ESCAP 1985 RP Mineral Sands Asia Pacific
ESCAP 1985 RP Mineral Sands Asia Pacific
ESCAP 1985 RP Mineral Sands Asia Pacific
AUSTRALIA
MINERAL SANDS IN
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
MINERAL CONCENTRATIONS
AND HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATIONS
IN THE ESCAP REGION
Volume 4
UNITED NATIONS
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
AUSTRALIA
MINERAL SANDS IN
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
MINERAL CONCENTRATIONS
AND HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATIONS
IN THE ESCAP REGION
Volumn 4
ST/ESCAP/548
The designations employed and the presentation of the materials do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The opinions, figures and estimates set forth in this publication are the respon
sibility of the authors, and should not necessarily be considered as reflecting the views or
carrying the endorsement of the United Nations.
Mention of firm names and commercial products does not imply the endorsement
of the United Nations.
ii
FOREWORD
At its twelfth session in 1985 the Committee on Natural Resources recommended that the ESCAP secretariat review
the strategies affecting mineral resources development during the past 5 to 10 years in order to analyse and evaluate current
and projected demands and trends. In doing so it would be possible to identify those minerals on which exploration activities
should be concentrated in the light of projected short- and medium-term demand.
Subsequently, desk studies by the Mineral Resources Section identified minerals such as rutile, ilmenite, zircon and
monazite which had experienced both a strong demand and increase in price during 1985 and had strong potential for steady
growth in demand up to 1990. It was decided, therefore, that a comprehensive study of mineral sands would be both timely
and useful.
Handicapped by a lack of data at the outset, the secretariat was fortunate to obtain the support of the Australian
Bureau of Mineral Resources (BMR), which graciously agreed to provide experts to compile and analyse data, including those
available in its extensive data base, and to prepare a report on the findings.
The use of available data, augmented by missions to countries of the region to collect up-to-date information, expe
dited the study of the significant mineral sand resources in Asia and the Pacific. In this connection the secretariat wishes to
acknowledge the proficient contributions of BMR staff, particularly the authors of this report, Mr. Jack Ward, Assistant
Director, and Mr. Roy Towner, Commodity Specialist.
CONTENTS
Page
1. ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................................. 1
2. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
3. OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Titanium minerals ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Zircon............................................................................................................................................................ 11
Monazite ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
World production ........................................................................................................................................ 17
Trade ............................................................................................................................................................ 19
Consumption ............................................................................................................................................... 19
Resources....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Other detrital minerals ................................................................................................................................ 23
Prices ............................................................................................................................................................ 24
References .................................................................................................................................................... 29
4. COUNTRY REPORTS............................................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 Australia ....................................................................................................................................................... 30
4.2 Bangladesh .................................................................................................................................................... 45
4.3 Burma ............................................................................................................................................................ 49
4.4 China ............................................................................................................................................................ 50
4.5 India .............................................................................................................................................................. 60
4.6 Indonesia....................................................................................................................................................... 70
4.7 Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ 76
4.8 Korea, Republic of........................................................................................................................................ 81
4.9 Malaysia.......................................................................................................................................................... 84
4.10 New Zealand.................................................................................................................................................. 89
4.1 1 Pacific Islands................................................................................................................................................ 97
(a) Papua New Guinea.............................................................................................................................. 97
(b) Fiji ....................................................................................................................................................... 98
(c) Solomon Islands ................................................................................................................................. 99
(d) Vanuatu................................................................................................................................................ 100
(e) New Caledonia ................................................................................................................................... 100
4.12 Pakistan.......................................................................................................................................................... 102
4.13 Philippines ..................................................................................................................................................... 103
4.14 Sri Lanka ........................................................................................................................................................ I 12
4.15 Thailand ........................................................................................................................................................ 1 16
4.16 Viet Nam........................................................................................................................................................ 120
v
CONTENTS (continued)
Page
6. 127
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .........................................................................................................
7. APPENDIX 128
...................................................................................................................
7.1 BMR resource classification scheme............................................................................................................. 129
LIST OF FIGURES
vi
CONTENTS (continued)
Page
LIST OF TABLES
Page
4.4.3 Beihai processing plant — ilmenite concentrate analysis............................................................................. 54
4.4.4 Beihai processing plant — monazite concentrate analysis .......................................................................... 54
4.4.5 Summary data on heavy mineral deposits in offshore sand-bars of south-western Taiwan Province . . . 55
4.4.6 Recoverable heavy mineral concentrates from present known reserves in offshore bars of south
western Taiwan Province............................................................................................................................... 56
4.4.7 Chinese heavy mineral processing plants — production capacities ........................................................... 57
4.5.1 Composition of heavy mineral suites in major Indian deposits ................................................................ 62
4.5.2 Chemical analyses of Indian heavy minerals .............................................................................................. 62
4.5.3 The range (in percentages) of heavy minerals, magnetite and non-magnetic fractions and ilmenite in
the offshore placers of the Konkan coast, Maharastra, India..................................................................... 64
4.5.4 Identified resources of major Indian deposits ............................................................................................ 65
4.5.5 Current and planned production capacity................................................................................................... 66
4.5.6 Heavy mineral production 1981-1984 ........................................................................................................ 66
4.5.7 Production of ilmenite and rutile, 1978 to 1982, by states and districts ................................................. 66
4.6.1 Mineral sand deposits, Indonesia................................................................................................................... 72
4.7.1 Chemical analyses of Japanese iron sand concentrates............................................................................... 78
4.7.2 Japanese iron sand resources by province ................................................................................................... 78
4.7.3 Iron sand production by province, 1957, 1961, 1964 ............................................................................... 78
4.7.4 Production of processed commodities, Japan 1982-1984 .......................................................................... 79
4.8.1 Major heavy mineral deposits, Republic of Korea....................................................................................... 82
4.9.1 Mineralogical composition of heavy minerals collected from some tin mines and the Kampong Ajil
ilmenite deposit............................................................................................................................................... 86
4.9.2 Malaysian ilmenite analysis .......................................................................................................................... 86
4.9.3 Kampong Ajil reserves .................................................................................................................................. 87
4.9.4 Number of amang treatment plants operating in Peninsular Malaysia ...................................................... 87
4.9.5 Malaysian heavy mineral production, 1981-1984 ....................................................................................... 87
4.10.1 Major features of North Island sand-bearing formations............................................................................. 91
4.10.2 Iron sand resources of west coast North Island deposits............................................................................. 92
4.10.3 Chemical analyses of magnetic concentrates from North Island iron sand deposits ............................... 92
4.10.4 Ilmenite resources in west coast South Island deposits ............................................................................. 93
4.13.1 Mineral sand deposits of the Philippines...................................................................................................... 105
4.13.2 Analysis of magnetite concentrate from La Union Province ..................................................................... 108
4.14.1 Chemical analysis of ilmenite, rutile, and zircon from Pulmoddai, Sri Lanka ......................................... 113
4.14.2 Production and export of mineral sands, Sri Lanka..................................................................................... 114
4.15.1 Mineral constituents of samples from palongs at gravel pump mines, Thailand....................................... 116
4.15.2 Heavy mineral production in Thailand, 1980-1984 ..................................................................................... 118
4.16.1 Heavy mineral analyses from selected localities, Viet Nam........................................................................ 120
viii
Frontispiece 1: Self-elevating scraper mining basement ore in the eastern section of North Capel Mine,
now closed after 23 years of mining, with the wet concentration plant in the background.
(Photo by courtesy of Westralian Sands Ltd and Harry Mills Advertising)
ix
X
Frontispiece 2: Gordon mining operation - dredge and concentrator (capacity 3,500 tons/hour) mining high dunes located
at the southern end of North Stradbroke Island.
(Photo by courtesy of Consolidated Rutile Limited and K. Yarwood a Associates Pty Ltd)
ABSTRACT
In June 1971, the Committee for Co-ordination of does not cover detrital tin (with the exception of the
Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources in Asian Offshore amang associated with cassiterite) nor alluvial gold. Most
areas (CCOP) published a comprehensive review of the of the report is based on literature research using the
current status of knowledge of detrital heavy mineral extensive data base already held in BMR, supplemented
deposits in eastern Asia, both on land and offshore. with information obtained from specialists during short
visits to Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India and Bang
The review — Technical bulletin volume 5 (Special
volume — Detrital heavy minerals) — included reports by ladesh. Nevertheless, detailed data on some facets of the
Mr Eoin H. Macdonald on his visits to member countries industry were unavailable, and the authors experienced
in 1969, and on subsequent visits in late 1970 and early considerable difficulty in assembling reliable information
1971. on a number of countries.
Since then, many changes have taken place in the Information on countries in the region is reviewed
mineral sands industry, and at its twelfth session in 1985 under the following headings:
the Committee on Natural Resources of the Economic
and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) • History of the development of the industry
recommended that the secretariat, after a full and careful
• Resources (including geological setting and
review of the strategies promoted and effected during the
provenance of deposits)
past 5 to 10 years on mineral development, analyse and
evaluate current and projected demands and trends, and • Production
endeavour to identify those metals and minerals on which
exploration activities could be cncentrated in the light of • Processing
their projected demand in the short and medium term.
• Domestic consumption
The Mineral Resources Section of ESCAP in re
viewing industry data noted that minerals such as rutile, • Trade (imports and exports by country of
ilmenite, zircon and monazite were experiencing a strong origin/destination)
demand and increasing prices especially during 1985. • Potential for and future developments in the
Furthermore, it noted that a steady annual growth in de industry.
mand was envisaged for the same mineral products up to
1990. This outlook is encouraging for the ESCAP region, Understandably, country-by-country treatment of the
which is the world’s largest producer of mineral sands, and industry on such a detailed scale cannot be exhaustive in
also has a substantial portion of world resources of these a report of this length and readers are encouraged to
minerals. After evaluating some trends and developments avail themselves of the extensive reference lists which
in production, marketing, and resources, the ESCAP are provided for in the relevant sections.
secretariat suggested a study of the mineral sand resources
of the region. An overview section briefly describes the nature
The Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources (BMR) of the minerals, how they are mined, concentrated and
undertook to compile and analyse information, and to separated, and what they are used for. Production and
prepare a report on the mineral sand resources of the resources of these minerals on a world scale in summarised.
ESCAP region for publication.
The report concludes with some general observa
This report concentrates mainly on ilmenite, rutile, tions on the outlook for the heavy mineral sands industry
zircon, monazite/xenotime, chromite, and magnetite. It in the region.
3. OVERVIEW
Most detrital minerals occur as accessory types MINERAL IDEAL FORMULA TiO2 CONTENT*
within their host rocks, and become valuable only when
Rutile TiO2 92 to 98%
released by weathering and subsequently concentrated in a
favourable environment. The minerals originate from a Anatase TiO2 90 to 95%
wide variety of primary source rocks ranging from simple Brookite TiO2 90 to 100%
quartz veins to complexes of magmatic and/or metamorphic Ilmenite FeTiO3 35 to 60%
origin, and are also recycled through sedimentary rocks
Leucoxene TiO2 • nFeO 60 to 90%
such as sandstones and conglomerates, which, in some
cases, provide important secondary sources. Economic Perovskite CaTiO3 40 to 60%
concentrations occur wherever a catchment area of source Sphene CaTiSiO5 30 to 42%
rocks has yielded sufficient quantities of valuable minerals
and where physiography and climate have provided suitable The theoretical and actual TiO2 contents may differ, particu
conditions for deposition. larly when natural chemical processes such as oxidation and leaching
have been active. Some secondary deposits contain minerals with
The characteristic properties of common detrital higher TiO2 contents than calculated from their theoretical com
minerals are described in table 3.1 (after Macdonald, 1983). positions.
Apatite 5 3.17-3.23 Hex. 100 Rounded elongated (egg shaped) grains, occa
sional stumpy euhedral prisms.
