UNIT – 1

Basic Circuit Concepts

In modern life, circuits are everywhere. Without circuits, you wouldn't have indoor
lights. Without circuits, you wouldn't have the computer you're using to watch this lesson.
Without circuits, you wouldn't have anything that is powered by electricity.
A circuit is a series of electrical components or devices connected together in a
complete loop, allowing electric current in the form of charged electrons to flow through it
and power the components.
There are practically an unlimited number of types of components that could go into a
circuit, including batteries, bulbs, resistors, inductors, switches, capacitors, buzzers, diodes,
temperature controls called thermistors, light sensors, and many others.

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
The most commonly encountered linear one-ports are the
Inductor of inductance L,
Resistor of resistance R &
Capacitor of capacitance C;
Their schematic representations are shown in Figure below.

One-port elements-- (a) an inductor of inductance , (b) a resistor of resistance R &

(c) a capacitor of capacitance C.

The equations relating voltage and current in the three one-ports, as well as their associated
impedances are as follows:

Inductor (2.6)

Resistor (2.7)

Capacitor (2.8)

Each of these circuit elements is passive as long as its element value (L, C or R) is positive;
the inductor and capacitor are easily shown to be lossless as well. The inductor and capacitor
are examples of reactive circuits elements--all power instantaneously absorbed by either one
will be stored and eventually be returned to the network to which it is connected. The resistor
is passive, but not lossless.

In addition to the one-ports mentioned above, we can also define the short - circuit, open-
circuit, current source and voltage source (see Figure below) by:
 Short-circuit
Open-circuit
Voltage source

Current source

Other one-ports-- (a) short-circuit, (b) open-circuit, (c) voltage source and (d) current source.
Dots adjacent to the sources indicate polarity.
The impedances of the short- and open-circuit one-ports are zero and infinity, respectively.
Both are lossless.

Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the current and potential difference
(commonly known as voltage) in the lumped element model of electrical circuits.
Kirchhoff’s First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction
or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to
leave, as no charge is lost within the node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the
currents entering and leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by
Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Here, the 3 currents entering the node, I1, I2 and I3 are all positive in value and the 2 currents
leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the
equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or
more current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to
flow either in or out of a node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s
current law when analysing parallel circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the
voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is
important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final
voltage sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analysing
series circuits.
When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws a number of
definitions and terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being analysed such
as: node, paths, branches, loops and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit
analysis so it is important to understand them.

R, C, and L Elements and their V and I relationships

We deal with three essential elements in circuit analysis:

• Resistance R
• Capacitance C
• Inductance L
Their V and I relationships are summarized below.
Resistance is a static element in the sense V (t) versus I (t) relationship is instantaneous. For
example, V (t) at time t = 2 seconds simply depends only on I (t) at t = 2 seconds and nothing
else. This implies that the resistance does not know what happened in the past, in other words
it does not store any energy unlike other elements C and L as we see soon.

Unlike in the case of resistance, for a capacitance the V (t) versus I (t) relationship and vice
versa at any time t depends on the past as they involve diff erentials and integrals. This
implies that the capacitance is a dynamic element. What happened in the past influences the
present behaviour. As we shall see soon, capacitance stores energy.

Once again, unlike in the case of resistance, for an inductance the V (t) versus I (t)
relationship and vice versa at any time t depends on the past as they involve diff erentials and
integrals. This implies that the inductance is a dynamic element. What happened in the past
influences the present behaviour. As we shall see soon, inductance stores energy

Independent and Dependent Sources

There are two principal types of source, namely voltage source and current source. Sources
can be either independent or dependent upon some other quantities.
An independent voltage source maintains a voltage (fixed or varying with time) which is not
affected by any other quantity. Similarly an independent current source maintains a current
(fixed or time-varying) which is unaffected by any other quantity. The usual symbols are
shown in figure.

Figure: Symbols for independent sources

Some voltage (current) sources have their voltage (current) values varying with some other
variables. They are called dependent voltage (current) sources or controlled voltage
(current) sources, and their usual symbols are shown in figure below.
Remarks - It is not possible to force an independent voltage source to take up a voltage which
is different from its defined value. Likewise, it is not possible to force an independent current
source to take up a current which is different from its defined value. Two particular examples
are short-circuiting an independent voltage source and open-circuiting an independent current
source. Both are not permitted.

Figure: Symbols for dependent sources. Variables in brackets are the controlling variables
whose values affect the value of the source.

Simple Resistive Circuits

 Resistors in Series
 Resistors in Parallel
 The Voltage-Divider and Current-Divider Circuits
 Voltage Division and Current Division
 Measuring Voltage and Current

Resistors in Series
Resistors in Parallel
The Voltage-Divider
Current-Divider Circuits
Mesh Current Method
The Mesh Current Method, also known as the Loop Current Method, is quite similar
to the Branch Current method in that it uses simultaneous equations, Kirchhoff’s Voltage
Law, and Ohm’s Law to determine unknown currents in a network. It differs from the Branch
Current method in that it does not use Kirchhoff’s Current Law, and it is usually able to solve
a circuit with less unknown variables and less simultaneous equations, which is especially
nice if you’re forced to solve without a calculator.
Mesh Current, conventional method
Let’s see how this method works on the same example problem:

The first step in the Mesh Current method is to identify “loops” within the circuit
encompassing all components. In our example circuit, the loop formed by B1, R1, and R2
will be the first while the loop formed by B2, R2, and R3 will be the second. The strangest
part of the Mesh Current method is envisioning circulating currents in each of the loops. In
fact, this method gets its name from the idea of these currents meshing together between
loops like sets of spinning gears:
 The choice of each current’s direction is entirely arbitrary, just as in the Branch
Current method, but the resulting equations are easier to solve if the currents are going the
same direction through intersecting components (note how currents I1 and I2 are both going
“up” through resistor R2, where they “mesh,” or intersect). If the assumed direction of a mesh
current is wrong, the answer for that current will have a negative value.
The next step is to label all voltage drop polarities across resistors according to the
assumed directions of the mesh currents. Remember that the “upstream” end of a resistor will
always be negative, and the “downstream” end of a resistor positive with respect to each
other, since electrons are negatively charged. The battery polarities, of course, are dictated by
their symbol orientations in the diagram, and may or may not “agree” with the resistor
polarities (assumed current directions):

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we can now step around each of these loops,
generating equations representative of the component voltage drops and polarities. As with
the Branch Current method, we will denote a resistor’s voltage drop as the product of the
resistance (in ohms) and its respective mesh current (that quantity being unknown at this
point). Where two currents mesh together, we will write that term in the equation with
resistor current being the sum of the two meshing currents.
Tracing the left loop of the circuit, starting from the upper-left corner and moving
counter-clockwise (the choice of starting points and directions is ultimately irrelevant),
counting polarity as if we had a voltmeter in hand, red lead on the point ahead and black lead
on the point behind, we get this equation:

Notice that the middle term of the equation uses the sum of mesh currents I1 and I2 as
the current through resistor R2. This is because mesh currents I1 and I2 are going the same
direction through R2, and thus complement each other. Distributing the coefficient of 2 to the
I1 and I2 terms, and then combining I1 terms in the equation, we can simplify as such:

At this time we have one equation with two unknowns. To be able to solve for two unknown
mesh currents, we must have two equations. If we trace the other loop of the circuit, we can
obtain another KVL equation and have enough data to solve for the two currents. Creature of
habit that I am, I’ll start at the upper-left hand corner of the right loop and trace counter-
clockwise:
Simplifying the equation as before, we end up with:

Now, with two equations, we can use one of several methods to mathematically solve for the
unknown currents I1 and I2:

Knowing that these solutions are values for mesh currents, not branch currents, we must go
back to our diagram to see how they fit together to give currents through all components:

The solution of -1 amp for I2 means that our initially assumed direction of current was
incorrect. In actuality, I2 is flowing in a counter-clockwise direction at a value of (positive) 1
amp:

This change of current direction from what was first assumed will alter the polarity of the
voltage drops across R2 and R3 due to current I2. From here, we can say that the current
through R1 is 5 amps, with the voltage drop across R1 being the product of current and
resistance (E=IR), 20 volts (positive on the left and negative on the right). Also, we can
safely say that the current through R3 is 1 amp, with a voltage drop of 1 volt (E=IR), positive
on the left and negative on the right. But what is happening at R2?
Mesh current I1 is going “up” through R2, while mesh current I2 is going “down” through
R2. To determine the actual current through R2, we must see how mesh currents I1 and I2
interact (in this case they’re in opposition), and algebraically add them to arrive at a final
value. Since I1 is going “up” at 5 amps, and I2 is going “down” at 1 amp, the real current
through R2 must be a value of 4 amps, going “up:”

