LECTURE 1

Marine Environmental Pollution in context:

In one way or another, every landform and creature on earth reflects the presence of the oceans.
Understanding the Earth’s oceans is essential to our understanding of human history, the origin
of life, weather and climate, medicines, the health of the environment, energy sources, and much
more. Pollution is the release of undesirable SUBSTANCES into the environment. Many
human activities—industrial production, burning of fossil fuels, agriculture, and product use,
among others—generate pollutants that can find their way into the ocean. At one time, people
thought that the vastness of the ocean could dilute pollutants enough to eliminate their impacts. It
is now known, however, that some pollutants can significantly alter marine ecosystems and
cause harm sometimes deadly to species from the top to the bottom of the food web.

Pollutants often originate from far inland and are transported to the ocean via rivers or through
the air. Pollutants of particular concern include petroleum, excess nutrients from fertilizers,
debris, and industrial contaminants. Even noise, from such activities as shipping, seismic
exploration, and sonar, can affect ocean life.

The good news is that through innovative science and technology, regular monitoring,
environmentally- aware policies, and established treatment methods, some of the effects of
pollution can be contained and reduced. “scrubbers” (a purifier that removes impurities from a
gas) have been installed on coal power plants to reduce air emissions of pollutants;
microorganisms are being used to break down pollutants in sewage; wetlands and buffer zones
have been created along rivers and streams to absorb excess fertilizers; and oil dispersants are
being used to treat oil spills. Despite some successes in reversing hazardous effects of pollution,
much work remains to be done to protect ocean health for future generations.

1. Oil Pollution
Energy demands continue to rise as population increases and the developing world becomes
more industrialized. Although alternative energy sources are being pursued, oil is expected to
remain the dominant fuel for at least the next couple of decades. An important example of oil
pollution is the 1989 oil spill from the grounding of the oil tanker Exxon Valdez, still the largest
such spill in U.S. history, is infamous for the devastation it caused to the fragile marine wildlife
in Alaska’s Prince William Sound. The tanker spilled approximately 11 million gallons of its 53-
million-gallon cargo of crude oil, killing an estimated 900 bald eagles, 250,000 seabirds, 2,800
sea otters, 300 harbor seals and uncounted fish and invertebrates. Massive cleanup efforts
removed much of the visible crude oil within a year, but the slow release of the remaining oil has
continued to affect populations of local marine plants and animals to this day. Oil inputs from
human activities are categorized as those that originate from:
(1) Petroleum extraction, exploration, and production activities;
(2) Petroleum transportation, including tanker spills and
(3) Petroleum use, including runoff from highways and discharges from recreational
vehicles.

Petroleum runoff and recreational vehicle discharge have a major environmental impact The
impact of an oil release depends more on its location than its size. ” Even a relatively small
amount of petroleum can seriously harm marine life and habitat if it occurs in an area where the
oil cannot be contained or dispersed. Unfortunately, many spills take place in coastal areas that
are home to sensitive ecosystems such as mangroves and salt marshes that support a wide range
of fish, birds, and animals—some of them endangered.

2. Nutrient Pollution
when oxygen levels in the ocean become so low particularly in spring and summer such that
most fish and shellfish cannot survive, this create what is known as a “dead zone.” Fish, shrimp,
and crabs often flee, while less mobile bottom-dwellers such as snails, clams, and starfish may
die. The phenomenon is attributed to excess nutrients which is mostly from fertilizers that flow
down the river and empty into the ocean.

(I) Why are excess nutrients bad for marine life?

All living things require nutrients containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace elements to
sustain life. But if too much nitrogen and phosphorus find their way into the ocean, these
 nutrients fertilize the explosive growth of algae. When these algae sink and die, their
decomposition consumes most of the oxygen in the bottom water. Algal blooms not only
affect fish, but can contribute to the loss of seagrass bed and coral habitats and to the
deterioration of water quality. Hence nutrient pollution is a significant problem for many
coastal regions. However, causes of nutrient pollution are complex and site specific. The
majority of the nutrient pollution flowing into the sea can be attributed to agriculture,
primarily runoff of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizers applied to agricultural
fields, golf courses, and lawns. Most of the remainder comes from sewage treatment plant
discharges, septic system leaks, industrial discharges, and even deposits from the air of
nitrogen released by the combustion of fossil fuels or in vapors from fertilizers or manure.