Cassiterite 6-7 6.8-7.1 Tetrag. 100-240 Sometimes prismatic crystals, angular, rounded
grains and fracture fragments
Garnet (var) 6.5-7.5 3.42-4.27 Cubic 14-100 Commonly irregular, fractured, very variable
to well rounded
Gold 2.5-3.0 19.3 Cubic 5-200 but Rounded or flattened grains, rods, wirelike
variable pellets and flakes
Hornblende 5-6 3.0-3.3 Mono 60-199 Platy, cleavage flakes, some with ragged ends,
rounded stumpy prisms
Ilmenite 5-6 4.5-5.0 Hex 52-150 Irregular sub-rounded to rounded grains usually
equidimcnsional
Leucoxene variable 3.5-4.5 Amorphous 14-200 Rounded to sub-rounded and angular pitted ir
regular grains, coated
Magnetite 5.5-6.5 5.17-5.18 Cubic 14-100 Occasional octahedral crystals angular and well
rounded, irregular equidimcnsional
Monazite 5.0-5.5 4.6-5.4 Mono 30-150 Rare crystals, well rounded grains, usually
ellipsoidal, occasionally sub-euhedral tablets
Olivine 6.5-7.0 3.27-3.37 Orth 60 Usually irregular and much fractured, rarely
euhedral
Rutile 6.0-6.7 4.18-4.25 Tetrag. 14-200 Prismatic crystals, sometimes broken rounded
anhedral grains, fracture fragments, occasional
twins
Sphene 5.0-5.5 3.54 Mono various Occasionally diamond shaped, commonly ir
regular or sub-rounded
Zircon 7.5 4.20-4.86 Tetrag. 14-200 Prismatic and stumpy pyramidal crystals, com
mon, rounded grains and fracture fragments
6
down the inclined mine-face and transport ore to a blending individual final concentrate desired. The degree of com
stockpile adjacent to the feed preparation plant. The plexity of the metallurgical circuits depends basically on
blended ore is fed into a vibrating grizzly feeder. Here the type of ore, the relative quantities of the various
150 mm material is rejected and minus 150 mm ore is minerals present in the concentrate, and on product specifi
fed at a constant rate to double-deck vibrating screens cations. If ilmenite is the largest component of the heavy
where it is broken down with the assistance of water jets. mineral concentrate (as in the Western Australia deposits),
Any minus 2 mm material is pumped in a slurry to the wet it is extracted first by wet high-intensity magnets; where
concentrator. The oversize material is subjected to further the mixed concentrate is first dried, crossbelt magnetic
screening and drum scrubber/trommel action liberates separators are used first to extract the ilmenite.
heavy minerals contained in the clayey ore. Rejected
material is discharged to the mining pit. The non-magnetic fraction containing rutile, zircon
and monazite is separated into its specific mineral concen
In contrast, some naturally concentrated beach trates by the use of high-tension electrostatic separators and
sand deposits in India are worked with shovels, and selective electromagnetic separators. The dry mill usually
transferred to stockpiles in buckets, baskets, or hand consists of several stages of separators referred to as
carts. After sun drying, the ore is taken either by conveyor roughers, cleaners, scavengers, and recleaners, which com
belt or hand-pushed mine car to a ‘dry mill’ for final bine to recover and upgrade the final end product.
separation.
In summary, each of the heavy minerals has a
Wet concentration distinct physical property or a combination of properties
The objective of wet plants is to produce a high which allow it to be separated from the heavy-mineral
grade, heavy mineral concentrate with minimal losses of the suite. These characteristics are summarized in the following
table.
economic mineral, using mainly wet-gravity methods. The
feed to the wet plant varies from 2 to 20 per cent heavy
minerals. The concentrator exploits the size and the den Mineral Magnetic Conduc Relative density
sity differences between the heavy and the lighter gangue tive
minerals. The types of equipment most commonly used are
Ilmenite Yes Yes 4.5 to 5
the Reichert cone concentrator (for example, at Eneabba),
the Humphrey’s spiral concentrator (at North Stradbroke Rutile No Yes 4.18 to 4.25
Island), and the pinched sluices. The wet concentrators Zircon No No 4.2 to 4.86
may be land-based or floating, stationary or mobile. Monazite Yes (weakly) No 4.6 to 5.4
Leucoxene Yes Yes 3.5 to 4.5
The wet concentrate produced normally contains
in excess of 95 per cent heavy minerals. It is transported Xenotime Yes (slightly) No 4.59
from the wet plant, after being allowed to drain free of Quartz No No 2.65 to 2.66
moisture, to the dry mill, either by trucks, train or barge. (in crystals. Pure crypto-
crystaUine forms are
The quantity of residue or ‘tailings’ from the wet lower while impure
massive forms are
plant normally is in excess of 90 per cent of the orebody
higher).
mined. The sand tailings and slimes (clay) are returned to
the mined-out areas. As the mining pits are filled, the
surface is levelled or contoured to form stable dunes. To enable the small differences in properties to be
The previously stockpiled topsoil is returned, and the utilized, it is important that the mineral grains be discrete,
area sown with grasses, shrubs and trees. In frontal dunes and free from inclusives and surface staining.
areas, the surface may be covered with ‘brush matting’ to
protect the new growth from wind action. As the new Representative specifications of Australian mineral
growth develops, this brush matting decays, providing sands concentrates are given in table 3.2
additional humus for the restored area.
Processing
Dry plants
1. Upgraded products
Dry plants use magnetic, electrostatic, and gravity
separation methods to produce specific end concentrates. The abundance of ilmenite and scarcity of rutile
The flowsheets differ from company to company depend has led to the development of processes for upgrading
ing on the mineralogy of mixed concentrates and the ilmenite to a low-iron, hightitanium product referred to as
7
1. Rutile 2. Ilmenite
West coast
East coast West coast Typical %
Typical % TiO2 53.5-57.5
FeO 10.0-24.0
TiO2 96.20 95.2
Fe2O3 18.0-26.0
ZrO2 0.65 0.09
Cr2()3 0.02-0.05
Fe2O3 0.35 0.85 (total iron)
A12O3 0.6-1.2
SiO2 0.90 0.70
SiO2 0.4-0.8
A12O3 0.35 0.6
ZrO2 0.06-0.10
Cr2O3 0.20 0.15
V2O5 0.70 0.6 Guarantees %
synthetic rutile. Most of the upgrading processes consist of Essentially all these processes involve a series of
one of the following: oxidation and reduction reactions which break
down the ilmenite at a relatively early stage into
• Acid Leaching. Ilmenite is leached under pressure
TiO2 and FeO/Fe2O3 fractions. The titaniferous
with hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid. This
fraction of almost pure TiO2 remains after the iron
technique is used by the Chinese at their Pingguo
has been oxidized and/or leached away.
plant near Nanning, and was used by Gulf Chemical
and Metallurgical Corp, at Texas, United States. Reduction/Chlorination. Several processes of this
• Reduction/Oxidation/Leaching/Rusting. There are type have been patented but none arc used com
several patented processes for this method of mercially. Those held by Mitsubishi Metal Corp.
profucing synthetic rutile, the best known and most (Japan) and Chlorine Technology Ltd, a subsidary
successful being those of CSIRO/Western Titanium of RZ Mines (Newcastle) Pty Ltd involve essentially
Ltd (now a subsidiary of Associated Minerals the reduction of ilmenite which is chlorinated to
Consolidated Ltd), the Benilite Corp., and Ishihara produce a very high grade 95 to 98 per cent TiO2
Sangyo. Patented non-commercializcd processes synthetic rutile. The volatile iron chlorides produced
include those by Murphyores/CSIRO/and Tioxide/ during processing arc removed and oxidised to
Woodall Duckham. produce chlorine which is recycled. Tiron Chemical
8
Corp, of Canada has patented a process which pending on the TiO2 content of the feed material. For
involves the complete reduction of ilmenite followed every ton of TiO2 pigment produced, 3 to 4 tons of “cop
by leaching with a ferric chloride solution. peras” and 8 tons of waste sulphuric acid is generated.
Another product with relatively high TiO2/low iron The chloride process was introduced commercially
content, and which is susceptible to sulphuric acid attack in 1956 by Du Pont. The process uses rutile, synthetic
and therefore can be used as feedstock by TiO2 plants is rutile, or high titanium slag as feedstock. The only excep
titanium slag. Titanium slag is also used as feedstock in tion is Du Pont’s special patented process which uses a mix
titanium metal manufacture in China and in the Union of ture of rutile, leucoxene, and ilmenite, ranging from 63 to
Soviet Socialist Republics (Adams, 1984). 80 per cent TiO2.
Slag is produced by the electric arc smelting of In the chloride process, the feedstock is chlorinated
ilmenite, either alone (as at Amagaski, Japan, and Richards at 850°C to 950°C in a fluid-bed reactor in the presence of
Bay, South Africa) or together with hematite (as at Sorel, oxygen and a carbon source. The products are titanium
Canada). The final grade of the slag is largely determined tetrachloride (TiCl4), and other titanium and iron chlorides.
by the grade of the ilmenite feedstock. QIT Fer and The TiCl4 is separated, purified by fractional distillation,
Titane smelter (Canada) uses 32 to 36 TiO2 ilmenite to and then oxidised with air or oxygen, yielding TiO2.
produce a titanium slag grading 70 to 74 per cent TiO2, Typical recovery for the chloride process, depending on the
and since 1984 an 80 per cent TiO2 slag. At Richards Bay TiO2 content of the feed material, is 90 per cent. For every
(South Africa) a 45 per cent TiO2 ilmenite is upgraded to ton of TiO2 pigment produced, about 1.6 t of ferric
an 85 to 87 per cent TiO2. chloride is generated.
The impure titanium sponge is treated in one of two in the welding rod industry has been estimated to be in the
ways: region of 100,000 to 110,000 tons for 198 5. Important
criteria for titanium minerals used in welding include low
• acid leaching Fe2O3, and low levels of sulphur and phosphorus; high
• by vacuum distillation (as in Japan). Fe2O3 renders the slag too fluid for positional welding.
The production of titanium in the metal form Australian Consolidated Minerals Ltd (AMC), the
involves special techniques such as double arc melting, world’s largest mineral sands producer has developed a
electrolytics, or the iodide process. product called ‘Ferutil' at its Western Australian Capel
plant. This product, a reduced or metallised ilmenite
Within the ESCAP region, there are only two behaves similarly to a mixture of 70 per cent rutile and
countries with sponge capacity, Japan, with a total annual 30 per cent iron powder and as such has provided
capacity of 31,760 tons comprised as follows: manufacturers of arc welding electrodes with an alternative
Osaka Titanium Corp (at Amagaski) 15,600 tons economic source of flux additives.
Toho Titanium (at Chigaski) 12,000 tons Ilmenite is used in sand-blasting operations and
New Metal Industry Co. (at Nihongi) 2,160 tons more recently as a replacement for barite as a weighting
agent in well-drilling muds.
Showa Titanium (at Hiratsuka) 2,000 tons
Of the total titanium metal production, approxi brightness and brilliant whiteness; chemical inertness which
mately 30 per cent is used as the pure metal, 65 per cent as contributes to excellent colour retention; thermal stability
titanium alloys (with minor amounts of vanadium and over a wide range of temperatures ;non-toxic, non-fibrogenic,
aluminium), and 5 per cent as a minor additive to other and biologically inert; useful electrical properties; and
alloys based on nickel, copper, aluminium, or other metals others (Adams, 1984).
(Adams, 1984).
The largest market for TiO2 pigment is in the sur
face coating industries, particularly paints but also varnishes
3. Manufactured titanium dioxide and lacquer. In all western countries it is the most widely
Some 94 per cent of the world’s mine production used white pigment in paints. Surface coating industries
of titanium ore is used today in the manufacture of accounted for 62 per cent of total world TiO2 pigment
titanium dioxide, one of the most widely used inorganic demand in 1984. The second largest market was the plastics
chemicals (figure 3.1). industry (15 per cent), and the third largest was the paper
industry (12 per cent). Table 3.3 shows an estimation of
Although titanium dioxide was not manufactured the global distribution of TiO2 by end use (from Callow,
commercially until 1916, more than 2 million tons a year 1985).
are now consumed mainly as a pigment.