A current of 4 amps through R2‘s resistance of 2 Ω gives us a voltage drop of 8 volts (E=IR),
positive on the top and negative on the bottom.
The primary advantage of Mesh Current analysis is that it generally allows for the solution of
a large network with fewer unknown values and fewer simultaneous equations. Our example
problem took three equations to solve the Branch Current method and only two equations
using the Mesh Current method. This advantage is much greater as networks increase in
complexity:

To solve this network using Branch Currents, we’d have to establish five variables to account
for each and every unique current in the circuit (I1 through I5). This would require five
equations for solution, in the form of two KCL equations and three KVL equations (two
equations for KCL at the nodes, and three equations for KVL in each loop):
I suppose if you have nothing better to do with your time than to solve for five unknown
variables with five equations, you might not mind using the Branch Current method of
analysis for this circuit. For those of us who have better things to do with our time, the Mesh
Current method is a whole lot easier, requiring only three unknowns and three equations to
solve:

Less equations to work with is a decided advantage, especially when performing

simultaneous equation solution by hand (without a calculator).
Another type of circuit that lends itself well to Mesh Current is the unbalanced Wheatstone
Bridge. Take this circuit, for example:

The directions of these mesh currents, of course, is arbitrary. However, two mesh currents
is not enough in this circuit, because neither I1 nor I2 goes through the battery. So, we must
add a third mesh current, I3:
Here, I have chosen I3 to loop from the bottom side of the battery, through R4, through R1,
and back to the top side of the battery. This is not the only path I could have chosen for I3,
but it seems the simplest.
Now, we must label the resistor voltage drop polarities, following each of the assumed
currents’ directions:

Notice something very important here: at resistor R4, the polarities for the respective mesh
currents do not agree. This is because those mesh currents (I2 and I3) are going through
R4 in different directions. This does not preclude the use of the Mesh Current method of
analysis, but it does complicate it a bit. Though later, we will show how to avoid the
R4 current clash. (See Example below)
Generating a KVL equation for the top loop of the bridge, starting from the top node and
tracing in a clockwise direction:
In this equation, we represent the common directions of currents by their sums through
common resistors. For example, resistor R3, with a value of 100 Ω, has its voltage drop
represented in the above KVL equation by the expression 100(I1 + I2), since both currents
I1 and I2 go through R3 from right to left. The same may be said for resistor R1, with its
voltage drop expression shown as 150(I1 + I3), since both I1 and I3 go from bottom to top
through that resistor, and thus work together to generate its voltage drop.
Generating a KVL equation for the bottom loop of the bridge will not be so easy, since we
have two currents going against each other through resistor R4. Here is how I do it (starting
at the right-hand node, and tracing counter-clockwise):

Note how the second term in the equation’s original form has resistor R4‘s value of 300 Ω
multiplied by the difference between I2 and I3 (I2 - I3). This is how we represent the
combined effect of two mesh currents going in opposite directions through the same
component. Choosing the appropriate mathematical signs is very important here: 300(I2 -
I3) does not mean the same thing as 300(I3 - I2). I chose to write 300(I2 - I3) because I was
thinking first of I2‘s effect (creating a positive voltage drop, measuring with an imaginary
voltmeter across R4, red lead on the bottom and black lead on the top), and secondarily of
I3‘s effect (creating a negative voltage drop, red lead on the bottom and black lead on the
top). If I had thought in terms of I3‘s effect first and I2‘s effect secondarily, holding my
imaginary voltmeter leads in the same positions (red on bottom and black on top), the
expression would have been -300(I3 - I2). Note that this expression is mathematically
equivalent to the first one: +300(I2 - I3).
Well, that takes care of two equations, but I still need a third equation to complete my
simultaneous equation set of three variables, three equations. This third equation must also
include the battery’s voltage, which up to this point does not appear in either two of the
previous KVL equations. To generate this equation, I will trace a loop again with my
imaginary voltmeter starting from the battery’s bottom (negative) terminal, stepping
clockwise (again, the direction in which I step is arbitrary, and does not need to be the
same as the direction of the mesh current in that loop):
Solving for I1, I2, and I3 using whatever simultaneous equation method we prefer:

Node Voltage Method

The node voltage method of analysis solves for unknown voltages at circuit nodes in terms of
a system of KCL equations. This analysis looks strange because it involves replacing voltage
sources with equivalent current sources. Also, resistor values in ohms are replaced by
equivalent conductance in Siemens, G = 1/R. The Siemens (S) is the unit of conductance,
having replaced the mho unit. In any event S = Ω-1. And S = mho (obsolete).
We start with a circuit having conventional voltage sources. A common node E0 is chosen
as a reference point. The node voltages E1 and E2 are calculated with respect to this point.

A voltage source in series with a resistance must be replaced by an equivalent current

source in parallel with the resistance. We will write KCL equations for each node. The
right hand side of the equation is the value of the current source feeding the node.
Replacing voltage sources and associated series resistors with equivalent current sources
and parallel resistors yields the modified circuit. Substitute resistor conductances in
siemens for resistance in ohms.

The parallel conductances (resistors) may be combined by addition of the conductances.

Though, we will not redraw the circuit. The circuit is ready for application of the node
voltage method.
Deriving a general node voltage method, we write a pair of KCL equations in terms of
unknown node voltages V1 and V2 this one time. We do this to illustrate a pattern for writing
equations by inspection.
The coefficients of the last pair of equations above have been rearranged to show a pattern.
The sum of conductances connected to the first node is the positive coefficient of the first
voltage in equation (1). The sum of conductances connected to the second node is the positive
coefficient of the second voltage in equation (2). The other coefficients are negative,
representing conductances between nodes. For both equations, the right hand side is equal to
the respective current source connected to the node. This pattern allows us to quickly write
the equations by inspection. This leads to a set of rules for the node voltage method of
analysis.

Node voltage rules:

Convert voltage sources in series with a resistor to an equivalent current source with the
resistor in parallel.
Change resistor values to conductances.
Select a reference node (E0)
Assign unknown voltages (E1) (E2) ... (EN) to remaining nodes.
Write a KCL equation for each node 1,2, ... N. The positive coefficient of the first voltage in
the first equation is the sum of conductances connected to the node. The coefficient for the
second voltage in the second equation is the sum of conductances connected to that node.
Repeat for coefficient of third voltage, third equation, and other equations. These coefficients
fall on a diagonal.
All other coefficients for all equations are negative, representing conductances between
nodes. The first equation, second coefficient is the conductance from node 1 to node 2, the
third coefficient is the conductance from node 1 to node 3. Fill in negative coefficients for
other equations.
The right hand side of the equations is the current source connected to the respective nodes.
Solve system of equations for unknown node voltages.
 UNIT – 2
SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE ANALYSIS

Phasor
A vector that represents a sinusoidally varying quantity, as a current or voltage, by
means of a line rotating about a point in a plane, the magnitude of the quantity being
proportional to the length of the line and the phase of the quantity being equal to the angle
between the line and a reference line is known as Phasor.
Euler's formula indicates that sinusoids can be represented mathematically as the sum of two
complex-valued functions:

Or as the real part of one of the functions:

The function is the analytic representation of

Sinusoidal Steady State Response Concepts of Impedance and Admittance

In electrical engineering, sinusoidal forcing functions are particularly important. The
alternating sinusoidal current of power frequencies (50 Hz, 60 Hz) is extensively used for
producing, transmitting and utilizing electric energy in industry and in the home. High-
frequency sinusoids (of kilohertz, megahertz and gigahertz) are used as carrier signals for
communication purposes. Sinusoids are in abundance in nature, as, for example, in the
movement of a pendulum, in the bouncing of a ball, and in the vibrations of strings and
membranes.
In electrical engineering, sinusoidal forcing functions are particularly important. The
alternating sinusoidal current of power frequencies (50 Hz, 60 Hz) is extensively used for
producing, transmitting and utilizing electric energy in industry and in the home. High-
frequency sinusoids (of kilohertz, megahertz and gigahertz) are used as carrier signals for
communication purposes. Sinusoids are in abundance in nature, as, for example, in the
movement of a pendulum, in the bouncing of a ball, and in the vibrations of strings and
membranes. Historically, in the late 1800s the primary use of electricity was in direct current
(d.c.) operating systems. The first big power system in New York and New Jersey was
Edison's direct current system. However, it became clear that some of the disadvantages of
d.c. had hindered the development of the widespread use of electric power. Thus, the use of
alternating current (a.c.) and its 'competition' with d.c. began. It is evident that the a.c. system
won this competition. The main advantage of the a.c. over d.c. is the efficiency of
transmission. Alternating voltage can be transformed to high voltages, thus reducing the loss
on the transmission line. If a line has a wire resistance R and the power transmitted is
proportional to V], the power lost in the lines is ]2 R. Thus, if the transmitted voltage could
be set at a high level (typically today up to 765 kV) which allows the current to be kept low,
the line losses would be minimized. Transformers, which are used to step up and step down
the a.c. voltage, also are very efficient and require practically no maintenance. Typically, in a
power station the output voltage of the a.c. generators (also sometimes called alternators) is in
the range: 11-30 kV. It is then stepped up to hundreds of kilovolts for long-distance
transmission, and then it is stepped down for use in factories and homes. Another advantage
of a.c. is the convenience of producing electric power. In practice, a.c. generators are easier to
build than d.c. machines for two main reasons: (a) high-voltage high-current armature
windings are on the stator (instead of on the rotor as in d.c. generators); (b) the voltage
induced in the stator is naturally oscillatory and almost sinusoidal. Finally, with three-phase
a.c. circuits (see Chapter 4) it is easy to create a rotating magnetic field and to produce cheap
and reliable induction motors-the main drive in industry. It is also cheaper to build three-
phase transmission lines and uses less conductive material (copper and aluminum), since only
three wires are needed instead of six to transmit the same power. Sinusoidal forcing functions
are relatively easily analyzed. In the sinusoidal steady-state behavior of linear time-invariant
circuits, when they are driven by one or more sinusoidal sources at some angular frequency
OJ, all currents and voltages are sinusoidal at the same frequency OJ. (Note that steady-state
behavior sets in after all 'transients' have died down.)
Analysis of simple circuit