Unfortunately, there are no easy-to-use and reliable methods to determine the sources of
nutrients flowing into coastal waters. Direct sampling is costly and time-consuming. Resource
managers often turn to ‘proxies’ to estimate nutrient inputs. For example, land-use data provide
information about agriculture, industrial activities, and housing developments that influence
trends in nitrogen and phosphorus inputs from runoff. Population data can be used as an indicator
of the amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion.

Measuring the concentrations of nutrients alone is not sufficient to understand the causes of
nutrient pollution in a given water body. Whereas added phosphorus is usually the cause of
eutrophication in freshwater lakes, additional nitrogen is in the culprit in most coastal marine
ecosystems. The reason for the difference is that algal growth is limited by the nutrient that is in
the shortest supply, referred to as the “limiting nutrient.” In marine environments, algal growth is
usually held in check because nitrogen is in limited supply relative to the other essential nutrients
in the water. When additional nitrogen inputs enter these marine environments—for instance,
when heavy winter and spring precipitation wash fertilizers and other nitrogen-containing
compounds to the coast—algal blooms can occur.

Furthermore, not all coastal areas respond to increased nutrients in the same way. For example,
although nitrogen concentrations tend to be higher in some area of coastal waters than in others,
the former may have relatively fewer problems with algal blooms, probably because the water is
more turbid and darker, which limits light and inhibits algal growth even when excess nutrients
are present.

(II) Input Reduction and Effective Monitoring Are Key to Fighting Nutrient Pollution
much progress can be made by controlling point sources of pollution such as that coming from
distinct points such as sewage or industrial pipelines—it is the nonpoint sources, which include
urban runoff, agricultural runoff, and atmospheric deposition, that are of current concern.
Although sewage inputs are the dominant problem in a few coastal areas, nonpoint source
pollution causes the most damage nationally.

3. Industrial Contaminants
Sediments contaminated with pollutants are widespread in coastal waters around the world. This
is as a result of Industrial, agricultural, household cleaning, gardening, and automotive products
and wastes regularly end up in coastal waters. Moreover, industries that are located in or
upstream of urban ports discharge wastes directly into waterways. Dense populations contribute
contaminants through sewage discharges, automobile emissions, and other waste generating
activities. Stormwater runoff also carries contaminants from distant sources.

Contaminants can reach the ocean through atmospheric deposition. For example, mercury is
released into the air when large quantities of coal and other fuels containing trace amounts of the
element are burned, from the incineration of mercury-containing medical wastes, and from other
human-induced sources. Ultimately, that mercury rains down into lakes, rivers, and the ocean.
Once deposited in sediments, mercury may be converted by aquatic organisms into
methylmercury, a more toxic form of the element.

For many years, U.S. power companies and the electrical industry used compounds known as
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) to insulate electrical transformers and other equipment. PCBs
were also used as fluids in industrial equipment in many manufacturing sectors. By the 1970s, it
was recognized that PCBs were toxic to wildlife and humans, causing damage to the
reproductive, neurological, and immune systems at high exposures. As a result, PCBs were
banned in the late 1970s. Nevertheless, these compounds still persist in the environment because
they break down very slowly.

Physical removal of PCB-contaminated sediments by dredging or other methods has had limited
success. Likewise, even though atmospheric levels of mercury have dropped from their peak
levels in the 1980—thanks to regulatory actions including mandated mercury controls on coal
power plants and more strict management of mercury wastes—mercury levels in fish remain
high in many areas. Thus, Nutritious benefits of seafood are jeopardized by concerns about
mercury. Fish and shellfish are excellent sources of protein and omega-3 fatty acids that offer a
number of health benefits. However, eating fish may expose people to various contaminants,
including methylmercury, which can be harmful to a person’s health if they are highly
concentrated.

Many contaminants stay in the environment for a long time and become more concentrated
through the food chain. Among the most troubling contaminants are heavy metals, such as
mercury and cadmium, and “persistent organic pollutants,” such as PCBs, dioxin, and DDT,
which remain in the marine sediment for a longtime. Marine life takes up such contaminants
from polluted sediments. Because these contaminants are much more soluble in fat than water,
they are excreted slowly and build up in the tissues of fish and shellfish. They also accumulate in
the tissues of people who eat contaminated fish.