Substitutes
Two types of manufactured titanium dioxide are
sold, namely ‘anatase’ and ‘rutile’, each having the same Synthetic rutile (85 to 93 per cent TiO2) can re
crystal structure as the naturally occurring minerals. Their place natural rutile as feedstock in the manufacture of TiO2
different physical properties are reflected in their use for pigment by the chloride process.
particular applications. The ‘rutile’ type has been particu
Ilmenite, leucoxene, titanium slag may substitute to
larly suited to products such as paints, printing inks, floor
some extent for rutile as a protective covering over the
coverings, plastics, and cosmetics. In contrast, the ‘anatase’
molten weld in welding electrodes.
type is generally preferred in the manufacture of paper,
textiles, latex rubber, pharmaceutical products and soap. Limestone and fluorspar can substitute for rutile in
Both pigment types have minor applications in leather some protective fluxes.
footwear, ceramics, roofing, gelatin capsules, artifical
gems, food colouring, catalysts, glass fibres, textiles, and High-strength, low-alloy steels, aluminium or other
cosmetics (Adams, 1984). metals can substitute for titanium in many structural ap-
plications, but such substitution may result in lower per
The major use of titanium dioxide is as a pigment formance. Nickel steels are to some extent competitive
which reflects its special properties including: high refrac with titanium. Titanium carbide is used extensively in
tive index which imparts considerable opacity or hiding machine cutting tools where it is an alternative to tungsten
power; high reflectivity which imparts a high degree of carbide.
Western Europe 30.7 32.1 2.6 65.4 16.3 9.2 1.3 7.7
Eastern Europe 16.0 58.8 2.5 77.3 12.3 2.3 2.1 5.9
North America 29.0 19.2 1.9 50.1 16.8 22.5 3.0 7.5
South America 41.1 25.5 1.7 69.3 15.1 5.9 2.9 6.8
Middle East 45.0 42.5 1.0 88.5 5.5 - 1.8 4.3
Africa 52.8 35.4 2.6 90.8 5.9 0.8 0.8 1.6
World 29.2 30.6 2.5 62.3 15.2 12.1 2.7 7.7
Table 3.4.
The less pure, darker zircons are the basis of ‘standard Refractoriness is important where large or complex
grade zircon’. The chemical specifications for these grades steel castings are being made; low expansion gives
of zircon concentrates from different locations are shown improved stability of moulds at high temperatures.
in table 3.4.
Reduced wetability by molten steel, together with
In the mid-1970s when premium grade zircon was in the absence of low melting point compounds leads to
relatively short supply, some standard grade zircon from improved surface finish, reduced penetration of the mould
Western Australia was upgraded by a leaching and calcining by molten steel, and reduced incidence of ‘burning on’ of
process to produce a ‘ceramic grade’ zircon. The chemical sand to casting surface.
analysis of this grade was minimum 66 per cent ZrO2,
maxima of 0.1 per cent TiO2, and 0.06 per cent Fe2O3. Ground zircon (or zircon flour) is added to zircon
moulding sand to reduce permeability and improve surface
The pattern of zircon use in 1984 (excluding the finish. It is widely used as mould paint or dry dressing on
Soviet Union) is estimated to have been: silica sand moulds, to improve surface finish and to reduce
the incidence of ‘burning on’ — caused by the formation of
Use Tons Percentage low melting-point compounds produced between iron
oxides and the silica sand.
Foundry 182,400 24
Ceramics 212,800 28
Ground zircon is also used in ‘investment’ or ‘lost
wax’ casting in which a wax pattern is dipped into a slurry
Steelworks refractories of ground zircon and a bounding agent, such as ethyl
288,800 38 silicate. The resulting coating can be thickened by al
Glasswork refractories
ternate drying and redipping. When the desired thickness
Others 76,000 10 is attained the moulds can be hardened and the wax re
moved by heating. The moulds, in shell form, are placed in
Total 760,000 100
mould boxes with loose zircon sand to back up the shell
and to give strength to resist the ferrostatic head of the
The global pattern of zircon use varies considerably molten metal. Investment casting is used for precision
from country to country, with the United States using casting of complex shapes and is capable of producing
more in foundries, Japan more in steelworks, and Europe ‘as cast’ items of precise shape and highquality surface
more in ceramics. finish.
The major use in ceramics is as an opacifier, re lattice. These fused and cast refractories have greatly
placing the previously widely used, but very expensive, tin enhanced resistance to penetration by molten glass.
oxide.
Other Used of Zircon
For effective opacifying the zircon must be ground,
preferably to 5 microns. For optimum opacity, the glaze Significant minor uses of zircon include the pro
matrix should have a refractive index of less than 1.5. duction of:
For the whitest opacifying glaze the zircon must be low in
1. Zirconium metal, with or without hafnium.
iron and titanium, both of which tend to give a yellow tint
to the glaze. The zircon content of the glaze is usually 2. Zirconium chemicals, including pure zirconia
within the range 5 to 15 per cent. High zircon content and its derivatives.
leads to poor surface smoothness of the glaze but improved
wear resistance. 3. Zirconia.
One defect of zircon glazes is ‘metal marking,’ - a Zirconium metal is used for sheathing fuel elements
knife edge will produce a grey mark on the glaze. For this in nuclear reactors. For this purpose, zirconium must be
reason, zircon opacifiers are rarely used in tableware. hafnium-free.
Sanitary ware and tiles often have zircon opacified glazes.
Zirconium metal, produced from zirconium chloride,
is an important alloying element in magnesium alloys. It
Steelworks Refractories has a high melting point, l,860°C, and is very corrosion
resistant.
Large tonnages of zircon-based refractories are used
especially in the Japanese steel industry. Ferro-silicon zirconium has been used as deoxidant,
denitrifier, and grain refiner in steelworks practice.
Typically, zircon refractory bricks and shapes are
made from a mixture of zircon sand, zircon grog (a prefired Hafnium is used in nuclear reactor control rods
zircon sand), and finely ground zircon with appropriate where its ability to absorb neutrons readily is of importance.
bonding agents, usually clay or chemical bonding agents
such as phosphoric acid. The principal use is in ladle linings. Zirconium chemicals are used in pharmaceuticals,
The introduction of zircon and pyrophyllite refractories in toiletries, in tanning, and in the oil industry. They can
has resulted in an increase of 5 to 10 times the life of the substitute for chromium in the tanning of leather.
refractory compared with that of traditional alumino-silicatc
refractories. In pharmaceuticals, zirconia hydrates are used
because of their non-toxicity and chelating ability, that is,
Zircon refractories are also used in the vessels the ability to fix other desirable chemicals to an otherwise
involved in oxygen blowing steel-making processes, and in inert medium. Zirconium oxychloride and oxyhydrates
tundishes used for continuous casting. Zircon-based refrac are used in deodorants and anti perspirants.
tory shapes are used as nozzles, tap hole seals etc., where
erosion resistance and resistance to slag are important. The use of zircon compounds based on zirconia in
pigments for glazes is a growing market. For example, if
Some zircon refractories and shapes are fusion cast, which
vanadium is introduced into the zircon crystal lattice a
reduces porosity and enhances slag resistance and toughness.
blue colour results, praseodymium gives a yellow colour,
and a red colour can be obtained with neodymium.
Glassworks Refractories
While zirconia has a high melting point (2,800°C)
For glassworks refractories, the zircon must be low it suffers a destructive phase change at 1,000°C. It can,
in titanium and iron (typically Fe2O3 0.03 per cent maxi however, be stabilised with the addition of CaO, MgO, or
mum). Low TiO2 (0.10 per cent maximum) is especially Y2O3. Partially-stabilized zirconia (PSZ) which combines
important, as TiO2 encourages the dissociation of zircon hardness, high temperature resistance and for a ceramic
into ZrO2 + SiO2, as well as producing lower melting- toughness, can be used in wear-resisting components,
point compounds with SiO2; the same is true of Fe2O3. metal drawing dies, and shaping dies. PSZ is being used
Zircon when combined with alumina is resistant to attack cxpcrimctally in automobile engines, as heat- and wear-
by alkalies. resisting inserts in diesel engine piston heads.
For high-duty use, zircon refractories are often Zirconia is also used as a toughening agent in some
made by fusing zirconia, silica and alumina, to yield a alumina-based ceramics, and in porcelains for electrical
reconstituted zircon containing alumina within the zircon insulators.
14
Table 3.5. Monazite and xenotime chemistry expressed as percentage of total rare earth oxides
Monazite Xenotime
The process consists initially of digestion in either Rare earths have very similar atomic structures,
sulphuric acid or sodium hydroxide, separation of the giving rise to similar chemical properties. Historically, this
thorium and certain other elements, and the subsequent made the separation of the individual rare earths difficult.
recovery of various mixed rare earth compounds and
individual oxides. The sodium hydroxide treatment is Seven of the 14 rare earths have dual valence
preferred because it removes phosphates from monazite states and since changes in valence state are accompanied
more readily than the sulphuric acid process. by substantial changes in properties, selective oxidation or
reduction can be a useful technique for separation.
In the alkaline process, monazite concentrate is
finely ground and reacted with a hot concentrated solution Solvent extraction is widely used to separate the
of sodium hydroxide at 140° to 150°C for several hours. rare earth elements. Solvents used are organic phosphate,
Hydroxides of the rare earths and thorium formed in the acids or amines, usually in multiple stages with aqueous
reaction are insoluble, and trisodium phosphate and excess solutions containing the rare earths. Other methods to
sodium hydroxide remain in solution. Water is added, and, separate rare earths are fractional crystallisation, fusion and
after settling, the insoluble hydroxides are recovered by volatilisation.
filtration, sodium hydroxide is recycled to digestion, and
trisodium phosphate is recovered by crystallization. The most common method for preparing mischmetal
The filtered hydroxides are washed, and the (mixture of rare earth metals), and lanthanum, cerium
thorium is removed using one of several methods. In one praseodymium, and neodymium metals is by the electro
method the precipitated hydroxides are dissolved in nitric lysis of fused anhydrous rare earth chloride at about
or hydrochloric acid, and the thorium hydroxide is selec 900°C, using iron pots as cathodes and graphite rods as
tively precipitated by partial neutralization of the solution anodes.
with sodium hydroxide or ammonium hydroxide and
filtered. Molten metal accumulates at the bottom of the pot
and is tapped off. Slag from the process contains samarium
A second method to remove thorium is to dissolve and europium that is not reduced and is sometimes pro
selectively the rare earth hydroxides. The precipitated cessed for its rare earth value. Other electrolytic methods
rare earth and thorium hydroxides are mixed with water that have been employed include electrolysis of oxides and
and brought to a pH of 3.4 by the addition of hydrochloric fluorides in molten fluoride baths, electrolysis from molten
acid. At this pH the rare earth hydroxides dissolve selec electrolytes into low-melting-point metals such as zinc and
tively, forming a rare earth chloride solution. Undissolved cadmium, and aqueous electrolysis into mercury cathodes.
hydroxide is removed by filtration and may be heated to
produce thorium oxide. Metallothermic reduction of rare earth compounds,
using calcium, lithium, or magnesium, is used to obtain
In the acid process, monazite or xenotime is finely
yttrium, gadolinium, terbium, and lutetium metals.
ground and reacted with concentrated sulphuric acid at
Samarium, europium, thulium, and ytterbium metals can
200°C. After digesting under controlled conditions of
be prepared by reducing their oxides with other rare earth
acid concentration and temperature, the rare earth and
elements, zirconium, or mischmetal. Purification of rare
thorium sulphates thus formed are dissolved in water.
earth metals has been accomplished by various methods,
Insoluble impurities are separated by filtration. The
including distillation, solid-state electrolysis, and zone
thorium is precipitated from the solution with ammonia
refining.
and sodium pyrophosphate. The rare earths are subsequent
ly precipitated as an insoluble double sulphate by reacting
A recent development in the technology for separat
with sodium sulphate, or as a rare earth oxalate by reacting
ing rare earth elements has been the ion-exchange
with oxalic acid. The double salt can be reacted with
chromatography method developed by Asahi Chemicals in
sodium hydroxide to form rare earth hydroxide.
Japan. The method depends upon the selective adsorption
Solvent extraction and ion exchange are the com onto and selective elution from a column packed with
mercial methods used for the separation of the individual resin. The potential advantage of this process is the elimina
rare earth elements. One or both techniques are used by tion of multiple stages of the solvent extraction method.
most companies that produce individual rare earth com
pounds.