Example 1
Consider Figure 8.1 with the following Parameters:

V1=15V
V2=7V
R1=2Ω
R2=20Ω
R3=10Ω
R4=5Ω
R5=2Ω
R6=2Ω
Find current through
R3 using Mesh Analysis method.

Solution:

Figure 8.2: Currents in loops

This is the same example we solved in Exercise 7.

We can see that there are three closed paths
(loops) where we can apply KVL in, Loop 1, 2
and 3 as shown in figure 8.2
We can now apply KVL arround the loops
remembering Passive Convention when defining
Currents and voltages.
KVL around abca loop:

Therefore,

KVL around acda loop:

Therefore

KVL around bdcb loop:

Therefore
Now we can create a matrix with the above equations as follows:

The following matrix is the above with values substituted:

Solving determinants of:

 Matrix A: General matrix A from KVL equations
 Matrix A1 : General Matrix A with Column 1 substituted by
 Matrix A2 : General Matrix A with Column 2 substituted by
 Matrix A3 : General Matrix A with Column 3 substituted by

Now we can use the solved determinants to arrive at solutions for Mesh Currents I1, I2 & I3
as follows:
Now we can solve for the current through R3 as follows:

POWER AND POWER FACTOR

In an AC circuit, the voltage and current waveforms are sinusoidal so their amplitudes are
constantly changing over time. Since we know that power is voltage times the current (P =
V*I), maximum power will occur when the two voltage and current waveforms are lined up
with each other. That is, their peaks and zero crossover points occur at the same time. When
this happens the two waveforms are said to be “in-phase”.

The three main components in an AC circuit which can affect the relationship between the
voltage and current waveforms, and therefore their phase difference, by defining the total
impedance of the circuit are the resistor, the capacitor and the inductor.

The impedance, (Z) of an AC circuit is equivalent to the resistance calculated in DC circuits,

with impedance given in ohms. For AC circuits, impedance is generally defined as the ratio
of the voltage and current phasor’s produced by a circuit component. Phasor’s are straight
lines drawn in such a way as to represents a voltage or current amplitude by its length and its
phase difference with respect to other phasor lines by its angular position relative to the other
phasor’s.

AC circuits contain both resistance and reactance that are combined together to give a total
impedance (Z) that limits current flow around the circuit. But an AC circuits impedance is not
equal to the algebraic sum of the resistive and reactive ohmic values as a pure resistance and
pure reactance are 90o out-of-phase with each other. But we can use this 90o phase difference
as the sides of a right angled triangle, called an impedance triangle, with the impedance being
the hypotenuse as determined by Pythagoras theorem.

This geometric relationship between resistance, reactance and impedance can be represented
visually by the use of an impedance triangle as shown.
Note that impedance, which is the vector sum of the resistance and reactance, has not only a
magnitude (Z) but it also has a phase angle (θ), which represents the phase difference
between the resistance and the reactance. Also note that the triangle will change shape due to
variations in reactance, (X) as the frequency changes. Of course, resistance (R) will always
remain constant.

We can take this idea one step further by converting the impedance triangle into a power
triangle representing the three elements of power in an AC circuit. Ohms Law tells us that in
a DC circuit, power (P), in watts, is equal to the current squared (I2) times the resistance (R).
So we can multiply the three sides of our impedance triangle above by I2 to obtain the
corresponding power triangle as:

Real Power P = I2R Watts, (W)

Reactive Power Q = I2X Volt-amperes Reactive, (VAr)

Apparent Power S = I2Z Volt-amperes, (VA)

Real Power in AC Circuits

Real power P, also known as true or active power, performs the “real work” within an
electrical circuit. Real power, measured in watts, defines the power consumed by the resistive
part of a circuit. Then real power, P in an AC circuit is the same as power, P in a DC circuit.
So just like DC circuits, it is always calculated as I2R, where R is the total resistive
component of the circuit.

As resistances do not produce any phasor difference (phase shift) between

voltage and current waveforms, all the useful power is delivered directly to
the resistance and converted to heat, light and work. Then the power
consumed by a resistance is real power which is fundamentally the circuits
average power.

To find the corresponding value of the real power the rms voltage and current values are
multiplied by the cosine of the phase angle, θ as shown.

Real Power P = I2R = V*I*cos(θ) Watts, (W)

But as their is no phase difference between the voltage and the current in a resistive circuit,
the phase shift between the two waveforms will be zero (0). Then:

Real Power in an AC Circuit

Where real power (P) is in watts, voltage (V) is in rms volts and current (I) is in rms amperes.
Then real power is the I2R resistive element measured in watts, which is what you read on
your utility energy meter and has units in Watts (W), Kilowatts (kW), and Megawatts (MW).
Note that real power, P is always positive.
Reactive Power in AC Circuits

Reactive power Q, (sometimes called wattless power) is the power consumed in an AC

circuit that does not perform any useful work but has a big effect on the phase shift between
the voltage and current waveforms. Reactive power is linked to the reactance produced by
inductors and capacitors and counteracts the effects of real power. Reactive power does not
exist in DC circuits.

Unlike real power (P) which does all the work, reactive power (Q) takes
power away from a circuit due to the creation and reduction of both
inductive magnetic fields and capacitive electrostatic fields, thereby
making it harder for the true power to supply power directly to a circuit
or load.

The power stored by an inductor in its magnetic field tries to control the current, while the
power stored by a capacitors electrostatic field tries to control the voltage. The result is that
capacitors “generate” reactive power and inductors “consume” reactive power. This means
that they both consume and return power to the source so none of the real power is consumed.

To find reactive power, the RMS voltage and current values are multiplied by the sine of the
phase angle, θ as shown.

Reactive Power Q = I2X = V*I*sin(θ) volt-amperes reactive, (VAr’s)

As there is a 90o phase difference between the voltage and the current waveforms in a pure
reactance (either inductive or capacitive), multiplying VI by sinθ gives a vertical component
that is 90o out-of-phase with each other, so:

Reactive Power in an AC Circuit

Where reactive power (Q) is in volt-amperes reactive, voltage (V) is in rms volts and current
(I) is in rms amperes.

Then reactive power represents the product of volts and amperes that are 90o out-of-phase
with each other, but in general, there can be any phase angle, θ between the voltage and the
current.

Thus reactive power is the I2X reactive element that has units in volt-amperes reactive (VAr),
Kilovolt-amperes reactive (kVAr), and Megavolt-amperes reactive (MVAr).
Apparent Power in AC Circuits

We have seen above that real power is dissipated by resistance and that reactive power is
supplied to a reactance. As a result of this the current and voltage waveforms are not in-phase
due to the difference between a circuits resistive and reactive components.

Then there is a mathematical relationship between the real power (P), and the reactive power
(Q), called the complex power. The product of the rms voltage, V applied to an AC circuit
and the rms current, I flowing into that circuit is called the “volt-ampere product” (VA) given
the symbol S and whose magnitude is known generally as apparent power.

This complex Power is not equal to the algebraic sum of the real and reactive powers added
together, but is instead the vector sum of P and Q given in volt-amps (VA). It is complex
power that is represented by the power triangle. The rms value of the volt-ampere product is
known more commonly as the apparent power as, “apparently” this is the total power
consumed by a circuit even though the real power that does the work is a lot less.

