g., induction, determination,
differentiation, morphogenesis, and metamorphosis)
5. External control mechanisms (e.g., photoperiod)

C. Plant Structure, Function, and Organization, with Emphasis on Flowering Plants (7%)
1. Organs, tissue systems, and tissues
2. Water transport, including absorption and transpiration
3. Phloem transport and storage
4. Mineral nutrition
5. Plant energetics (e.g., respiration and photosynthesis)

D. Plant Reproduction, Growth, and Development, with Emphasis on Flowering Plants (5%)
1. Reproductive structures
2. Meiosis and sporogenesis
3. Gametogenesis and fertilization
4. Embryogeny and seed development
5. Meristems, growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation
6. Control mechanisms (e.g., hormones, photoperiod, and tropisms)

E. Diversity of Life (6%)

1. Archaea
Morphology, physiology, and identification

2. Bacteria
Morphology, physiology, pathology, and identification

3. Protista
Protozoa, other heterotrophic Protista (slime molds and Oomycota), and
autotrophic Protista
Major distinguishing characteristics
Phylogenetic relationships
Importance (e.g., eutrophication, disease)

4. Fungi
Distinctive features of major phyla (vegetative, asexual and sexual
reproduction)
Generalized life cycles
 Importance (e.g., decomposition, biodegradation, antibiotics, and
pathogenicity)
Lichens

5. Animalia with emphasis on major phyla

Major distinguishing characteristics
Phylogenetic relationships

6. Plantae with emphasis on major phyla

Alternation of generations
Major distinguishing characteristics
Phylogenetic relationships

III. ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION (33–34%)

The interactions of organisms and their environment, emphasizing biological principles at

levels above the individual are addressed. Ecological topics range from physiological
adaptations to the functioning of ecosystems. Although principles are emphasized, some
questions may consider applications to current environmental problems. Topics in evolution
range from genetic foundations through evolutionary processes and to their consequences.
Evolution is considered at the molecular, individual, population and higher levels. Some
quantitative skills, including the interpretation of simple mathematical models, may be
required.

A. Ecology (16–17%)
1. Environment/organism interaction
Biogeographic patterns
Physiological ecology
Temporal patterns (e.g., seasonal fluctuations)

2. Behavioral ecology
Habitat selection
Mating systems
Social systems
Resource acquisition

3. Population ecology
Population dynamics/regulation
Demography and life history strategies

4. Community ecology
 Direct and indirect interspecific interactions
Community structure and diversity
Change and succession

5. Ecosystems
Productivity and energy flow
Chemical cycling

B. Evolution (16–17%)
1. Genetic variability
Origins (mutations, linkage, recombination, and chromosomal alterations)
Levels (e.g., polymorphism and heritability)
Spatial patterns (e.g., clines and ecotypes)
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

2. Macroevolutionary and microevolutionary processes

Gene flow and genetic drift
Natural selection and its dynamics
Levels of selection (e.g., individual and group)
Trade-offs and genetic correlations
Natural selection and genome evolution
Synonymous vs. nonsynonymous nucleotide ratios

3. Evolutionary consequences
Fitness and adaptation
Speciation
Systematics and phylogeny
Convergence, divergence, and extinction
Coevolution

4. History of life
Origin of life
Fossil record
Paleontology and paleoecology
Lateral transfer of genetic sequences

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