Uses
The circuits used are usually quite complex, in
volving many processing steps and multiple-stage solvent Rare earth applications arc numerous and diverse.
extraction. In general they can be ascribed according to the types of
16
compounds involved, which can be divided into two Ceramics: Colourings for glazes, vision-protection
categories: goggles, high temperature refractories, internal combustion
engine components, metal substitutes, corrosion-resisting
(1) Compounds consisting of a mixture of rare coatings on metal, stabilizers in refractory ceramics,
earths either
mineralizers.
(a) In proportion to their occurrence naturally
Illumination: Phosphors (fluorescent tubes and
in the ore for example, ‘natural’ mischmetal
television tubes, x-ray intensifying screens, data display
is about 53 per cent Ce, 25 per cent La,
tubes), mercury vapour lamps, carbon arc lamps, trichro
16 per cent Nd, 5 per cent Pr, 1 per cent
matic fluorescent lamps, gas mantles.
others), or
Electronics: capacitors, cathodes, electrodes, semi
(b) Where one or more of the rare earth ele
conductors, thermistors, gadolinium-gallium garnets (GGG)
ments has been removed ‘cerium-free’ for computer memories, integrated circuit substrates,
mischmetal is about 42 per cent La, 42
yttrium-iron garnets (YIG), ferrite materials, yttrium
per cent Nd, 14 per cent Pr, 2 per cent aluminium garnet (YAG) crystals as diamond substitutes
others)
(in jewellery) and in lasers.
(2) Compounds containing an individual rare
Magnets: For electric motors, alternators, genera
element oxide either
tors, computer disc drive actuators, proton nuclear accelera
(a) In the 60 to 90 per cent purity range, or tors, travelling weve tubes, Une printers, headphones,
loudspeakers.
(b) Of greater than 98 per cent purity.
Nuclear: Control rods, reactor components,
The application of the mixed rare earths is based
burnable poisons, shielding, detectors and counters, fuel
on the fact that the chemical behaviour of the individual
reprocessing.
rare earth elements is similar. Uses include petroleum
cracking catalysts, and glass-polishing compounds. Other: Jewellery, paint and ink driers, textiles,
hydrogen fuel storage devices, refrigerating devices,
The application of compounds in category (1)
thermometers.
above is based on individual chemical, physical and nuclear
properties; or as in the case of (2)(a), the associated ele The main markets for rare earth products by market
ments are merely divalents which are not detrimental to sector are estimated, by B.T. Kilbourn of Molycorp, to be:
the effectiveness of compounds, and hence the cost is
kept to a minimum, for example, for the production of Market 1984 1986
permanent magnets. Percentage Percentage
Glass: Polishing compounds, decolourizers, Substitutes can be used for rare earths in many of
colourizers, colour correctors, high refractive index glasses, their applications. However, in most instances, the sub
radiation stabilizers, light absorbance, fibre optics. stitutes are significantly less effective than the rare earth
17
BRAZIL
elements. Selenium and arsenic compounds can substitute CENTRALLY PLANNED
ECONOMIES
in part for cerium oxide as glass decolorizers. Iron oxide
(rouge), alumina, and zirconium oxide can replace rare
earth oxides for optical polishing. U.S.A
434,000 tons
WORLD PRODUCTION
WORLD
WORLD
Monazite Rutile
Zircon Ilmenite
WORLD
WORLD
AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA
REST ESCAP
REST ESCAP
REST ESCAP
REST ESCAP
Figure 3.3. Comparison of heavy mineral production - Australia, rest of ESCAP, the world, 1970-1985
18
BRAZIL
Figure 3.5. World Zircon Production - 1986 (estimated)
U.S.A.
3. Monazite (figure 3.6)
U.S.S.R.C
CHINA a
U S.A b
Figure 3.4. World ilmenite production — 1986 (estimated)
AUSTRALIA
Australia was the largest producer with 6,350 tons, derived On a global scale, most of the production of rutile
from 10,583 tons of monazite concentrate (15.2 per cent and 72 per cent of detrital ilmenite production is exported
of the world total, 37.7 per cent of detrital production). by the producer countries.
Brazil and Malaysia produced an estimated 5,500 tons of
monazite each. ESCAP countries production of monazite 2. Zircon
concentrate in 1986 contained an estimated 22,600 tons of
rare earth oxides, 54.0 per cent of the world total. Of this, The world zircon export scene is dominated by
12,600 tons were produced from detrital monazite de Australia, nearly all Australian production being exported.
posits, constituting about 75 per cent of the total world The only other substantial exporter is South Africa. India,
detrital monazite production. Malaysia and Sri Lanka export some zircon, but on a much
smaller scale.
TRADE 3. Monazite
CONSUMPTION
ITALY 2. Zircon
BELGIUM
Western world consumption of zircon is about
AUSTRALIA
700,000 t/year. The major consumption of zircon has
CANADA traditionally been in foundry sands. However, in the
United States consumption in this outlet has fallen
FINLAND
dramatically, mainly because of the substitution of the
cheaper chromite for zircon, and the decline in the steel
FRANCE
industry. In 1986, the United States consumed an estimated
127,000 tons of zircon in the following end-uses:
USSR 3. Monazite
USSR
The United States is the major consumer, as well as
producer, of rare earth products, with an apparent con
sumption in 1986 of 14,200 tons of rare earth oxides
(USBM, 1987) or 34 per cent of world production. World
1986 1985 1985 monazite exports are directed mainly to the United States,
Pigment Sponge Metal Sponge Metal
Capacity Production Capacity Japan, and Western Europe. Australian monazite exports in
1985 were mainly to France (10,031 tons) and the United
Figure 3.8. World consumption pattern for titanium States (7,101 tons); small tonnages were directed to Malaysia
minerals (872 tons). Malaysia operates a rare earth processing plant
21
RESOURCES
SRI
INDIA
LANKA
AUSTRALIA
JAPAN U.S.A.
SIERRA LEONE
CENTRALLY
0 Substantial tonnages
PLANNED
reexported to other
ECONOMIES
European destinations
OTHERS OTHER
U.S.A
CANADA a U.S.S.R.
CHINA 2
SOUTH AFRICA
SOUTH AFRICA
AUSTRALIA
INDIA
NORWAY a
U.S.A.
37,200,000tons
839,000,000 tons
U.S.S.R. b INDIA
AUSTRALIA
MALAYSIA
SRI LANKA
a. Hard rock resources CHINA
b. Hard rock and detrital resources
Figure 3.12. World resources of zircon
Figure 3.11. World resources of ilmenite
Countries of the ESCAP region Australia, India,
China, Sri Lanka and Malaysia account for about 59 per
the largest demonstrated resources of detrital rutile with
cent of total world zircon resources.
approximately 9 Mt, followed by South Africa with 5.1 Mt
and India with 4.2 Mt. ESCAP countries, mainly Australia
3. Rare earth oxides (figure 3.13)
and India, control approximtely 58 per cent of the detrital
rutile resources. The USBM estimates the reserve base for rare earth
oxide (REO) as 47.3 Mt of which 43.8 Mt is associated with
The demonstrated resources of ilmenite are 839 Mt
hardrock deposits, largely in the bastnaesite-monazite
(Towner and others, 1987) of which approximately 74 per
cent is associated with hardrock deposits in Norway
(ilmenite-norite), Canada (ilmenite-hematite), and China
(titaniferous-magnetite). China has the largest resources
with 216 Mt, the Soviet Union has 211 Mt, Norway 128 Mt,
South Africa 85 Mt, Canada 75 Mt, and India has 58 Mt.
Australia’s demonstrated resources of alluvial ilmenite are
about 27 Mt. ESCAP countries, mainly Australia, China
and India, and to a lesser extent Sri Lanka and Malaysia
possess about 29 per cent of the world estimated resources
of ilmenite.
deposits of China (36.0 Mt REO) and the bastnaesite Metallurgical uses are in iron, steel and non-ferrous
deposit in California, United States (3.6 Mt REO). Other alloys which enhance hardness and resistance to corrosion.
hardrock resources include monazite in Malawi and South The manufacture of stainless steel now consumes 61 per
Africa, bastnaesite in Kenya and Burundi, xenotime and cent of world chromium production. Advances in stainless-
gadolinite in Canada, and the loparite and apatite deposits steel-refining technology have made possible the use of
of the Soviet Union and Scandinavia (Hedrick, 1985). high-iron chromite for this end-use. Previously, high-iron
chromite was considered suitable only for chemical use.
The remaining 3.5 Mt REO is contained in detrital
monazite (including xenotime) equivalent to about 5.8 Mt Chromium chemicals are used widely as pigments,
monazite. India has the largest reserve base with 3.17 Mt in leather tanning and as catalysts. Chromite ore is treated
of monazite or 54.7 per cent, followed by Australia. BMR to produce a sodium dichromate solution from which
estimates that Australia’s demonstrated resources of mona several chemicals are derived, and it is also used for electro
zite total 231,000 tons. lytic chrome plating.
ESCAP countries total reserve base of detrital Sodium dichromate when reacted with other
monazite (excluding small detrital deposits in China for metal salts is the basis of many pigments. It is also used in
which data are unavailable) is estimated at about 4 Mt, or leather tanning, textile dyeing, and timber preserving.
about 68 per cent of the world total. Other chromates have numerous uses, particularly as cor
rosion inhibitors, as pigments, and on audio and video
magnetic recording tapes. Raw chromite flour is used in
OTHER DETRITAL MINERALS glass, ceramics, and face bricks.
from a chromite sand deposit on Palawan Island. Other were the main minerals, the ilmenite being used to make
chromite sand deposits are known elsewhere in the Philip titanium slag.
pines. The Philippines is the only other country in the
The only other detrital deposit of any significance ESCAP region where iron sands have been mined extensive
in the region is the unexploited metallurgical-grade ly. Philippine deposits contain 10 to 50 per cent magnetics
chromite placers at the Ramu River, Papua New Guinea. as magnetite and titanomagnetite (6 to 25 per cent Fe). All
Alluvial occurrences have been recorded on the Solomon such mining was suspended by the Government in 1976 for
Islands and New Caledonia. Metallurgical- and refractory environmental reasons. Formerly, output was exported to
grade chromite is mined from hardrock deposits on New Japanese steelmakers.
Caledonia.
PRICES
Iron sand
World production of mineral sands is confined to a
Iron sands are a minor source of iron ore and in few major producers. The bulk of the trade is maintained
some deposits, for example in New Zealand, may be a under long-term contracts which are subject to negotiations
future source of vanadium and titanium. between the producer and the consumer. Understandably,
contract prices are confidential and vary according to grade,
The detrital deposits occur on beaches, dunes or old
quality and scale, and type of contracts.
river terraces, the heavy minerals in most cases being
derived from Quaternary andesitic volcanics. The following Australia is the world’s leading producer and ex
heavy minerals are important commercially: porter of these commodities, and export values f.o.b.
Australia can be considered to be a general guide to prices
Magnetite Fe3O4 and a good indicator of price trends in the industry.
Titanomagnetite (Fe, Ti)3O4 Australian export values are shown in figures 3.14 A, B, C
Ilmenite FeTiO3 and D.