As apparent power is made up of two parts, the resistive power which is the in-phase power
or real power in watts and the reactive power which is the out-of-phase power in volt-
amperes, we can show the vector addition of these two power components in the form of a
power triangle. A power triangle has four parts: P, Q, S and θ.

The three elements which make up power in an AC circuit can be represented graphically by
the three sides of a right-angled triangle, in much the same way as the previous impedance
triangle. The horizontal (adjacent) side represents the circuits real power (P), the vertical
(opposite) side represents the circuits reactive power (Q) and the hypotenuse represents the
resulting apparent power (S), of the power triangle as shown.

Power Triangle of an AC Circuit

Where:
P is the I2R or Real power that performs work measured in watts, W
Q is the I2X or Reactive power measured in volt-amperes reactive, VAr
S is the I2Z or Apparent power measured in volt-amperes, VA
θ is the phase angle in degrees. The larger the phase angle, the greater the reactive power
Cosθ = P/S = W/VA = power factor, p.f.
Sinθ = Q/S = VAr/VA
Tanθ = Q/P = VAr/W

The power factor is calculated as the ratio of the real power to the apparent power because
this ratio equals cosθ.

Power Factor in AC Circuits

Power factor, cosθ, is an important part of an AC circuit that can also be expressed in terms
of circuit impedance or circuit power. Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power (P) to
apparent power (S), and is generally expressed as either a decimal value, for example 0.95, or
as a percentage: 95%.
Power factor defines the phase angle between the current and voltage waveforms, were I and
V are the magnitudes of rms values of the current and voltage. Note that it does not matter
whether the phase angle is the difference of the current with respect to the voltage, or the
voltage with respect to the current. The mathematical relationship is given as:

Power Factor of an AC Circuit:

We said previously that in a pure resistive circuit, the current and voltage waveforms are in-
phase with each other so the real power consumed is the same as the apparent power as the
phase difference is zero degrees (0o). So the power factor will be:

Power Factor, pf = cos 0o = 1.0

That is the number of watts consumed is the same as the number of volt-amperes consumed
producing a power factor of 1.0, or 100%. In this case it is referred to a unity power factor.

We also said above that in a purely reactive circuit, the current and voltage waveforms are
out-of-phase with each other by 90o. As the phase difference is ninety degrees (90o), the
power factor will be:

Power Factor, pf = cos 90o = 0

That is the number of watts consumed is zero but there is still a voltage and current supplying
the reactive load. Clearly then reducing the reactive VAr component of the power triangle
will cause θ to reduce improving the power factor towards one, unity. It is also desirable to
have a high power factor as this makes the most efficient use of the circuit delivering current
to a load.

Then we can write the relationship between the real power, the apparent power and the
circuits power factor as:

An inductive circuit where the current “lags” the voltage (ELI) is said to have a lagging
power factor, and a capacitive circuit where the current “leads” the voltage (ICE) is said to
have a leading power factor.
Power Triangle Example 1

A wound coil that has an inductance of 180mH and a resistance of 35Ω is connected to a
100V 50Hz supply. Calculate: a) the impedance of the coil, b) the
current, c) the power factor, and d) the apparent power consumed.

Also draw the resulting power triangle for the above coil.

Data given: R = 35Ω, L = 180mH, V = 100V and ƒ = 50Hz.

(a) Impedance (Z) of the coil:

(b) Current (I) consumed by the coil:

(c) The power factor and phase angle, θ:

(d) Apparent power (S) consumed by the coil:

(e) Power triangle for the coil:

As the power triangle relationships of this simple example demonstrates, at 0.5263 or 52.63%
power factor, the coil requires 150 VA of power to produce 79 Watts of useful work. In other
words, at 52.63% power factor, the coil takes about 88% more current to do the same work,
which is a lot of wasted current.

Adding a power factor correction capacitor (for this example a 32.3uF) across the coil, in
order to increase the power factor to over 0.95, or 95%, would greatly reduce the reactive
power consumed by the coil as these capacitors act as reactive current generators, thus
reducing the total amount of current consumed.

Power Triangle and Power Factor Summary

We have seen here that the three elements of electrical power, Real Power, Reactive Power
and Apparent Power in an AC circuit can be represented by the three sides of a triangle called
a Power Triangle. As these three elements are represented by a “right-angled triangle”, their
relationship can be defined as: S2 = P2 + Q2, where P is the real power in watts (W), Q is the
reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (VAr) and S is the apparent power in volt-amperes
(VA).

We have also seen that in an AC circuit, the quantity cosθ is called the power factor. The
power factor of an AC circuit is defined as the ratio of the real power (W) consumed by a
circuit to the apparent power (VA) consumed by the same circuit. This therefore gives us:
Power Factor = Real Power/Apparent Power, or pf = W/VA.

Then the cosine of the resulting angle between the current and voltage is the power factor.
Generally power factor is expressed as a percentage, for example 95%, but can also be
expressed as a decimal value, for example 0.95.

When the power factor equals 1.0 (unity) or 100%, that is when the real power consumed
equals the circuits apparent power, the phase angle between the current and the voltage is 0 o
as: cos-1(1.0) = 0o. When the power factor equals zero (0), the phase angle between the
current and the voltage will be 90o as: cos-1(0) = 90o. In this case the actual power consumed
by the AC circuit is zero regardless of the circuit current.

In practical AC circuits, the power factor can be anywhere between 0 and 1.0 depending on
the passive components within the connected load. For an inductive-resistive load or circuit
(which is most often the case) the power factor will be “lagging”. In a capacitive-resistive
circuit the power factor will be “leading”. Then an AC circuit can be defined to have a unity,
lagging, or leading power factor.

A poor power factor with a value towards zero (0) will consume wasted power reducing the
efficiency of the circuit, while a circuit or load with a power factor closer to one (1.0) or unity
(100%), will be more efficient. This is because a a circuit or load with a low power factor
requires more current than the same circuit or load with a power factor closer to 1.0 (unity).

Solution of three phase balanced circuits and three phase unbalanced circuits

Requirements of a Balanced 3-Phase Set

Following are the requirements that must be satisified in order for a set of 3 sinusoidal
variables (usually voltages or currents) to be a "balanced 3-phase set"
All 3 variables have the same amplitude
All 3 variables have the same frequency
All 3 variables are 120o in phase
In terms of the time domain, a set of balance 3-phase voltages has the following general form.

va = Vm cos ( t + )
vb = Vm cos ( t + - 120o )
vc = Vm cos ( t + - 240o ) = Vm cos ( t + +120o )
Notice that we have assumed (and will continue to assume) positive (abc) phase sequence,
i.e., phase "b" follows 120o behind "a" & phase "c" follows 120o behind phase "b"
Figure 1 below illustrates the balanced 3-phase voltages in time domain.
Figure 1: Balanced 3-Phase Variables in Time Domain
In terms of phasors, we write the same balanced set as follows. Note that the phasors are in
rms, as will be assumed throughout this course.
Va = Vm m
Vb = Vm - 120o
Vc = Vm - 240o = Vm +120o

Thus,

Vb = Va (1 -120o) , and Vc = Va (1 +120o)

Figure 2 below illustrates the balanced 3-phase phasors graphically.

Requirements of a Balanced 3-Phase Circuit

Following are the requirements that must be satisified in order for a 3-phase system or circuit
to be balanced
All 3 sources are reprensented by a set of balanced 3-phase variables
All loads are 3-phase with equal impedances
Line impedances are equal in all 3 phases
Having a balanced circuit allows for simplified analysis of the 3-phase circuit. In fact, if the
circuit is balanced, we can solve for the voltages, currents, and powers, etc. in one phase
using circuit analysis. The values of the corresponding variables in the other two phases can
be found using some basic equations. This type of solution is accomplished using a "one-line
diagram", which will be discussed later. If the circuit is not balanced, all three phases should
be analyzed in detail.

Figure 3 illustrates a balanced 3-phase circuit and some of the naming conventions to be used
in this course Following are the requirements that must be satisified in order for a 3-phase
system or circuit to be balanced

1. All 3 sources are reprensented by a set of balanced 3-phase variables

2. All loads are 3-phase with equal impedances
 3. Line impedances are equal in all 3 phases

Having a balanced circuit allows for simplified analysis of the 3-phase circuit. In fact, if the
circuit is balanced, we can solve for the voltages, currents, and powers, etc. in one phase
using circuit analysis. The values of the corresponding variables in the other two phases can
be found using some basic equations. This type of solution is accomplished using a "one-line
diagram", which will be discussed later. If the circuit is not balanced, all three phases should
be analyzed in detail.

