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Site surveying involves determining the relative positions of points on the Earth's surface through measurements. A survey establishes control points that serve as a reference framework for detailed surveys. Surveys are classified based on their nature and purpose, such as topographic, engineering, cadastral, and hydrographic surveys. Sources of error include instrumental issues, human factors, and natural causes. Errors are categorized as gross, systematic, or random.

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47 views

Survey01 PDF

Site surveying involves determining the relative positions of points on the Earth's surface through measurements. A survey establishes control points that serve as a reference framework for detailed surveys. Surveys are classified based on their nature and purpose, such as topographic, engineering, cadastral, and hydrographic surveys. Sources of error include instrumental issues, human factors, and natural causes. Errors are categorized as gross, systematic, or random.

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dina gunasekera
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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SITE SURVEYING

• Surveying is the art of determining relative positions of


points on, above or beneath the earth’s surface by means
of measurements of distance, direction and elevation.
• Also includes establishing points by predetermined
angular and linear measurements (setting out)
A Map or Plan
A map or plan represents the surveyed area projected onto
a horizontal plane, to a selected scale. Vertical distances
may be shown in the form of contour lines, or more
accurately, by means of vertical sections drawn
separately.
Shape of the earth

• The earth is an oblate spheroid (polar axis 12713.80 km is shorter than


equatorial axis 12756.75 km).
• Curved earth surface cannot be shown on a flat sheet of paper (map)
without some distortion. Different types of ‘map projection’ used to
bring the 3-D shape of the surface to a 2-D map.
• Horizontal planes (normal to plumb line) at different points in survey
area are not strictly parallel due to curvature. This effect is negligible in
a survey covering a small area. Survey methods based on this
assumption are referred to as plane surveying.
• Needs to make allowance for the effect of curvature in a survey
covering a large area. The associated operations then belong to
geodetic surveying.
Classification of surveys

Based on the nature of field survey or purpose of the survey:


 Topographical survey – to determine natural and man-made
features of a country
 Engineering survey – to determine quantities or to provide data
for designing engineering works
 Cadastral survey – for fixing property boundaries and calculation
of land areas
 Control survey – to establish a network of horizontal and vertical
objects that serve as a reference framework for other surveys
 Route survey – topographic and other surveys for long narrow
projects in civil engineering
Classification of surveys (contd.)

 Hydrographic survey – for mapping shore lines and river banks,


observing tidal fluctuations, finding water depths and discharges
 Photogrammetric surveys – for mapping using data obtained with
cameras mounted on land (terrestrial) and in aircrafts (aerial)
 Military survey – to determine strategically important points
 Mine survey – for exploring mineral resources
 Geological survey – for studying different strata beneath the
surface of earth
 Archaeological survey – for exploring and unearthing objects of
archaeological value
Difference between surveying and setting out

 Surveying is the measurement of existing features for the purpose of


producing maps/plans – many readings can be taken, and analysed
to give a high degree of accuracy
 Setting out is the use of information from maps/plans to mark out
features to be built – the required accuracy, which is specified in the
contract documents, is normally less than that in a major survey –
observations are often taken only once

Setting out can be seen as the reverse process to that of


surveying.
Principles of surveying

Location of a point by measurement from two reference points


Continued

Distance between A and B is measured accurately, and plotted on a sheet


of paper to some scale. Now, any other point P can be located with
respect to A and B by two measurements as shown in 1a – 1d.
 AP and BP are measured, and point P is plotted by swinging two arcs
with these radii from centre A and B. (used in chain surveying)
 Perpendicular PQ is dropped from P to reference line AB, and lengths
AQ and PQ are measured. P can be plotted along the perpendicular set
at Q. This principle is used in defining details.
 AP and angle BAP are measured, and P is plotted using a protractor, or
more accurately, by solving triangle ABP. (used in traversing)
 Angles BAP and ABP are measured, and P is plotted in the same way as
above. This principle is used in triangulation.
Working from whole to part

• Important to first establish a system of control points over


the whole (larger) area, and fix them with higher accuracy
(Primary control)
• Minor control points could then be established over the
area (smaller) to be surveyed by less accurate methods
(Secondary, tertiary control)
• Details could be located using these minor control points
• Idea is to prevent accumulation of errors. If the reverse
process is adopted by expanding outwards from primary
control points in a small area, such errors could become
greater
Difference between a plan and a map

• Plan is a graphical representation of features to some scale, projected


on a horizontal plane (which is represented by the plane of the paper)
• Only a survey done in a small area can be shown on a map/plan
without measurable distortion
• The representation on a sheet of paper is called a plan if the scale is
large, and a map if the scale is small. However, there is no hard and
fast scale value to differentiate between the two.
• On a plan all distances are shown exactly to scale. However, on a map
certain dimensions, such as the width of a road on a street map, for
example, may be increased for clarity.
Scales of maps and plans

 The fixed ratio that every distance on the map/plan bears with the
corresponding distance on ground
 Scale can be given by following methods:
(a) 1 smaller unit of length (say, cm) on plan represents some whole
number of larger units of length (say, m) on ground.
Ex. 1 cm = 20 m
This type of scale is referred to as an engineer’s scale.
(b) 1 unit of length on plan represents some whole number of same
units on ground. Ex. 1/1000 or 1:1000
This ratio of map distance to ground distance, called representative
fraction, is independent of the units of measurement.
Scales (continued)

(c) An alternative method is to draw a graphical scale on the plan. It


is a line sub-divided into plan distance corresponding to convenient
units of length on ground.

 When the plan is used after a few years, numerical scales may not
be accurate if the paper shrinks.
If a graphical scale is also drawn, it will also shrink proportionately,
and the distances can be found accurately.
This is the reason for always drawing scales on survey maps.
Choice of scale

o Consider the use to which the map will be put, and the extent of
territory to be covered
o Scale to be large enough so that in plotting, or scaling from the map,
it will not be necessary to read very small values on the scale (say,
0.5mm)
o Use a small scale consistent with clear definition of smallest details
to be plotted
o Some typical scales used in various surveys:
Building sites 1/1000 or less
Location surveys 1/5000 to 1/20000
Town planning schemes 1/5000 to 1/10000
Choice of scale (contd.)

Small scale topographic maps 1/25000 to 1/250000


Cadastral plans 1/500 to 1/5000
Geographical maps 1/500000 to 1/16000000
Longitudinal sections –
Horizontal scale 1/1000 to 1/20000
Vertical scale 1/100 to 1/2000
Cross sections –
Equal horizontal and vertical scales 1/100 to 1/200
Sources and types of error

Errors may arise from three sources


 Instrumental – due to imperfect or faulty adjustment of instrument
 Personal – due to imperfect human eyesight in observing, or touch in
manipulating instruments
 Natural – due to natural causes such as temperature, humidity, wind,
refraction or magnetic declination
Errors in survey work may be classified into three types
 Gross errors (Mistakes, blunders) – arise from inexperience, lack of
attention, carelessness and poor judgment of the observer – recorded
values need checking in the field – undetected mistakes can produce
serious effects on the result
Types of error (contd.)

 Systematic (Cumulative) errors – usually due to some defect or


maladjustment in the instrument – always be of the same sign, and
hence cumulative – can be minimised by careful use and frequent
checking of instruments – if discovered later, they can be eliminated
by adjustment
 Random/Accidental (Compensating) errors – caused by reasons
beyond the control of observer – their magnitude is usually small, and
can be positive at times and negative at others, and hence the effect
is compensating – cannot be adjusted since their magnitude is not
known – they obey the laws of probability, and can be subjected to
statistical analysis to obtain the most probable value of the quantity

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