Titanohematite (Fe,Ti)2O3 The current boom in the mineral sands industry
Hematite Fe2O3 began in 1984 when the Australian average export value of
rutile rose above $A 300/ton. In 1985, this value increased
Titanomagnetite often contains exsolved ilmenite to $A 394/ton, and again in 1986 to $A 466/ton. Ilmenite
and is currently the most important ore of this group. In unit export values have also improved, albeit at a slower
New Zealand it is used as a primary source of iron for rate, from $A 28.87/ton in 1984 to $A 34.50/ton in 1985
steel-making, whereas in Japan it is used as a low-cost to $A 46.86/ton in 1986.
iron ore, as well as an important additive to preserve blast
Zircon prices over the years have been most volatile
furnace linings.
and reflect the former role of zircon as a by-product of
The New Zealand iron sands contain 15 to 40 per titanium minerals. The improvement in demand for zircon
cent titanomagnetite (8 to 22 per cent Fe). The concentrate in recent years began in 1982, when the average export
is ground and pelletized with bentonite as feed for the value of zircon (including both the standard and premium
Stelco Lurgi process using non-coking coal to produce grades) increased to $A 106/ton from $A 83/ton in 1981,
sponge iron for direct conversion to steel in conventional and to $A 118/ton in 1983. After a brief pause in 1984,
electric-arc furnaces. The slag contains 30 per cent TiO2 the upward pressure commenced again in 1985 ($A 129/
and currently is discarded. ton) and continued through 1986 ($A 167/ton) as supply
tightened. In early 1987, the average export value of
Japan uses New Zealand iron sand in small quanti
premium grade zircon was $A 219/ton, and for standard
ties with other iron ore feedstock to preserve refractory grade bulk zircon, $A 189/ton.
linings of blast furnaces. The titanomagnetite also aids in
the reduction and removal of nitrogen from pig iron. Export values for monazite have also increased
About one million tons of Japanese steel (about 1 percent sharply ($A 420/ton in 1984, $A 510/ton in 1985 and
of production) is derived from iron sands. All the require $A 657/ton in 1986).
ments in iron sand concentrate for this purpose are met by
Spot prices published by Industrial Minerals
New Zealand.
Magazine account for a relatively small amount of trade
Ironsands were mined in Japan until 1979 when and are determined by short-term changes in the supply/
economic resources were exhausted. The deposits original demand position. They are given in figure 3.15 and
ly contained up to 26 per cent Fe, reduced to 5 per cent by indicate the continuing upward pressure on the prices of
the time the operation ceased. Magnetite and ilmenite mineral sands commodities in general.
25
Constant (1960) $
Current $
Constant (1960) $
Constant (1960) $
Current $
Constant (1960) $
Years
Current $ price
Current $ price
Constant $ (1968)
Current $ price
Current $ price
REFERENCES
Anon; 1979 - Rare earths industry profile and market Hedrick, J.B., 1985 — Rare earth elements and yttrium.
review. Industrial Minerals No. 139, p. 21-59. In Mineral facts and problems, 1985 edition.
United States Bureau of Mines Bulletion 675,
Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and Titanium dioxide. Finan p. 647-664.
cial Times Ltd., London. 244 p.
Hedrick, W.T., 1987 — Rare earth metals. In Mineral
Adams, W.T. 1987 - Zirconium. In Mineral commodity
commodity summaries, 1987, United States Bureau
summaries 1987. United States Bureau of Mines,
of Mines, p. 126-127.
p. 182-183.
British Geological Survey. 1986 — World Mineral Statistics Lynd, L.E., 1985 — Titanium. In Mineral facts and prob
1980-1984 production; exports; imports (Key lems, 1985 edition. United States Bureau of Mines
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey). Bulletin, 675. p. 647-664.
Callow, D.M. 1985 — The prospect for titanium dioxide MacDonald, E.H., 1983 - Alluvial mining: the geology,
pigment. Industrial minerals, No. 209, p. 59-61. technology and economics of placer deposits.
Chapman and Hall, London, New York.
Clarke, G. 1987 — Zircon - In demand as availability
squeezed. Industrial minerals, No. 235, p. 35-45. MacPherson, M.H., 1983 — Zircon to the year 2000.
Industrial minerals, Refractories supplement, 1983.
Fantel, R.J., Buckingham, D.A. and Sullivan, D.E., 1986 — p. 83-88.
Titanium minerals availability - market economy
countries - a minerals availability appraisal. United Power, T., 1985 — Chromite: the non-metallurgical markets.
States Bureau of Mines information circular No. Industrial Minerals, No. 211, p. 17-51.
9061, p. 47. Towner, R.R., Gray J. and Porter L.M. 1987 - ISMI
Griffiths, J. 1984 - Rare earths - attracting increasing summary report — Titanium. United States
attention. Industrial minerals, No. 199, p. 19-31. Geological Survey Circular, 980-G.
4. COUNTRY REPORTS
4.1 AUSTRALIA
1970, at Eneabba, 250 km north of Perth, of one of the beaches, fossil beaches, buried strandlines, and coastal
largest heavy mineral-sand deposits in the world. Subse dunes.
quent prospecting led to discoveries of deposits at Jurien,
Cataby and Gingin. These deposits, unlike those in the East coast
Capel-Yoganup area, contain important quantities of rutile East coast deposits occur along approximately
and zircon, as well as ilmenite. Mines were established at 1,700 km of the coastline, from Munmorah in New South
Eneabba by Jennings Mining Ltd, Allied Minerals NL and Wales, north to Rockhampton, in Queensland (fig.4.1.1).
Western Titanium Ltd, and WMC Mineral Sands Ltd under The individual deposits range in area from about 700 to
took pilot-plant studies at Jurien in 1975. The mine site 13,000 hectares, (ha), and are either wave-concentrated
was put on care-and-maintenance in 1977. Jenning Mining deposits or wind-blown deposits, or a combination of both.
Ltd ceased operations in December 1979, and both Allied
Minerals Ltd (later to become Allied Eneabba Ltd), and Mineralogically, the composition of the heavy
Western Titanium Ltd became wholly-owned subsidiaries of mineral suites varies geographically. Deposits in the New
Associated Minerals Consolidated Ltd. The Eneabba castle region of New South Wales have a rutile plus zircon
deposits have made Western Australia an important world to ilmenite ratio (Z+R:I) of about 5.0 to 1.0. Further
source of ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and monazite. north in New South Wales the ratio decreases to about
3.0 to 1.0. In Queensland, the ratio is about 0.6 to 1.0.
Meanwhile, environmental considerations had This shift reflects an increasing ilmenite content rather than
restricted expansion of the mineral sands industry along the a decreasing rutile/zircon content in deposits from south to
east coast. A number of national parks were delineated in north.
the mid-1970s, effectively prohibiting companies from
mining beach sand deposits in these areas. There is also a geographical variation in the chemical
composition of the ilmenite. The ilmenite contains 1 to 4
Consequently, in terms of Australian production of
per cent Cr2O3 most of which occurs as discrete grains of
mineral sand concentrates, these changes resulted in a shift chromium spinels, and which makes the ilmenite unsuitable
of the industry from the east to the west coast. Australian in general for pigment manufacture. This chromium con
ilmenite output increased from 900,000 tons in 1970 to tent decreases northwards; in the central coastal area of
1.3 Mt/year during the early 1980s. Natural rutile which Queensland, the ilmenite contains as little as 0.02 per cent
peaked at 390,000 tons in 1975, declined to 158,000 tons Cr2O3 (Connah, 1961). A low chromium/ilmenite fraction
in 198 3, and zircon production rose to a peak of 492,000 suitable for pigment manufacture via a synthetic rutile
tons in 1980, over 25 per cent of the production being process can be separated from the material by electromag
derived from the Eneabba district. netic methods.
Reviews of the heavy mineral deposits in Western In Queensland, on North Stradbroke Island (fig.
Australia have been published by Lissiman and Oxenford 4.1.1), heavy mineral deposits occur as beach strandlines,
(1975), Welch and others (1975), and Baxter (1977). The wind-blown coastal dunes, and high transgressive dune
reader is invited to consult these works for more details on systems up to 100 m in elevation. The dunes are composed
individual deposits and occurrences, and their regional entirely of quartzose sand in which heavy minerals are dis
geological setting. seminated in concentrations of about 0.5 to 1.0 per cent.
A historical account of the mineral sands industry The suite of heavy minerals in high dune concentrates
along the east coast has been published by Morley (1981). consists of 50.1 per cent ilmenite, rutile 15.8 per cent, 12.5
A brief synopsis of various companies’ mining operations, per cent zircon, and 0.2 per cent monazite (McKellar,
as well as their wet plant concentrations and dry separation 1975).
plant methods, was published in 1980 by the Australasian
Other areas where heavy minerals occur but arc not
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (Woodcock, 1980).
mined include Moreton Island, Cooloola, Fraser Island,
Agnes Waters, Gladstone Mainland, Curtis Island and By
Geology of mineral sand deposits field (fig.4.1.1).
Heavy mineral sand concentrations are widely dis Moreton Island is a sand mass of some 18,960 ha,
tributed along the Australian coast, and fall geographically lying 40 km offshore from Brisbane. It consists of beach-
and mineralogically into three distinct categories the ridge deposits on the east grading into high wind-blown
rutile-zircon-ilmenite deposits of eastern Australia, the dunes up to 280 m in elevation. Heavy minerals are disse
ilmenite deposits of south-west Western Australia, and minated throughout the dunes. The proportion of heavy
the ilmenite-zircon-rutile deposits of the Eneabba region minerals in the suite is 42.8 per cent ilmenite, 27 per cent
of Western Australia. The deposits occur in present-day rutile,and 17 percent zircon (McKellar, 1975).
32
The Byfield deposit consists of very steep, wind 1949). Near Horsham, Tertiary fossil strandlines within the
blown sand dunes between 70 and 200 in high. The dunes Murray Basin containing fine-grained heavy minerals are
contain up to 2 per cent heavy minerals extending to depths currently being evaluated.
of 100 m. The heavy mineral suite is comprised of 50 to
60 per cent ilmenite, 10 to 14 per cent zircon, and 4 to 6 Offshore from (he productive beaches between
per cent rutile (Skulley, 1986). The chromium content of Newcastle and Southport, fossil strandlines were investi
the ilmenite is about 0.2 per cent Cr2O3. This area is gated in the late 1960s and early 1970s by private compa
currently under investigation by R Z Mines (Newcastle) Pty nies, as well as by BMR, and by the Sonne Cruise in 1980
Ltd, with mining planned for the 1990s. (Brown and MacCulloch, 1970; Brown, 1971; Jones and
Davies, 1979; Stackelberg, U. von, 1982). Low-grade heavy
In New South Wales, the main mining activity is minerals (less than 2.0 per cent) have been indicated by
centred on the Tomago Sand Beds, in the Williamstown drilling and sampling in water depth of 30 m.
area, and near Hawks Nest.
West Coast (fig. 4.1.2)
The Tomago Sand Beds are a concentration of
unconsolidated wind-blown sands deposited as dunes and Mineral sand deposits of Western Australia are
sand plains, containing between 1.5 and 2 per cent heavy located on the Swan Coastal Plain from Busselton north to
minerals and grading, on average, 0.5 per cent rutile and Eneabba (1,300 km), and on the Scott Coastal Plain, 160
0.7 per cent zircon. The sand beds have an average width km south of Busselton. The Swan Coastal Plain is a strip of
of 5 km, and are up to 18 m thick. They are separated low-relief terrain up to 30 km wide, which is bounded on
from the coast by a younger dune system. the east by a scries of scarps.
The Williamstown deposit is located within a series In the Bussclton-Bunbury area, four sub-parallel
of parabolic dunes covering about 1,000 ha. The heavy dune systems are preserved, each of which represent a still
mineral content is about 2 per cent; the assemblage con stand of sea level during the build-up of the Swan Coastal
sisting of about 40 per cent rutile, 25 per cent zircon, and Plain. The dune systems are now separated by alluvial
30 per cent ilmenite. The recoverable mineral content flood plains associated with major rivers draining the hinter
has been estimated as 43,000 tons of rutile and 17,000 land. Correlation of the shoreline sequences in the south
tons of zircon (Minerals Deposits Ltd, 1977). and north of the coastal plain is summarized in table 4.1.1
(from Baxter, 1979).