Figure 3 illustrates a balanced 3-phase circuit and some of the naming conventions to be used
in this course

A Balanced 3-Phase Circuit

Power measurement in three phase circuits

In this method we have two types of connections

 Star connection of loads
 Delta connection of loads.
When the star connected load, the diagram is shown in below-

For star connected load clearly the reading of wattmeter one is product phase current
and voltage

difference (V2-V3). Similarly the reading of wattmeter two is the product of phase current and
the voltage difference (V2-V3). Thus the total power of the circuit is sum of the reading of
both the wattmeter. Mathematically we can write
but we have, hence putting the value of.
We get total power as. When delta connected load, the
diagram is shown in below

The reading of wattmeter one can be written as and reading of

wattmeter two is

But, hence expression for total power will reduce to.

Measurement of Three Phase Power by One Wattmeter Method

Limitation of this method is that it cannot be applied on unbalanced load. So under this
condition we have .
Diagram is shown below:

Two switches are given which are marked as 1-3 and 1-2, by closing the switch 1-3 we get
reading of wattmeter as
Similarly the reading of wattmeter when switch 1-2 is closed is
 UNIT – 3

Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem is one of those strokes of genius that takes a complex subject
and simplifies it in a way that makes perfect sense. A theorem like Millman’s certainly works
well, but it is not quite obvious why it works so well. Superposition, on the other hand, is
obvious.
The strategy used in the Superposition Theorem is to eliminate all but one source of
power within a network at a time, using series/parallel analysis to determine voltage drops
(and/or currents) within the modified network for each power source separately. Then, once
voltage drops and/or currents have been determined for each power source working
separately, the values are all “superimposed” on top of each other (added algebraically) to
find the actual voltage drops/currents with all sources active. Let’s look at our example
circuit again and apply Superposition Theorem to it:

Since we have two sources of power in this circuit, we will have to calculate two sets
of values for voltage drops and/or currents, one for the circuit with only the 28 volt battery in
effect. . .

. . . and one for the circuit with only the 7 volt battery in effect:

When re-drawing the circuit for series/parallel analysis with one source, all other
voltage sources are replaced by wires (shorts), and all current sources with open circuits
(breaks). Since we only have voltage sources (batteries) in our example circuit, we will
replace every inactive source during analysis with a wire.
 Analyzing the circuit with only the 28 volt battery, we obtain the following values for
voltage and current:

Analyzing the circuit with only the 7 volt battery, we obtain another set of values for
voltage and current:

When superimposing these values of voltage and current, we have to be very careful
to consider polarity (voltage drop) and direction (electron flow), as the values have to be
added algebraically.
 Currents add up algebraically as well, and can either be superimposed as done with
the resistor voltage drops, or simply calculated from the final voltage drops and respective
resistances (I=E/R). Either way, the answers will be the same. Here I will show the
superposition method applied to current:

Once again applying these superimposed figures to our circuit:

Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter
how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and series resistance
connected to a load. The qualification of “linear” is identical to that found in the
Superposition Theorem, where all the underlying equations must be linear (no exponents or
roots). If we’re dealing with passive components (such as resistors, and later, inductors and
capacitors), this is true. However, there are some components (especially certain gas-
discharge and semiconductor components) which are nonlinear: that is, their opposition to
current changes with voltage and/or current. As such, we would call circuits containing these
types of components, nonlinear circuits.

Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and other

circuits where one particular resistor in the circuit (called the “load” resistor) is subject to
change, and re-calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load resistance,
to determine voltage across it and current through it. Let’s take another look at our example
circuit:
 Let’s suppose that we decide to designate R2 as the “load” resistor in this circuit. We
already have four methods of analysis at our disposal (Branch Current, Mesh Current,
Millman’s Theorem, and Superposition Theorem) to use in determining voltage across R2
and current through R2, but each of these methods are time-consuming. Imagine repeating
any of these methods over and over again to find what would happen if the load resistance
changed (changing load resistance is very common in power systems, as multiple loads get
switched on and off as needed. the total resistance of their parallel connections changing
depending on how many are connected at a time). This could potentially involve a lot of
work!
Thevenin’s Theorem makes this easy by temporarily removing the load resistance
from the original circuit and reducing what’s left to an equivalent circuit composed of a
single voltage source and series resistance. The load resistance can then be re-connected to
this “Thevenin equivalent circuit” and calculations carried out as if the whole network were
nothing but a simple series circuit:

. . after Thevenin conversion . .

The “Thevenin Equivalent Circuit” is the electrical equivalent of B1, R1, R3, and B2 as seen
from the two points where our load resistor (R2) connects.

The Thevenin equivalent circuit, if correctly derived, will behave exactly the same as the
original circuit formed by B1, R1, R3, and B2. In other words, the load resistor (R2) voltage
and current should be exactly the same for the same value of load resistance in the two
circuits. The load resistor R2 cannot “tell the difference” between the original network of B1,
R1, R3, and B2, and the Thevenin equivalent circuit of EThevenin, and RThevenin, provided
that the values for EThevenin and RThevenin have been calculated correctly.

The advantage in performing the “Thevenin conversion” to the simpler circuit, of course, is
that it makes load voltage and load current so much easier to solve than in the original
network. Calculating the equivalent Thevenin source voltage and series resistance is actually
quite easy. First, the chosen load resistor is removed from the original circuit, replaced with a
break (open circuit):

Next, the voltage between the two points where the load resistor used to be attached is
determined. Use whatever analysis methods are at your disposal to do this. In this case, the
original circuit with the load resistor removed is nothing more than a simple series circuit
with opposing batteries, and so we can determine the voltage across the open load terminals
by applying the rules of series circuits, Ohm’s Law, and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

The voltage between the two load connection points can be figured from the one of the
battery’s voltage and one of the resistor’s voltage drops, and comes out to 11.2 volts. This is
our “Thevenin voltage” (EThevenin) in the equivalent circuit:

To find the Thevenin series resistance for our equivalent circuit, we need to take the original
circuit (with the load resistor still removed), remove the power sources (in the same style as
we did with the Superposition Theorem: voltage sources replaced with wires and current
sources replaced with breaks), and figure the resistance from one load terminal to the other:

With the removal of the two batteries, the total resistance measured at this location is equal to
R1 and R3 in parallel: 0.8 Ω. This is our “Thevenin resistance” (R Thevenin) for the equivalent
circuit:

With the load resistor (2 Ω) attached between the connection points, we can determine
voltage across it and current through it as though the whole network were nothing more than
a simple series circuit:

Notice that the voltage and current figures for R2 (8 volts, 4 amps) are identical to those
found using other methods of analysis. Also notice that the voltage and current figures for
the Thevenin series resistance and the Thevenin source (total) do not apply to any
component in the original, complex circuit. Thevenin’s Theorem is only useful for
determining what happens to a single resistor in a network: the load.
The advantage, of course, is that you can quickly determine what would happen to that
single resistor if it were of a value other than 2 Ω without having to go through a lot of
analysis again. Just plug in that other value for the load resistor into the Thevenin
equivalent circuit and a little bit of series circuit calculation will give you the result.

Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how
complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single current source and parallel
resistance connected to a load. Just as with Thevenin’s Theorem, the qualification of
“linear” is identical to that found in the Superposition Theorem: all underlying equations
must be linear (no exponents or roots).
Contrasting our original example circuit against the Norton equivalent: it looks something
like this:

. . . after Norton conversion . . .

Remember that a current source is a component whose job is to provide a constant amount
of current, outputting as much or as little voltage necessary to maintain that constant
current.
As with Thevenin’s Theorem, everything in the original circuit except the load resistance
has been reduced to an equivalent circuit that is simpler to analyze. Also similar to
Thevenin’s Theorem are the steps used in Norton’s Theorem to calculate the Norton source
current (INorton) and Norton resistance (RNorton).
As before, the first step is to identify the load resistance and remove it from the original
circuit:
Then, to find the Norton current (for the current source in the Norton equivalent circuit),
place a direct wire (short) connection between the load points and determine the resultant
current. Note that this step is exactly opposite the respective step in Thevenin’s Theorem,
where we replaced the load resistor with a break (open circuit):

With zero voltage dropped between the load resistor connection points, the current through
R1 is strictly a function of B1‘s voltage and R1‘s resistance: 7 amps (I=E/R). Likewise, the
current through R3 is now strictly a function of B2‘s voltage and R3‘s resistance: 7 amps
(I=E/R). The total current through the short between the load connection points is the sum
of these two currents: 7 amps + 7 amps = 14 amps. This figure of 14 amps becomes the
Norton source current (INorton) in our equivalent circuit:

Remember, the arrow notation for a current source points in the direction opposite that of
electron flow. Again, apologies for the confusion. For better or for worse, this is standard
electronic symbol notation. Blame Mr. Franklin again!
To calculate the Norton resistance (RNorton), we do the exact same thing as we did for
calculating Thevenin resistance (RThevenin): take the original circuit (with the load resistor
still removed), remove the power sources (in the same style as we did with the
Superposition Theorem: voltage sources replaced with wires and current sources replaced
with breaks), and figure total resistance from one load connection point to the other:

Now our Norton equivalent circuit looks like this:

If we re-connect our original load resistance of 2 Ω, we can analyze the Norton circuit as a
simple parallel arrangement:

As with the Thevenin equivalent circuit, the only useful information from this analysis is
the voltage and current values for R2; the rest of the information is irrelevant to the original
circuit. However, the same advantages seen with Thevenin’s Theorem apply to Norton’s as
well: if we wish to analyze load resistor voltage and current over several different values of
load resistance, we can use the Norton equivalent circuit again and again, applying nothing
more complex than simple parallel circuit analysis to determine what’s happening with
each trial load.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a means of analysis as it is an aid
to system design. Simply stated, the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a
load resistance when that load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the
network supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the
Thevenin/Norton resistance of the source network, its dissipated power will be less than
maximum.
This is essentially what is aimed for in radio transmitter design , where the antenna or
transmission line “impedance” is matched to final power amplifier “impedance” for
maximum radio frequency power output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC
current, is very similar to resistance, and must be equal between source and load for the
greatest amount of power to be transferred to the load. A load impedance that is too high
will result in low power output. A load impedance that is too low will not only result in
low power output, but possibly overheating of the amplifier due to the power dissipated in
its internal (Thevenin or Norton) impedance.
Taking our Thevenin equivalent example circuit, the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
tells us that the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation is equal in value to
the Thevenin resistance (in this case, 0.8 Ω):

With this value of load resistance, the dissipated power will be 39.2 watts:

If we were to try a lower value for the load resistance (0.5 Ω instead of 0.8 Ω, for
example), our power dissipated by the load resistance would decrease:
Power dissipation increased for both the Thevenin resistance and the total circuit, but it
decreased for the load resistor. Likewise, if we increase the load resistance (1.1 Ω instead
of 0.8 Ω, for example), power dissipation will also be less than it was at 0.8 Ω exactly:

If you were designing a circuit for maximum power dissipation at the load resistance, this
theorem would be very useful. Having reduced a network down to a Thevenin voltage and
resistance (or Norton current and resistance), you simply set the load resistance equal to
that Thevenin or Norton equivalent (or vice versa) to ensure maximum power dissipation at
the load. Practical applications of this might include radio transmitter final amplifier stage
design (seeking to maximize power delivered to the antenna or transmission line), a grid
tied inverter loading a solar array, or electric vehicle design (seeking to maximize power
delivered to drive motor).
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not: Maximum power transfer does not
coincide with maximum efficiency. Application of The Maximum Power Transfer theorem
to AC power distribution will not result in maximum or even high efficiency. The goal of
high efficiency is more important for AC power distribution, which dictates a relatively
low generator impedance compared to load impedance.
Similar to AC power distribution, high fidelity audio amplifiers are designed for a
relatively low output impedance and a relatively high speaker load impedance. As a ratio,
“output impdance” : “load impedance” is known as damping factor, typically in the range
of 100 to 1000. [rar] [dfd]
Maximum power transfer does not coincide with the goal of lowest noise. For example, the
low-level radio frequency amplifier between the antenna and a radio receiver is often
designed for lowest possible noise. This often requires a mismatch of the amplifier input
impedance to the antenna as compared with that dictated by the maximum power transfer
theorem.
 UNIT – 4

TRANSIENT RESPONSE FOR DC CIRCUITS

TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUITS:

So far we have considered dc resistive network in which currents and voltages were
independent of time. More specifically, Voltage (cause input) and current (effect output)
responses displayed simultaneously except for a constant multiplicative factor (VR). Two
basic passive elements namely, inductor and capacitor are introduced in the dc network.
Automatically, the question will arise whether or not the methods developed in lesson-3
to lesson-8 for resistive circuit analysis are still valid. The voltage/current relationship for
these two passive elements are defined by the derivative (voltage across the inductor

Our problem is to study the growth of current in the circuit through two stages, namely;
(i) dc transient response (ii) steady state response of the system

D.C Transients: The behavior of the current and the voltage in the circuit switch is closed
until it reaches its final value is called dc transient response of the concerned circuit. The
response of a circuit (containing resistances, inductances, capacitors and switches) due to
sudden application of voltage or current is called transient response. The most common
instance of a transient response in a circuit occurs when a switch is turned on or off –a rather
common event in an electric circuit.
 Growth or Rise of current in R-L circuit

To find the current expression (response) for the circuit shown in fig. 10.6(a), we can
write the KVL equation around the circuit

The table shows how the current i(t) builds up in a R-L circuit.
 Consider network shown in fig. the switch k is moved from position 1 to 2 at
reference time t = 0.

Now before switching take place, the capacitor C is fully charged to V volts and it
discharges through resistance R. As time passes, charge and hence voltage across capacitor
i.e. Vc decreases gradually and hence discharge current also decreases gradually from
maximum to zero exponentially.

After switching has taken place, applying kirchoff’s voltage law,

Where VR is voltage across resistor and VC is voltage across capacitor.

Above equation is linear, homogenous first order differential equation. Hence rearranging we
have,

Integrating both sides of above equation we have

Now at t = 0, VC =V which is initial condition, substituting in equation we have,

Where Q is total charge on capacitor

Similarly at any instant, VC = q/c where q is instantaneous charge.

Thus charge behaves similarly to voltage across capacitor.

Now discharging current i is given by
but VR = VC when there is no source in circuit.
The above expression is nothing but discharge current of capacitor. The variation of this
current with respect to time is shown in fig.

This shows that the current is exponentially decaying. At point P on the graph. The current
value is (0.368) times its maximum value. The characteristics of decay are determined by
values R and C, which are 2 parameters of network.

For this network, after the instant t = 0, there is no driving voltage source in circuit, hence it
is called undriven RC circuit.

TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUITS

Ideal and real capacitors: An ideal capacitor has an infinite dielectric resistance and
plates (made of metals) that have zero resistance. However, an ideal capacitor does not
exist as all dielectrics have some

leakage current and all capacitor plates have some resistance. A capacitor’s of how much
charge (current) it will allow to leak through the dielectric medium. Ideally, a charged

capacitor is not supposed to allow leaking any current through the dielectric medium and
also assumed not to dissipate any power loss in capacitor plates resistance. Under this
situation, the model as shown in fig. 10.16(a) represents the ideal capacitor. However, all
real or practical capacitor leaks current to some extend due to leakage resistance of
dielectric medium. This leakage resistance can be visualized as a resistance connected in
parallel with the capacitor and power loss in capacitor plates can be realized with a
resistance connected in series with capacitor. The model of a real capacitor is shown in
fig.

Let us consider a simple series RC−circuit shown in fig. 10.17(a) is connected through a
switch ‘S’ to a constant voltage source .
The switch ‘S’ is closed at time ‘t=0’ It is assumed that the capacitor is initially charged with
a voltage and the current flowing through the circuit at any instant of time ‘’ after closing the
switch is

Current decay in source free series RL circuit: -

At t = 0- , , switch k is kept at position ‘a’ for very long time. Thus, the network is in steady
state. Initial current through inductor is given as,

Because current through inductor can not change instantaneously

Assume that at t = 0 switch k is moved to position 'b'.
Applying KVL,

Rearranging the terms in above equation by separating variables

Integrating both sides with respect to corresponding variables

Where k’ is constant of integration.

To find- k’:
Form equation 1, at t=0, i=I0
Substituting the values in equation 3
Substituting value of k’ from equation 4 in

fig. shows variation of current i with respect to time

From the graph, H is clear that current is exponentially decaying. At point P on graph.
The current value is (0.363) times its maximum value. The characteristics of decay are
determined by values R and L which are two parameters of network.
The voltage across inductor is given by
TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUITS

In the preceding lesson, our discussion focused extensively on dc circuits having resistances
with either inductor () or capacitor () (i.e., single storage element) but not both. Dynamic
response of such first order system has been studied and discussed in detail. The presence of
resistance, inductance, and capacitance in the dc circuit introduces at least a second order
differential equation or by two simultaneous coupled linear first order differential equations.
We shall see in next section that the complexity of analysis of second order circuits increases
significantly when compared with that encountered with first order circuits. Initial conditions
for the circuit variables and their derivatives play an important role and this is very crucial to
analyze a second order dynamic system.

Response of a series R-L-C circuit

Consider a series RLcircuit as shown in fig.11.1, and it is excited with a dc voltage
source C−−sV.