Burning fossil fuels releases mercury and other contaminants into the atmosphere. These
contaminants eventually settle in bodies of water, where they are taken up by marine life.
Consequently, they pose a risk both to marine ecosystems and human health. Assessing potential
exposure to mercury is a challenge.

4. Noise Pollution
For about 119 species of marine mammals, as well as for some other aquatic animals, sound is
the primary means of sensing the environment and is used for communicating, navigating, and
foraging. The ocean environment has always included an abundance of natural noises, such as
the sounds generated by rain, waves, earthquakes, and other animals. However, a growing
 number of ships, oil exploration activities, and military and civilian use of sonar, are adding
noise to the ambient sounds in the oceanic environment.

Not enough is known about noise in the ocean and its effects on marine mammals. Potential
effects include changes in hearing sensitivity and behavioral patterns and acoustically induced
stress. Some marine mammals, such as minke whales or bottlenose dolphins, may be harmed by
noise pollution in the ocean.

It is possible to conclude that the impact of human noise on marine mammals is significant
enough to warrant concern. Yet, many fundamental questions remain unanswered. For example,
what is the overall level of noise in the ocean and what are the relative contributions from each
source? What are the effects of short- and long-term noise exposure on marine mammals? Do
observed responses to noise in individual animals result in population-level effects? To identify
problems that result from noise and to determine whether solutions are working, it is necessary to
continually monitor the environment for changes in both ocean noise and marine mammal
behavior.

4.1 Significant Sources of Human-Generated Ocean Noise

I. Transportation: Ships and boats, aircraft, icebreakers, hovercrafts, and vehicles on ice.
While the number of commercial ships is increasing, newer ships are often quieter, making
it difficult to estimate their contribution to ocean noise.

II. Dredging and Construction: Dredging, tunnel boring, and other operations.

III. Oil Drilling and Production: Drilling operations and offshore oil and gas production.

IV. Geophysical Surveys: Air-guns, sleeve exploders, and gas guns.

V. Sonars: Military systems, fish finders, and depth sounders.

VI. Ocean Research: Seismology, acoustic propagation, acoustic tomography, and acoustic
thermometry.

5. Conclusion
Ocean pollution is a diffuse, complex series of problems that are not easily addressed.
Nevertheless, some pollution problems can and have been successfully addressed. Because of the
value of science in dealing with pollution, there is a need to devote resources to research,
improved monitoring, and the continued development of pollution source-reduction strategies
and technologies. Efforts will be made more effective when actions at all levels of government
i.e., federal, state, and local; are better coordinated and when communications to the public about
pollution sources and impacts are improved.

Advances in science and technology are needed for the management of contaminated sediments.
Progress in science and engineering has advanced the ability to detect contaminants; however,
the challenge, is to foster similar advances in decision-making and clean-up strategies. Dredging
is one of the few options available for cleaning up contaminated sediments. However, based on
available evidence, dredging’s ability to decrease environmental and health risks is still an open
question. Such technical difficulties as underwater obstacles can prevent dredging equipment
from accessing sediments, and dredging can uncover and re-suspend buried contaminants,
adding to the amount of pollution people and animals are exposed to, at least in the short term.
Dredging is one of the few options available for cleaning marine sediments, but its effectiveness
in reducing environmental and health risks is still an open question.

The conclusion of Oil in the Sea perhaps surprising to many, is that oil from individual cars and
boats, lawn mowers, jet skis, marine vessels, and airplanes contribute the most oil pollution to
the ocean. This includes land runoff from oil slicks on urban roads and hydrocarbons deposited
from the atmosphere. Advances in technology are helping to reduce inputs of oil from vehicles.
For a long time, some recreational vehicles, for example, outboard motorboats, used inefficient
“two-stroke engines” that discharged significant amounts of oil into coastal environments. These
engines began to be replaced with more efficient engines in 1990 when the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) regulated “non-road engines” under the Clean Air Act. Clean-up
strategies require careful Study. There are no easy solutions to cleaning up oil spills. Available
methods include the use of biological agents that help break down the oil, use of materials that
absorb oil, and gelling agents that make oil easier to skim from the surface. People also
physically clean up spills by using high-pressure water hoses on shores and cleaning oil off of
animals.