The Viney Creek deposit occurs in an area 4 to 14
km north of Tea Gardens. The mineralization occurs as a The Minninup shoreline lies at the seaward margin
number of parallel beach deposits (400 to 800 m wide and of the Swan Coastal Plain. Sediments of this shoreline are
up to 10 km long) which coincide with former shorelines. within the Quindalup Dune System and the Safety Bay
The average grade of mineralization is 0.8 per cent, mineral Sand (Baxter, 1977). The sediments, which consist of lime
composition averaging about 30 per cent rutile and 18 per sand, quartz sand, peat and silt disposed in lenticular bands,
cent zircon. lie within an arcuate, Holocene barrier system some 50 km
Other areas along the northern New South Wales in length, and were laid down in a nearshore-marine envi
coast contain heavy mineral sands. Some of these were ronment (Collins and Hamilton, 1986). The heavy mineral
worked in the 1970s, but environmental legislation has content of the deposits, which arc 1.5 to 3 m thick, varies
from 30 to 50 per cent; and is conprised 75 to 85 percent
curtailed mining activity. These areas include the Bridge
Hill Ridge-Myall Lakes district which consists mainly of of ilmenite, and 6 percent of zircon. Two previously-
wind-blown dunes; and the Evans Head-Yuraygir National worked mines on this shoreline, at Koombana Bay (near
Park region which is mostly beach strandlines. Bunbury), and at Wonnerup Beach (near Busselton) pro
duced a total of 422,243 tons of ilmenite before closing in
Elsewhere in eastern Australia heavy minerals occur 1966 and 1967 respectively (Baxter, 1977). Currently,
on King Island, where beach placers containing up to 60 Cable Sands Ltd is mining a 15 m high foredune containing
per cent heavy minerals are located along the central part about 20 per cent heavy minerals. The base of this deposit,
of the east coast from Naracoopa north to Cowper Bay. known as the Minninup deposit, is the Tamala limestone.
Rutile and zircon occur in equal proportions. In central
west New South Wales, in an area known as Pilliga Scrub, All deposits on this shoreline, formed on beaches
low-grade, fine-grained heavy minerals arc known to be cut in the underlying rocks, are located between 3 m above
present within the alluvial sands. and 3 m below mean sea level. They represent an assort
ment of beach and dune deposits associated with a prograd
In Victoria, deposits of mineral sands have been ing beach. The progradation has caused concentrations of
recorded in the (ape Edward-Mallacoota area (Fisher, heavy minerals to be separated by up to 10 m of barren
34
and enriched in titanium are known as leucoxene grains. benches between 75 m and 128 m above the present mean
Generally, the ilmenite in the top 3 to 5 metres of the sea level. Quartzose heavy-mineral-rich sands were depo
deposit exhibits the greatest degree of leucoxenization. sited as beaches, overlain by lenticular beds of silt, sand,
and minor conglomerate as swale and estuarine deposits.
The average heavy mineral grade is 12 per cent to These sediments are overlain by dune quartz sand and
15 per cent. The typical mineral assemblage is ilmenite contain-heavy minerals where they arc in contact with the
75 per cent, leucoxene 10 per cent, zircon 10 per cent, beach sand units. The main heavy-mineral concentrates
rutile 1 per cent, monazite 0.5 per cent, and others 3.5 per occur in the basal beach sand unit. The zircon content
cent. decreases to the west.
Deposits on this line occur at Yoganup (or Yoganup
The Eneabba deposits of marine-estuarine, beach
Central mine) now completed, Yoganup Extended mine,
and dune environments were developed in a coastline envi
and Yoganup North (or North Boyanup)due to commence
in 1987. All are operated by Westralian Sands Ltd. ronment similar to Geographe Bay (Lissiman and Oxenford,
1975) during a series of high sea levels, probably in Late
The Waroona shoreline occurs to the north of the Tertiary or Early Pleistocene times (Baxter and Hamilton,
Yoganup line and consists of sand, silt and clay deposited 1981). The environment was a northwards-facing bay fed
in fluviatile, aeolian and marine environments. The deposits by streams carrying the heavy minerals. The cast-dipping
consist in general of a basal conglomerate (overlying either Mesozoic sediments were the immediate source of heavy
Archean or Mesozoic sediments) overlain by up to 9 m of minerals which were introduced to the ancient ‘Eneabba
clayey sand, silt, and peat containing some 60 per cent Bay’ by rivers. Each strandline represents a ‘still-stand’ of
heavy minerals. This is overlain by yellow well-sorted dune sufficient duration during the regression of the sea for a
sand with an average grade of less than 15 per cent heavy well-developed platform to be cut into the Mesozoic
minerals. Only one prospect, the Waroona prospect, is sediments by wave action, and for the heavy minerals to he
currently being worked by Cable Sands Ltd, east of subsequently concentrated.
Waroona township. The average composition of the heavy-
mineral fraction from this prospect is 80 to 82 per cent The Munhinea shoreline on which the Jurien and
ilmenite, 1 to 3 per cent leucoxene, and 4 to 5 per cent Cooljarloo deposits arc located occurs to the south of the
zircon (Baxter, 1977). All the deposits on the Waroona line Eneabba shoreline. The Jurien deposits consist of a paralic
contain up to 20 per cent clays. sequence laid down in three distinct shorelines between 36
and 43 m above mean sea level. The heavy minerals occur
The only shoreline north of Perth which is currently as lenses in the clayey matrix conglomerate and the over
being mined is the Eneabba shoreline, located some 50 km lying quartz sands. The grade of heavy minerals varies from
inland from the coast in the vicinity of Eneabba. Heavy- 6 to 9 per cent. The deposits are overlain in part by cal
mineral sands have been deposited on a series of eroded carenite and lime sands.
36
The Cooljarloo deposits consist of three distinct Of the economic demonstrated resources of mineral
subparallel lines of mineralization occurring in paralic sands. sands located on the east coast, about 50 per cent are cur
The deposits are lenticular and contain up to 20 per cent rently unavailable for mining because of environmental
heavy minerals. legislation.
BMR reassesses Australian mineral sand resources Domestic consumption of rutile is confined to small
every year. The data as at December 1986 are summarized amounts of rutile sand and flour used mainly as coatings on
in table 4.1.2. welding-rod electrodes. BMR estimates consumption in
Demonstrated Inferred
Rutile Ilmenite Zircon Monazite Rutile Ilmenite Zircon Monazite
ECONOMIC
East Coast 6,059 10,607 5,824 52.8 237 523 247 2.26
Western Australia
Southwest 43 10,465 1,087 32.7 4 3,879 14
Midlands 2,857 22,231 6,030 145.2 4 28
SUBECONOMIC
East Coast 26 100 46 0.3 1,261 5,925 1,529 11.9
Western Australia
Southwest 45 603 102 3.0 13 254 220 16.1
Midlands 367 2,327 984 31.0 Not available
a The reader is referred to Appendix 1 which summarizes the terminology and classification of mineral resources adopted by BMR.
37
Tons (’000)
Year
Figure 4.1.3A Rutile production, Australia
RUTILE
Queensland 89,112 80,651 73,767 95,219 96,955
New South Wales 47,669 34,840 36,006 36,727 42,579
Western Australia 83,916 47,883 60,651 79,669 80,512
Total 220,697 163,374 170,424 211,615 220,046
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 57,295 50,204 (e) 53,354 85,202 nya
ILMENITE
Queensland 26,744 14,037 68,823 168,089 212,442
New South Wales 31,502 17,266 15,753 15,173 20,458
Western Australia 1,090,966 861,267 1,048,595 1,235,605 1,058,449
Total 1,149,212 892,570 1,133,171 1,418,867 1,291,349
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 35,196 22,396 55,650 64,678 nya
LEUCOXENE
Western Australia 19,739 13,358 32,110 13,809 16,266
Total 19,739 13,358 32,110 13,809 16,266
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 3,737 2,673 6,952 4,003 nya
ZIRCON
Queensland 72,731 66,525 64,018 80,017 90,746
New South Wales 66,017 56,899 56,631 49,669 48,199
Western Australia 323,728 258,581 336,950 371,754 280,345
Total 462,476 382,005 457,599 501,440 419,290
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 45,540 25,887 52,549 62,104 nya
MONAZITE
Queensland - 147 — —
New South Wales 198 365 668 980 99
Western Australia 9,364 14,629 15,592 17,755 10,484
Total 9,562 15,141 16,260 18,735 10,583
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 3,888 6,210 7,017 9,523 nya
TOTAL VALUE, EX-MINE ($’000) 145,656 107,370 n.a. n.a. nya
Source: ABS.
nya - not yet available
e - estimated
39
400
300
Year
41
RUTILE
Japan 29,083 26,795 19,037 34,241 25,853
United Kingdom 59,441 55,653 38,090 47,542 69,026
United States 71,200 85,059 83,370 88,169 78,614
Others 39,572 50,155 51,010 41,735 56,172
Total3 199,296 217,662 191,507 211,687 229,665
Value 50,876 53,955 58,018 83,473 116,412
ILMENITE
Japan 61,398 65,049 213,812 240,342 152,355
Spain 80,466 88,651 105,941 96,491 79,291
United Kingdom 161,524 93,287 144,945 127,539 165,466
United States 329,379 283,776 425,330 488,891 452,837
USSR 79,627 104,044 103,059 62,723 -
Others 166,923 182,126 179,899 135,935 184,260
Totala 879,317 816,933 1,172,986 1,151,921 1,034,209
Value 22,284 23,005 33,859 39,746 48,454
LEUCOXENE
Japan 4,101 4,066 5,724 4,727 1,500
United States 9,642 4,958 22,731 7,254 5,123
Others 273 252 2,504 4,798 6,851
Totala 14,016 9,276 30,959 16,779 13,474
Value 2,904 1,706 7,062 4,510 5,152
ZIRCON
Italy 59,291 44,420 57,946 60,465 67,061
Japan 160,878 163,033 168,586 196,731 160,022
United Kingdom 16,348 17,347 13,525 24,220 22,542
United States 60,793 20,109 46,461 29,522 34,857
Others 107,905 135,066 151,252 182,926 161,208
Total3 405,215 379,975 437,770 493,864 445,690
Value 43,064 44,745 51,819 63,881 74,495
MONAZITE
France 5,588 12,468 10,031 10,031 12,725
United States 6 594 4,706 6,883 7,101 743
Others 3,069 496 1,210 892 632
Totala 15,251 17,670 18,124 18,024 14,100
Value 6,161 7,202 7,629 9,219 9,182
Source: ABS
a F.o.b. ($’000)
42
Table 4.1.8 Analysis of AMC synthetic rutile Australia’s second TiO2 plant, together with its
and natural rutile associated sulphuric acid plant, was established in 1963 by
Laporte at Bunbury with an initial capacity of 12,000 tons/
AMC year. The wholly-owned operating company was Laporte
Synthetic rutile Rutile Titanium (Australia) Ltd, which changed its name to
% by wt. % by wt.
Laporte Australia Ltd in 1970. After a series of expansions,
TiO2 92.5 95.2 the company reached its current capacity level of 36,000
tons/year in 1976. Ilmenite for the plant is drawn from the
Fe(t) 2.4 0.60
Associated Minerals Consolidated Ltd mine at Capel. Sul
MnO 1.1 0.05 phuric acid requirements are met from its own plant,
Al2O3 1.1 0.6 supplemented by deliveries from other acid plants in the
SiO2 0.9 0.7 region. Plant wastes are disposed of in special ponds
ZrO2 0.2 0.9 located nearby, where the base of natural limestone beds
V2O5 0.22 0.6 provides neutralization of the acid content.
Cr2O3 0.10 0.15 In 1984 Laporte sold its Bunbury plant to SCM
Nb2O3 0.25 0.5 Corp (United States).
MgO 0.30 0.01 Australia is a small but significant exporter of TiO2,
CaO 0.03 0.01 mainly to the Asian and United States markets; the exact
p2o5 0.03 0.03 quantities exported are confidential but are in the region
S 0.2 0.02 of 2 5,000 to 30,000 tons/year.
monazite-processing plant near Pinjarra in Western Austra will be constructed two to three years after stage one.
lia. This plant is to be developed in two stages. Stage one,
to be operational in 1989, is to build a plant to crack Currumbin Minerals on the east coast is planning
12,000 to 15,000 tons of monazite a year, and separate to produce rare-earth oxides from a small plant (capacity
out some of the individual light rare earths. Stage two will 5 00 to 2,000 tons a year) in late 1987.
involve processing the heavy rare earth fraction; this stage
REFERENCES
Australian Government, 1976 — Fraser Island Environ Collins, L.B., and Hamilton, T.M., 1986 — Stratigraphic
mental Inquiry: Final report Australian Govern evolution and heavy mineral accumulation in the
ment Publishing Service, Canberra. 268 p. Minninup shoreline, southwest Australia. In Austra
lia: a world source of ilmenite, rutile, monazite and
Baxter, J.L., 1977 — Heavy mineral sand deposits of zircon. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metal
Western Australia. Geological Survey of Western lurgy, Symposia series, 46, pp. 17-21.