Applying around the closed path for ,

The current through the capacitor can be written as Substituting the current ‘’expression in
eq.(11.1) and rearranging the terms,
The above equation is a 2nd-order linear differential equation and the parameters associated

with the differential equation are constant with time. The complete solution of the above
differential equation has two components; the transient response and the steady state
response. Mathematically, one can write the complete solution as

Since the system is linear, the nature of steady state response is same as that of forcing
function (input voltage) and it is given by a constant value. Now, the first part of the total
response is completely dies out with time while and it is defined as a transient or natural
response of the system. The natural or transient response (see Appendix in Lesson-10) of
second order differential equation can be obtained from the homogeneous equation (i.e., from

force free system) that is expressed by

and solving the roots of this equation (11.5) on that associated with transient part of the
complete solution (eq.11.3) and they are given below.

The roots of the characteristic equation are classified in three groups depending upon the
values of the parameters ,,RLand of the circuit

Case-A (overdamped response): That the roots are distinct with negative real parts. Under
this situation, the natural or transient part of the complete solution is written as

and each term of the above expression decays exponentially and ultimately reduces to zero as
and it is termed as overdamped response of input free system. A system that is overdamped
responds slowly to any change in excitation. It may be noted that the exponential term
t→∞11tAeαtakes longer time to decay its value to zero than the term21tAeα. One can
introduce a factorξ that provides an information about the speed of system response and it is
defined by damping ratio

RLC Circuit:

Consider a circuit in which R, L, and C are connected in series with each other across
ac supply as shown in fig.

The ac supply is given by, V = Vm sin wt

The circuit draws a current I. Due to that different voltage drops are,
1. Voltage drop across Resistance R is VR = IR

2. Voltage drop across Inductance L is VL = IXL

3. Voltage drop across Capacitance C is Vc = IXc The characteristics of three drops

are,

(i) VR is in phase with current I

 (ii) VL leads I by 900
(iii) Vc lags I by 900
According to krichoff’s laws

Steps to draw phasor diagram:

1. Take current I as reference
2. VR is in phase with current I

3. VL leads current by 900

4. Vc lags current by 900
5. obtain resultant of VL and Vc. Both VL and Vc are in phase opposition
(1800 out of phase)

6. Add that with VRby law of parallelogram to get supply voltage.

The phasor diagram depends on the condition of magnitude of VL and Vc which

ultimately depends on values of XL and Xc.
Let us consider different cases:
Case(i): XL > Xc
When X L > Xc
Also VL > Vc (or) IXL > IXc
So, resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards VL i.e. leading current I. Hence I
lags V i.e. current I will lags the resultant of VL and Vc i.e. (V L - Vc). The circuit is said
to be inductive in nature.
From voltage triangle,

If , V = Vm Sin wt ; i = Im Sin (wt - ф )

i.e I lags V by angle ф
Case(ii): XL < Xc
When XL < Xc
Also VL < Vc (or) IXL < IXc

Hence the resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards Vc i.e current is said to be
capacitive in nature
Form voltage triangle

i.e I lags V by angle ф

Case(iii): XL = Xc
When XL = Xc
Also VL = Vc (or) IXL = IXc
 So VL and Vc cancel each other and the resultant is zero. So V = VR in such a case, the
circuit is purely resistive in nature.

Impedance:

In general for RLC series circuit impedance is given by, Z = R + j X

X = XL –Xc = Total reactance of the circuit
If XL > Xc ; X is positive & circuit is Inductive
If XL < Xc ; X is negative & circuit is Capacitive
If XL = Xc ; X =0 & circuit is purely Resistive
Tan фL - =Xc[(X)∕R]
Cos ф = [R∕Z]
Z = 2 √+(X L(R-Xc ) 2)
Impedance triangle:
In both cases R = Z Cos ф

X = Z Sin ф

Power and power triangle:

The average power consumed by circuit is,

Pavg = (Average power consumed by R) + (Average power consumed by L) +

(Average power consumed by C)

Pavg = Power taken by R = I2R = I(IR) = VI

V = V Cos ф P = VI Cos ф

Thus, for any condition, XL > Xc or XL < Xc General power can be expressed as

P = Voltage x Component in phase with voltage

Power triangle:
S = Apparent power = I2Z = VI

P = Real or True power = VI Cos ф = Active po Q = Reactive power = VI Sin ф

 UNIT – 5
RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS
Resonance in Series-Parallel Circuits

In simple reactive circuits with little or no resistance, the effects of radically altered
impedance will manifest at the resonance frequency predicted by the equation given
earlier. In a parallel (tank) LC circuit, this means infinite impedance at resonance. In a
series LC circuit, it means zero impedance at resonance:

However, as soon as significant levels of resistance are introduced into most LC circuits,
this simple calculation for resonance becomes invalid. We’ll take a look at several LC
circuits with added resistance, using the same values for capacitance and inductance as
before: 10 µF and 100 mH, respectively. According to our simple equation, the resonant
frequency should be 159.155 Hz. Watch, though, where current reaches maximum or
minimum in the following SPICE analyses:

Parallel LC circuit with resistance in series with L.

Resistance in series with L produces minimum current at 136.8 Hz instead of calculated
159.2 Hz

Parallel LC with resistance in serieis with C.

Here, an extra resistor (Rbogus) (Figure below)is necessary to prevent SPICE from
encountering trouble in analysis. SPICE can’t handle an inductor connected directly in
parallel with any voltage source or any other inductor, so the addition of a series resistor is
necessary to “break up” the voltage source/inductor loop that would otherwise be formed.
This resistor is chosen to be a very low value for minimum impact on the circuit’s
behavior.

Resistance in series with C shifts minimum current from calculated 159.2 Hz to roughly
180 Hz.

Switching our attention to series LC circuits, (Figure below) we experiment with placing
significant resistances in parallel with either L or C. In the following series circuit
examples, a 1 Ω resistor (R1) is placed in series with the inductor and capacitor to limit
total current at resonance. The “extra” resistance inserted to influence resonant frequency
effects is the 100 Ω resistor, R2. The results are shown in (Figurebelow).
Series LC resonant circuit with resistance in parallel with L.

Series resonant circuit with resistance in parallel with L shifts maximum current from
159.2 Hz to roughly 180 Hz.

And finally, a series LC circuit with the significant resistance in parallel with the capacitor.
(Figure below) The shifted resonance is shown in (Figure below)
Series LC resonant circuit with rsistance in parallel with C.

Resistance in parallel with C in series resonant circuit shifts curreent maximum from
calculated 159.2 Hz to about 136.8 Hz.

The tendency for added resistance to skew the point at which impedance reaches a
maximum or minimum in an LC circuit is called antiresonance. The astute observer will
notice a pattern between the four SPICE examples given above, in terms of how resistance
affects the resonant peak of a circuit:

 Parallel (“tank”) LC circuit:

 R in series with L: resonant frequency shifted down
 R in series with C: resonant frequency shifted up

 Series LC circuit:
 R in parallel with L: resonant frequency shifted up
 R in parallel with C: resonant frequency shifted down

Again, this illustrates the complementary nature of capacitors and inductors: how
resistance in series with one creates an antiresonance effect equivalent to resistance in
parallel with the other. If you look even closer to the four SPICE examples given, you’ll
see that the frequencies are shifted by the same amount, and that the shape of the
complementary graphs are mirror-images of each other!
Antiresonance is an effect that resonant circuit designers must be aware of. The equations
for determining antiresonance “shift” are complex, and will not be covered in this brief
lesson. It should suffice the beginning student of electronics to understand that the effect
exists, and what its general tendencies are.
Added resistance in an LC circuit is no academic matter. While it is possible to
manufacture capacitors with negligible unwanted resistances, inductors are typically
plagued with substantial amounts of resistance due to the long lengths of wire used in their
construction. What is more, the resistance of wire tends to increase as frequency goes up,
due to a strange phenomenon known as the skin effect where AC current tends to be
excluded from travel through the very center of a wire, thereby reducing the wire’s
effective cross-sectional area. Thus, inductors not only have resistance, but changing,
frequency-dependent resistance at that.
As if the resistance of an inductor’s wire weren’t enough to cause problems, we also have
to contend with the “core losses” of iron-core inductors, which manifest themselves as
added resistance in the circuit. Since iron is a conductor of electricity as well as a
conductor of magnetic flux, changing flux produced by alternating current through the coil
will tend to induce electric currents in the core itself (eddy currents). This effect can be
thought of as though the iron core of the transformer were a sort of secondary transformer
coil powering a resistive load: the less-than-perfect conductivity of the iron metal. This
effects can be minimized with laminated cores, good core design and high-grade materials,
but never completely eliminated.
One notable exception to the rule of circuit resistance causing a resonant frequency shift is
the case of series resistor-inductor-capacitor (“RLC”) circuits. So long as all components
are connected in series with each other, the resonant frequency of the circuit will be
unaffected by the resistance. (Figure below) The resulting plot is shown in (Figure below).

