RADIATION SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Radiation is the emission of energy from matter in the form of rays or high-speed particles. Broadly, it can be
thought of as either electromagnetic radiation (like radio waves or visible light) or particle radiation (like alpha
particles or beta particles).

Radiation Sensors or Radiation Detectors are devices that can sense and measure radiation. The radiation sensors
discussed here are mostly based on the photoelectric effect. The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a
material when electromagnetic radiation, such as a photon of visible light, falls on them is called the photoelectric
effect.

Thermal detector is based on temperature change of the measured object through the absorption of electromagnetic
radiation (temperature elevation or depression). The change in temperature causes a change in a temperature-
dependent property of the thermal detector, which is evaluated electrically and is a measure of the absorbed energy.

PHOTON DETECTORS.
Photodetection converts an optical signal into a signal of another form. Most photodetectors convert optical signals
into electrical signals that can be further processed or stored. All photodetectors are square-law detectors that
respond to the power or intensity, rather than the field amplitude, of an optical signal. The electrical signal generated
by an optical signal is either a photocurrent or a photovoltage that is proportional to the power of the optical signal.
Based on the difference in the conversion mechanisms, there are two classes of photodetectors: photon
detectors and thermal detectors. Photon detectors are quantum detectors based on the photoelectric effect, which
converts a photon into an emitted electron or an electron–hole pair; a photon detector responds to the number of
photons absorbed by the detector. Thermal detectors are based on the photothermal effect, which converts optical
energy into heat; a thermal detector responds to the optical energy, rather than the number of photons, absorbed by
the detector. Because of this fundamental difference, the general characteristics of these two classes of
photodetectors have a number of important differences.
The response of a photon detector is a function of the optical wavelength with a long-wavelength cut off, whereas
that of a thermal detector is wavelength independent. A photon detector can be much more responsive than a
thermal detector in a particular spectral region, which typically falls somewhere within the range from the near
ultraviolet to the near infrared. By comparison, a thermal detector normally covers a wide spectral range from the
deep ultraviolet to the far infrared with a nearly constant response. Photon detectors can be made extremely
sensitive. Some of them have a photon-counting capability that is not possible for a thermal detector. A photon
detector can be designed to have a high response speed capable of following very fast optical signals. Most thermal
detectors are relatively slow in response because the speed of a thermal detector is limited by thermalization through
heat diffusion and by heat dissipation when the power of an optical signal varies. For these reasons, photon
detectors are suitable for detecting optical signals in photonic systems, whereas thermal detectors are most often
used for optical power measurement or infrared imaging. In this chapter, only the basic principles of photon
detectors are discussed because our major concern is photodetection for photonics applications.

THERMOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
Two dissimilar metal conductors when joined at the ends and the two junctions kept at different
temperatures, then a small e.m.f. is produced in the circuit. The magnitude of this voltage depends
upon the materials of conductors and the temperature difference between the two functions. This
thermoelectric effect is used in thermocouples for the measurement of temperature. Any number of
combination of metals may be used. Two commonly employed combinations are:
1. Iron and constantan (an alloy of copper and nickel).
2. Chromel (an alloy of chromium and nickel) and alumel (an alloy of aluminium and nickel).

PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
Principle of Operation
The photoelectric transducers operate on the principle that when light strikes special of
materials then following may result:
 I. Electrons may flow.
II. A voltage may be generated.
III. A resistance change may take place.