Australia, Mineral Resources Bulletin: 10, 148 p.
Collins, L.B. and Baxter, J.L., 1984 — Heavy mineral
Baxter, J.L., 1979 — Mineral sands. In Prider, R.T. (ed.) —
bearing strandline deposits associated with high
Mining in Western Australia. University of Western
energy beach environments, southern Perth Basin,
Australia Press (Perth), 304 p.
Western Australia. Australian journal of earth
Baxter, J.L. and Hamilton, 1981 — The Yoganup formation sciences, 31. p. 287-292.
and Ascot beds as possible facies equivalents.
Western Australia Geological Survey annual report, Collins, L.B., Hochwimmer, B. and Baxter, J.L., 1986 —
for 1980. p. 42 and 43. Depositional facies and heavy mineral deposits of
the Yoganup shoreline, southern Perth Basin. In
Bracanin, B.F., Clements, R.J. and Davey, J.M., 1980 — Australia: a world source of ilmenite, rutile,
Direct reduction technology — the Western titanium
monazite and zircon. Australasian Institute of
process for the production of synthetic rutile, Mining and Metallurgy, Symposia series 46. p. 9-15.
ferutil and sponge iron. Proceedings of Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy No. 275, p. 33-42. Fantel, RJ., Buckingham, D.A., and Sullivan, D.E., 1986 —
Brown, G.A., 1971 - Offshore mineral exploration in Titanium minerals availability - market economy
Australia. Underwater journal and information countries — a minerals availability appraisal. In
bulletin, 3(4). p. 166-176. formation circular, United States Bureau of Mines,
No. 9061,48 p.
Brown, G.A. and MacCulloch, I.R.F., 1970 - Investigations
for heavy minerals off the East Coast of Australia. Fisher, N.H., 1949 — Cape Everard heavy mineral deposits.
Transactions of sixth annual Marine Technology Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophy
Society conference and exhibition, Washington D.C. sics, Australia, Record 1949/30 (unpublished).
p.983-1001.
Gardiner, J.E., 1975 — Heavy-mineral beach sands along
Cassidy, P.W., Clements, RJ., Ellis, B.A. and Rolfe, P.R.,
the east coast of Australia. Bureau of Mineral
1986 - The AMC Narngulu synthetic rutile plant.
Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia,
In Australia: a world source of ilmenite, rutile,
Record 1975/92 (unpublished).
monazite and zircon. Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Symposia series 46, p. 123- Gardiner, J.E, 1975 — Heavy-mineral deposits along the
128. coast of Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia,
Connah, T.H., 1948. Reconnaissance survey of black Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geo
sand deposits, Southeastern Queensland. Queens physics, Australia, Record 1975/42 (unpublished).
land government mining journal, 49. p. 561.
Gardiner, J.E, 1975 Heavy-mineral sands deposits along
Connah, T.H., 1961 Beach sand heavy mineral deposits the coast of Western Australia, Bureau of Mineral
of Queensland. Geological survey of Queensland Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia,
publication 302. 31 p. Record 1977/34 (unpublished).
44
Mineral Deposits Ltd., 1977 — Environmental impact study Welch, B.K., Sofoulis, J. and Fitzgerald, A.C.F., 1975 —
report for proposed heavy mineral sand mining Mineral sand deposits of the Capel area, W.A. In
operations in the Newcastle Bight dunes, north of Knight. C.L. (ed.) — Economic geology of Australia
Stockton. and Papua New Guinea: 1, Metals. Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Monograph 5.
Mineral Deposits Ltd., 1978 — Environmental impact study p. 1070-1088.
report for proposed heavy mineral sand mining
operations in mining leases 165, 164 and 152, Woodcock, J.T. (ed.), 1980 - Mining and metallurgical
Bundaberg Rock Point area, south of Agnes Waters. practices in Australasia (the Sir Maurice Mawby
memorial volume), Monograph series No. 10.
Morley, I.W., 1981 - Black sands; a history of the mineral Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
sand mining industry in eastern Australia (University Chapter 20 — Mineral sands, p. 733-389.
4.2 BANGLADESH
A detailed description of the Moheshkhali Island Production in Bangladesh has been from a pilot
deposits, and brief descriptions of the Cox’s Bazar, Teknaf plant located at Cox’s Bazar and which began operation in
and Badarmokam deposits are given in Howarth and others 1975. Production levels have fluctuated widely since then,
46
Table 4.2.1 Mineralogical composition (percentage, by weight) of the total heavy fraction
from the deposits of the south-eastern coast of Bangladesh
Total %
Sl. Deposit heavy Zircon Rutile Ilmenite Leucoxene Monazite Magnetite
No. minerals
Main coast:
1. Badarmokam 23.3 12 0.80 23.0 4.38 1.20 250
2. Subrang 19.7 6.1 2.00 28.6 5.06 0.30 1.46
3. Teknaf 22.8 6.4 3.00 37.0 4.55 0.70 1.63
4. Shilkhali 17.8 6.8 220 35.4 224 0.80 0.63
5. Inani 24.1 6.2 2.30 30.3 0.25 055 3.16
6. Cox’s Bazar 18.0 25 0.75 175 1.14 0.22 3.61
Moheshkhali Island
7. Foreshore beach 42.2 5.98 3.17 46.02 2.42 0.11 0.69
8. Kutubjum 20.8 4.30 1.98 34.31 1.09 0.19 1.10
9. Fakiraghona 235 221 2.13 23.02 1.39 0.08 0.42
10. Fakirahata 21.8 5.70 4.00 22.90 3.80 0.20 0.10
11. Baraghoriapara 192 331 3.71 28.73 353 0.51 0.68
12. Panir chara 12.8 5.96 3.17 29.35 2.70 026 1.89
13. Hoanak (Nalbila) 7.3 1.41 2.15 19.66 0.97 0.05 1.78
14. Matarbari Island 22.4 522 1.94 32.61 2.46 0.13 3.78
15. Nijhum Dwip 25.0 2.13 0.44 13.47 0.08 0.02 455
16. Kutubdia Island 29.0 325 1.59 19.83 2.03 0.08 2.82
Table 42.2 Chemical analyses of ilmenite, rutile at levels sufficient to test the material derived from the
and zircon, Moheshkhali Island, Bangladesh various deposits unless specific supply contracts are received
from local buyers (Baribiswas, 1983; BAEC, 1986).
Ilmenite Rutile Zircon
I II I II I II Future Developments
TiO2 40.3 42.8 88.9 78.1 1.23 1.37 The BAEC is now seeking foreign participation in
the development of a commercial-scale operation but is
Fe2O3 59.4 56.4 1.0 6.1 0.2 0.26
stipulating that there be no involvement of a foreign
Cr2O3 0.37 0.29 0.1 0.085 - -
Government, that is, only private corporations will be
ZrO2 - - - - 65.8 63.8 accepted. Apparently this requirement has recently pre
SiO2 1.02 1.03 4.9 4.8 32.0 32.0 cluded involvement by some Japanese companies with
MnO 121 1.28 - - - - Government interest (BAEC, personal communication,
S - — — 6.0 - - 1986).
Source: Howarth and others, 1977 Baribiswas (1983) of BAEC has outlined in some
detail a proposed small-scale operation to be located at
I Panir Chara
Cox’s Bazar. The projected financial returns of this pro
II Fakirhata
posed operation are based on heavy mineral commodity
prices that appear unrealistically high compared with the
ranging from zero output between 1978 and 1980, to over prevailing prices. Careful market research on the various
300 tons/year of combined valuable heavy minerals in commodities will be required to determine the economic
1983. In the 1985-1986 financial year, the production was viability of any proposed operation.
magnetite 1.5 tons (99 per cent purity), ilmenite 0.25 tons
(99 per cent purity), and zircon 0.35 tons (90 per cent There are no reports of heavy mineral concentrates
purity). The general policy of the BAEC is to operate only imported into Bangladesh (Chin and others, 1986).
48
Heavy
Sand
Deposit mineral Zircon Rutile Ilmenite Leucoxene Monazite Magnetite
tonnage
tonnage
Main Coast
1. Badarmokam 1,765,000 411,000 4,932 3,288 94,530 18,002 4,932 10,275
2. Subrang 347,558 68,582 4,184 1,372 19,614 3,470 206 1,001
3. Teknaf 1,939,580 442,291 28,306 13,230 163,170 20,124 3,045 7,209
4. Shilkhali 2,756,828 489,714 33,300 10,774 173,360 10,970 3,918 3,085
5. Inani 729,286 175,476 10,880 4,036 53,170 439 965 5,545
6. Cox’s Bazar 5,119,000 920,000 23,000 6,440 161,000 10,488 2,024 33,212
Moheshkhali Island:
7. Foreshore beach 276,560 119,480 7,145 3,788 54,961 2,891 131 824
8. Kutubjum 577,980 106,240 4,568 2,104 36,440 1,158 202 1,169
9. Fakiraghona 273,940 68,460 1,513 1,458 15,746 952 55 288
10. Fakirahata 409,120 96,750 5,515 3,870 22,157 3,677 194 97
11. Baraghoriapara 888,440 181,770 6,017 6,744 52,168 6,416 927 1,236
12. Panirchara 1,595,410 204,390 12,264 6,479 60,091 5,519 531 3,863
13. Hoanak (Nalbila) 92,780 7,120 100 153 1,400 69 4 127
14. Matarbari Island 69,030 15,215 794 295 4,962 374 20 575
15. Nijhum Dwip 379,337 96,348 2,052 424 12,978 77 19 4,384
16. Kutubdia Island 404,646 119,997 3,900 1,908 23,796 2,436 6 3,384
Total: 17,624,495 3,522,833 148,470 66,363 949,543 87,062 17,179 76,274
REFERENCES
Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, 1986 — Beach tional. United States Bureau of Mines, p. 1005-
Sand Exploitation Centre, Annual technical report, 1009.
July 1985-June 1986.
Howarth, W.J., and others, 1977 — Mineral sands study,
Baribiswas, M.A., 1983 — Evaluation of the scientific and Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. The Australian Mineral
technical activities of Beach Sand Exploitation Development Laboratories (AMDEL), Report No.
Centre, Cox’s Bazar. Bangladesh Atomic Energy 1168,81 p.
Commission, Report No. 1.
MacDonald, E.H., 1976 — Final project report, Cox’s Bazar
Chin, E., and others, 1986 — The mineral industry of other pilot plant project. Unpublished report for BAEC
areas of the Far East and South Asia. In Minerals and the Australian Development Assistance Agency.
yearbook, 1984, vol. III - Area reports: interna
4.3 BURMA
The only reported production of detrital heavy such as ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and monazite may also be
minerals in Burma is from tin-tungsten operations. In associated with the tin. In Malaysia and Thailand these
recent years Burma has produced about 3,000 tons/year of heavy minerals are retrieved from the ‘amang' dumps (the
combined tin-tungsten concentrates. Most of this is appa waste dumps produced during the tin-concentrating pro
rently derived from alluvial operations; an increasing cess). As far as is known, this is not being done in Burma.
amount is being won from offshore operations. Almost all No information is available on the possible heavy mineral
major deposits are located in the Tanasserim district in the resources, but tonnages are not likely to be very large.
far south of the country. Tin-mining operations in Burma
are owned and operated by a Government corporation, the There is no recorded imports of mineral sand
Mining Corporation No. 2. products (Kinney, 1986).
REFERENCE
Kinney, G.L., 1986 — The mineral industry of Burma. In international. United States Bureau of Mines,
Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III — Area reports: p. 157-162.
4.4 CHINA
History by the Japanese during the Second World War when there
was a great demand for iron. Small-scale mining occurred
The presence of heavy-mineral-bearing beach sands again between about 1960 and 1970, with production
in China has been known since ancient times. The first averaging about 1,000 tons/year, but there is no report of
mining of the sands, excluding that for gold and excluding any recent iron sand mining in Taiwan Province (Ho, 1953;
that in Taiwan Province, occurred in the late 1950s on United Nations, 1970).