Series LC with resistance in series.

Maximum current at 159.2 Hz once again!
Resistance in series resonant circuit leaves current maximum at calculated 159.2 Hz,
broadening the curve.

Note that the peak of the current graph (Figure below) has not changed from the earlier
series LC circuit (the one with the 1 Ω token resistance in it), even though the resistance is
now 100 times greater. The only thing that has changed is the “sharpness” of the curve.
Obviously, this circuit does not resonate as strongly as one with less series resistance (it is
said to be “less selective”), but at least it has the same natural frequency!
It is noteworthy that antiresonance has the effect of dampening the oscillations of free-
running LC circuits such as tank circuits. In the beginning of this chapter we saw how a
capacitor and inductor connected directly together would act something like a pendulum,
exchanging voltage and current peaks just like a pendulum exchanges kinetic and potential
energy. In a perfect tank circuit (no resistance), this oscillation would continue forever, just
as a frictionless pendulum would continue to swing at its resonant frequency forever. But
frictionless machines are difficult to find in the real world, and so are lossless tank circuits.
Energy lost through resistance (or inductor core losses or radiated electromagnetic waves
or . . .) in a tank circuit will cause the oscillations to decay in amplitude until they are no
more. If enough energy losses are present in a tank circuit, it will fail to resonate at all.
Antiresonance’s dampening effect is more than just a curiosity: it can be used quite
effectively to eliminate unwanted oscillations in circuits containing stray inductances
and/or capacitances, as almost all circuits do. Take note of the following L/R time delay
circuit: (Figure below)

L/R time delay circuit

The idea of this circuit is simple: to “charge” the inductor when the switch is closed. The
rate of inductor charging will be set by the ratio L/R, which is the time constant of the
circuit in seconds. However, if you were to build such a circuit, you might find unexpected
oscillations (AC) of voltage across the inductor when the switch is closed. (Figure below)
Why is this? There’s no capacitor in the circuit, so how can we have resonant oscillation
with just an inductor, resistor, and battery?

Inductor ringing due to resonance with stray capacitance.

All inductors contain a certain amount of stray capacitance due to turn-to-turn and turn-to-
core insulation gaps. Also, the placement of circuit conductors may create stray
capacitance. While clean circuit layout is important in eliminating much of this stray
capacitance, there will always be some that you cannot eliminate. If this causes resonant
problems (unwanted AC oscillations), added resistance may be a way to combat it. If
resistor R is large enough, it will cause a condition of antiresonance, dissipating enough
energy to prohibit the inductance and stray capacitance from sustaining oscillations for
very long.
Interestingly enough, the principle of employing resistance to eliminate unwanted
resonance is one frequently used in the design of mechanical systems, where any moving
object with mass is a potential resonator. A very common application of this is the use of
shock absorbers in automobiles. Without shock absorbers, cars would bounce wildly at
their resonant frequency after hitting any bump in the road. The shock absorber’s job is to
introduce a strong antiresonant effect by dissipating energy hydraulically (in the same way
that a resistor dissipates energy electrically).

Mutual Inductance
Mutual Inductance is the ratio between induced Electro Motive Force across a coil to the
rate of change of current of another adjacent coil in such a way that two coils are in
possibility of flux linkage.Mutual induction is a phenomenon when a coil gets induced in
EMF across it due to rate of change current in adjacent coil in such a way that the flux of one
coil current gets linkage of another coil. Mutual inductance is denoted as ( M ), it is called co-
efficient of Mutual Induction between two coils.

Mutual inductance for two coils gives the same value when they are in mutual induction
with each other. Induction in one coil due to its own rate of change of current is called self
inductance (L), but due to rate of change of current of adjacent coil it gives mutual
inductance (M).
From the above figure, first coil carries current i1 and its self inductance is L1. Along with its
self inductance it has to face mutual induction due to rate of change of current i2 in the second
coil. Same case happens in the second coil also. Dot convention is used to mark the polarity
of the mutual induction. Suppose two coils are placed nearby.

Coil 1 carries I1 current having N1 number of turn. Now the flux density created by the coil 1
is B1. Coil 2 with N2 number of turn gets linked with this flux from coil 1. So flux linkage in
coil 2 is N2 . φ21 [φ21 is called leakage flux in coil 2 due to coil 1].
Consider φ21 is also changing with respect to time, so an EMF appears across coil 2. This

EMF is called mutually induced EMF. Now it can be

written from these equations, Again, coil 1 gets induced by flux from coil 2
due to current I2 in the coil 2.
In same manner it can be written that for coil 1. However, using
the reciprocity theorem which combines Ampere’s law and the Biot-Savart law, one may
show that the constants are equal. i.e. M12 = M21 = M. M is the mutual inductance for both
coil in Henry. The value of mutual inductance is a function of the self-
inductances Suppose two coils are place nearby such that they are in mutual induction.
L1 and L2 are co-efficient of self induction of them. M is the mutual inductance.

Here, ƙ is called co-efficient of coupling and it is defined as the ratio of mutual inductance
actually present between the two coils to the maximum possible value. If the flux due to first
coil completely links with second coil, then ƙ = 1, then two coils are tightly coupled. Again if
no linkage at all then ƙ = 0 and hence two coils are magnetically isolated. Merits and demerits
of mutual inductance: Due to mutual inductance, transformer establishes its operating
principle. But due to mutual inductance, in any circuit having inductors, has to face extra
voltage drop.
How to find out Leq in a circuit having mutual inductance with dot conventionSuppose
two coils are in series with same place dot.

Mutual

inductance between them is positive. Suppose two coils

are in series with opposite place dot.
 When a few numbers of inductors are in series with
mutual inductances.

Self-Inductance
Self-inductance is the ration between the induced Electro Motive Force (EMF) across a coil
to the rate of change of current through this coil. Self-inductance is related term to self-
induction phenomenon. Because of self-induction self-inductance generates. Self-inductance
or Co-efficient of Self-induction is denoted as L. Its unit is Henry (H). First we have to know
what self-induction is. Self-induction is the phenomenon by which in a coil a change
in electric current produces an induced Electro Motive Force across this coil itself. This
induced Electro Motive Force (ε) across this coil is proportional to the current changing rate.
The higher the rate of change in current, the higher the value of EMF.

We can write that,

But the actual equation is The question is that why there is Minus (-)
sign? This Induced EMF across this coil is always opposite to the direction of the rate of
change of current as per Lenz’s Law.

When current
(I) flows through a coil some electric flux produces inside the coil in the direction of the
current flowing. At that moment of self induction phenomenon, the induced EMF generates
to oppose this rate of change of current in that coil. So their values are same but sign differs.
Look at the figure below.

Take a
closer look at a coil that is carrying current. The magnetic field forms concentric loops that
surround the wire and join to form larger loops that surround the coil. When the current
increases in one loop the expanding magnetic field will cut across some or all of the
neighboring loops of wire, inducing a voltage in these loops.

For the DC source, when the switch is ON, i.e. just at t = 0+, a current will flow from its zero
value to a certain value and with respect to time there will be a rate of change in current
momentarily. This current produces magnetic flux lines (φ) through this coil. As current
changes its value to zero to a certain value that’s why magnetic flux (φ) get rate of change

with respect to the time, i.e. Now apply Faraday's Law in this coil, Where,
N is the number of turn of the coil and e is the induced EMF across this coil. Lenz's law states
that an induced current due to induced EMF has a direction such that its magnetic field
opposes the change in magnetic field that induced the current. As per Lenz’s law we can

write down this equation of induced voltage across the coil, Now, we can
modify this equation to calculate the value of inductance of a coil.

so, [B is the flux density i.e. B

=φ/A, A is area of the coil], [N. φ or L.I is called magnetic flux Linkage and it is denoted
by Ѱ] Again, H.l = N.I, where H is the magnetizing force due to which magnetic flux lines
flow from south to north pole inside the coil, l is the effective length of the coil and

r
is the radius of the coil cross-sectional area.

L is a geometric quantity; it depends

only on the dimensions of the solenoid, and the number of turns in the solenoid. Furthermore,
in a DC circuit when the switch is just closed, then only momentarily effect of self-
inductance occurs in the coil. After then no effect of self inductance is in a coil. It is because
of steady flow of unidirectional current through this coil after closing the operating switch
after t = 0+.
But in AC circuit, alternating effect of current always causes the self-induction in the coil and
a certain value of this self-inductance gives the inductive reactance
depending on the value of supply frequency. Generally in the electrical circuit the coils those
are used are known as inductor having values of L1, L2, L3 etc. when they are series
combination then equivalent inductance of them is calculated as

When they are in parallel, then