Applications
These transducers find the following fields of application:
l. Control engineering
2. Precision measuring devices.
3. meters used in photography.
4. Solar batteries as sources of electric power for rockets and television, counting machines etc.
5. Satellites used in space research.
Classification
Photoelectric transducers may be grouped as follows:
1. Photoemissivc cell,
2. Photovoltaic cell.
3. Photoconductive cell.
Photoemissive Cell
This cell is also known as photo tube. It is based on the emission of electrons from a metal cathode (or
photo-sensitive surface) when it is exposed to light or other radiation.
Refer to Fig. 2.27. It consists of two metallic electrodes (i.e., a cathode and an anode) supported in an
evacuated glass bulb fitted with a base like a thermionic valve. The cathode is ei ther semi-cylindrical or V-shaped
and is made of a metal coated with an emissive material. The anode is in the form of a thin wire facing the cathode.
When the light falls on the cathode photo-electrons are emitted which are attracted by the positive
anode. Subsequently current is produced whose magnitude (for a given cathode) depends on (i) intensity of
incident radiation and (ii) anode cathode voltage.
Photo-emissive cell finds use in: (i) field of photometry and calorimetry, (ii) sound reproduction from a
motor-picture film, (iii) on and off circuits and other circuits concerning the counting or sorting of
objects on a conveyor belt, automatic opening of a door etc.

Cathode

Fig. 2.27.
Photoemissive
cell.
 Photovoltaic Cell
In this cell sensitive element is a semiconductor (not metal) which generates voltage in proportion to the
light or any radiant energy incident on it. The most commonly used photovoltaic cells ate barrier layer type
like iron-selenium cells or Cu-Cu02 cells.

Fig. 2.28. Photovoltaic cell.

Fig. 2.28 shows a typical widely used photovoltaic cell—"Selenium cell" It consists of a metal electrode
on which a layer of selenium is deposited; on the top of this a barrier layer is formed which is coated with a very
thin layer of gold. The latter serves as a translucent electrode through which light can impinge on the layer
below. Under the influence of this light, a negative charge will build up on the gold electrode and a positive
charge on the bottom electrode.
photovoltaic cells are widely used in the following fields:
i) Automatic control systems.
(ii) Television circuits.
(iii) Sound motion picture and reproducing equipment.

2.13.6. Photoconductive Cell

"Photoconductive" cell uses a semiconductor material whose resistance changes in accordance with the
radiant energy received. The resistivity of semiconductor materials like selenium, cadmium sulphide, lead
sulphide and thalmium sulphide is decreased when irradiated.
Fig. 2.29 shows the simplest for radiations of such a cell
using selenium. There are two electrodes provided with the
semiconductor material attached to them. As soon as the cell
is illuminated its resistance decreases and current through the
circuit becomes large. The shape of the semiconductor
material is so made as to obtain a large ratio of 'dark to light'
resistance.
A cadmium sulphide cell has two electrodes which are
extended in an inter-digital pattern in order to increase the contact
area with the sensitive material. It has high 'dark to light' ratio.
Fig. 2.29. Photoconductive cell.
Photoconductive cells are generally used for detecting ships
and aircrafts by the radiations given out by their exhausts or
(funnels) and for telephony by modulated infrared lights.
 Photoelectric Tachometer
Fig. 2.30 shows a photoelectric tachometer.
Light
sensor
Light source

Fig. 2.30. Photoelectric tachometer

• It consists of an opaque mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured. The disc has a number of equivalent
holes around the periphery. On one Side of the disc there is a source of light (L) while on the other side there is a
light sensor (maybe a photosensitive device or phototube) in line with it (light-source).
 On the rotation of the disc, holes and opaque portions of the disc come alternatory in the light source and
the light sensor. When a hole comes in between the two light passes through the holes and falls on the light
sensor, with the result that an output pulse is generated. But the opaque portion of the disc comes in the
light the source is blocked and hence there is no pulse output. in light and sensor, a pulse is generated.
These pulses are counted /measured through an electric counter.
The number of pulses generated depends upon the following factors:
i) The number of holes in the disc;
ii) The shaft speed.
Since the number of holes are fixed, therefore, the number of pulses generated depends on the
Speed of the shaft only. The electronic counter may therefore be calibrated in terms of speed (rpm).
Advantages: It is a digital instrument.
 Disadvantages. It is required to replace the light source periodically and if the grating period is small then
errors might creep in the output