Hainan Island (Guangdong Province). Farmers conducted
the mining by hand and processing was carried out at The Japanese started mining zircon in 1941 and
Sai-Lao (Shalao) and Wuzhaung (Wuchang). Initial capacity monazite in 1944 along the west coast of Taiwan Province.
at both plants was a few thousand tons/year of ilmenite but Mining ceased at the end of the Second World War, by
is now 20,000 tons/year of ilmenite. Over the years facili which time about 200 tons of zircon and 2 tons of monazite
ties to recover small quantities of zircon, monazite, and had been produced. In 1951 and 1952 investigations of the
rutile have been added and two additional smaller plants mineral sands along the west coast were carried out by the
have been established on the island. Taiwan Monazite Prospecting Bureau, and in later years by
the Atomic Energy Council of Taiwan (Ho, 1953).
Exploration of heavy-mineral sands on the mainland
of Guangdong Province also occurred in the late 1950s.
Mining started on the beaches in the early 1960s with dry Geology
processing plants being established at five localities: The important heavy mineral deposits occur in the
Haikang, Zhanjiang, Dianbai, Xitou and Yangjiang. The south of China, with most of the production of heavy
capacity of each plant was approximately 15,000 tons/year minerals, excluding gold and tin, coming from Guangdong
of ilmenite plus minor quantities of other heavy minerals. and Guangxi Provinces. Shandong and Liaoning Provinces
There has been no subsequent expansion at these plants. in the north are probably important producers. Substantial
Another important area of mineral sand mining was resources occur also in Taiwan Province.
developed in 1966 in the Beihai area of Guangxi Province
with a capacity of about 35,000 tons/year of ilmenite. In 1. Guangdong Province (figures 4.4.1 and 4.4.2)
addition, a 1,000 tons/year synthetic rutile plant was Extensive areas of heavy mineral sands occur on the
constructed in the mid 1970s. In total, there are now ten coastline of this province, both on the mainland and on
known heavy-mineral-processing plants in China, all located Hainan Island.
in Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, with additional
plants probably in operation in Shandong and Liaoning Hainan Island is about 300 km long and 180 km
Provinces in northern China. Several other areas, mainly wide and is some 25 km from the mainland. Mineral sands
in southern China, have recently been outlined as contain are distributed along 300 km of coastline on the east and
ing potential economic resources. Gold and tin placer south of the island where 31 separate mineralized zones
deposits are currently exploited elsewhere in China. have been recognised, of which 12 are reported as being
large, six medium, and the remainder small. The mineralized
China established a TiO2 pigment industry in the beaches are typically backed by a single major dune, up to
early 1960s, but total production capacity has been rela 20 m above sea level. Behind this dune the area is common
tively small, about 15,000 to 20,000 tons/year. Production ly swampy. On some parts of the coastline mineralized
of titanium metal began in 1960 at three plants, with a total dunes may occur up to 3 km inland. (Australian Depart
capacity of 2,000 to 2,500 tons/year (Adams, 1984). Rare ment of Trade and Resources, 1982.)
earth processing facilities have been in operation at several
localities for some years. Feedstock for all of these indus The dominant heavy mineral on Hainan Island is
tries is derived from hardrock deposits, as well as from ilmenite, with minor quantities of zircon, monazite, rutile,
mineral sand deposits. cassiterite, anatase, magnetite, chromite, and tourmaline
present.
The mining of mineral sands in Taiwan Province also
has a long history. Magnetite-bearing placers were first The deposits and processing facilities are owned by
exploited on the north coast of the island, but mining the Chinese Government, and operated by the Guangdong
lasted only a few years. Mining operations were renewed Metallurgical Industries Bureau. This Bureau is a relatively-
51
HONG KONG
Figure 4.4.2 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces
52
powerful automonous provincial organization ultimately Local commune farmers have been the major sup
reporting to the National Ministry of Metallurgical Indus pliers of feedstock to the Wuzhaung plant in recent years.
tries. At the Wuzhaung operation the commune farmers pass the
Currently most production is from four areas, each sand over a simple wooden sluice to separate out a rough
with its own processing plant. These are: Wuzhaung, Sai- heavy mineral fraction which is sun-dried. A team of five
Lao, Xinglong, and Nanyang (see figure 4.4.1). The people can produce about 2 tons of rough concentrate a
Wuzhaung plant located about 12 km south of the city of day. This concentrate, which contains about 35 per cent
Wanning is based on the largest and richest concentrations TiO2, is bought by the local government at a fixed price
of heavy minerals, which occur in and below the frontal per kilogram and then transported by boat or truck to the
dune with some shallow mineralization occurring 500 or Wuzhaung processing plant, up to 50 km away. Tailings
600 m inland. The major deposit, which is mined by from the processing plant are disposed of in the ocean
mechanized equipment, is roughly 18 km in length, typical adjacent to the site. There are no environmental restric
ly 2,400 to 2,800 m in width and 8 to 10 m deep, and tions and there is no objection by the local population to
possibly covers several roughly parallel strandlines. The this form of waste disposal.
mineralization may extend to a total depth of 30 m. The Wuzhaung ilmenite contains approximately
The concentration of heavy minerals in the 51 per cent TiO2 (table 4.4.2). The zircon averages 65 per
Wuzhaung area is reported as ilmenite 15.36 kg/m3; zircon cent ZrO2, the monazite 5 to 7 per cent ThO2 and 51 per
3.0 kg/m3 ; and monazite 1.03 kg/m3, converting to ilme cent rare earth oxides; and rutile contains 87 to 89 per cent
nite 1.0 per cent, zircon 0.2 per cent, and monazite 0.07 TiO2.
per cent. Rutile grade is approximately 0.05 per cent. Capacity at the Wuzhaung plant is quoted as:
The measured resources of the area in 1981, based ilmenite 20,000 tons, zircon 2,000 tons, monazite 200 tons,
on an early 1960s drilling programme with subsequent pro rutile 100 tons, cassiterite 1 ton, and gold 1 kg although in
duction substracted, are given as ilmenite 1.8 million tons recent years production has been at about half these levels.
(Mt), zircon 291,000 tons, monazite 9,300 tons, and rutile (Australian Department of Trade and Resources, 1982)
7,000 tons (see table 4.4.1). Indicated resources are esti The Sai-Lao operation (Qionghai county), located
mated as 325 Mt of heavy mineral sands, representing about about 60 km to the north of Wuzhaung, has the same plant
3.2 Mt of ilmenite (Australian Department of Trade and capacity and current operating levels as the Wuzhaung
Resources, 1982; United States Bureau of Mines (USBM), plant. The rough concentrate is supplied entirely by the
1982). farmers’ collectives from five mineralized zones in the area
Baoding (Wuzhaung) 1,777,000 15.36 51.15 291,106 3.0 9,253 1.03 10,000 500 100
Not
Changan 11,044,000 33.3 52.91 190,348 1.04
producing
Note: There are also reserves of rutile, 20,000 tons and chromite, 27,000 tons.
Source: Australian Department of Trade and Resources, 1982
a 1980 production figures
53
Table 4.42 Hainan Island ilmenite concentrate Mt, zircon 1.8 Mt, monazite 60,000 tons, chromite 27,000
(percentages) tons, and rutile 20,000 tons (Australian Department of
Trade and Resources, 1982).
Wuzhaung Sai Lao
The coastline of mainland Guangdong Province also
has extensive areas of heavy-mincral-bcaring sands. There
TiO2 51.15 51.48
are five processing plants located at Kaikang, Zhanjiang,
FeO 34.88 33.99 Dianbai, Xitou and Yangjiang in a 300 km coastal stretch in
Fe2O3 9.14 the vicinity of Zhanjiang.
Cr2O3 0.047 - The deposits are all located along the relatively flat
V2O5 0.046
coastal plain, either on beaches or river Oats, and lie several
-
metres above sea level. They are 2 to 10 km in length, 200
MnO 0.38 1.46 to 800 m in width, 2 to 5 m thick and in many places
As 0.001 consist of several roughly parallel strandlines. Ilmenite is
SiO2 0.79
the dominant heavy mineral, with minor constitutents
including zircon, monazite, rutile, and others. Quartz is
A12O3 0.75 the major gangue mineral.
MgO 0.12
Total resources in the Zhanjiang district are esti
CaO 0.31 mated as 3.0 Mt (measured) and 7.0 Mt (indicated), based
ZrO2 0.14 on drilling surveys carried out mainly during the 1960s.
The breakdown of resources into beach and river deposits,
Nb2O5 0.039
and into areas supplying each of the five processing plants
Ta2O5 0.0027 is not known (USBM, 1982).
P 0.018 The five processing plants began operation in the
late 1950s and early 1960s but precise details on the indi
Source: Australian Department of Trade and Resources, 1982. vidual plants are not known. However, the largest plant
has a capacity of 20,000 tons/year of ilmenite, and a
which may extend up to 3 km inland. The zones are 1 to 5 typical plant has the following capacity: ilmenite 15,000
km long, 170 to 840 m wide and 1.5 to 6 m thick. The tons/year (52 per cent TiO2 ), zircon 600 tons/year (65 per
average heavy mineral content is 2 per cent ilmenite, 0.2 cent ZrO2), monazite 75 tons/year (62 per cent REO), and
per cent zircon, minor monazite and rutile. rutile 50 tons/year (90 per cent TiO2). In recent years
production from each plant has been considerably less than
Measured resources in the five mineralized zones as capacity, averaging about 7,000 tons/year ilmenite, possibly
shown in table 4.4.1 are: ilmenite 0.74 Mt, zircon 67,000 because of the low level of local demand (USBM, 1982).
tons, monazite 2,500 tons, and rutile about 1,700 tons.
Indicated resources for the whole area supplying the pro Rough mineral concentrate is supplied to the plant
cessing plant are estimated at 170 Mt containing about 3.4 by communal farmers from up to 50 km away.
Mt of ilmenite (Australian Department of Trade and
Resources, 1982; USBM, 1982). An analysis of the ilmenite 2. Guangxi Province (figure 4.4.2)
concentrate from Sai-Lao is given in table 4.4.2. Guangxi Province, located just west of Guangdong
Few details are available on the other two operations Province, is also well endowed with heavy minerals. There
on Hainan Island, at Xinglong (30 km inland from Wu- arc two areas of major interest, the Beihai area and the Xun
zhaung) and Nanyang (location unknown), where produc Jiang river area.
tion in recent years has been about 5,000 and 3,000 tons/ The deposits in the Beihai area arc located on the
year respectively. Large resources of ilmenite, estimated at coastal plain between the city of Beihai and the town of
over 10 Mt at approximately 2 per cent grade, occur at Qinzhou about 100 km to the north-west along the coast.
Changan (10 to 15 km inland from Wuzhaung), but have Sand mined by farmers' collectives from these deposits is
not been developed because much of the area is under transported to a processing plant located at Beihai. The
cultivation. The Puqian area on the north-cast coast has deposits occur as both beach and river sands with the latter
substantial resources of zircon ore, 400,000 tons at an
reportedly accounting for two thirds of the plant feedstock.
average grade of 0.4 per cent, but these arc not yet
developed. Total demonstrated resources of heavy minerals The river-sand ilmenite is mined from the low-lying
on Hainan Island (table 4.4.1) arc reported as: ilmenite 21 banks of three major rivers, the Lin Jiang, the Qin Jiang,
54
and the Lien Jiang, as well as their tributaries. These Table 4.4.4 Beihai processing plant -
deposits which contain 1 to 2 per cent heavy minerals can monazite concentrate Analysis
be several kilometres in length, up to a kilometre in width,
and 2 to 5 m thick. Overburden, where present, consists Percentage
of minimal amounts of soil with scattered growth of coastal
grass and plants. In addition to ilmenite, minor amounts REO* 61.86
of zircon, monazite and rutile are present but details of ThO2 6.31
precise concentrations are not available. The ilmenite V 0.012
contains 46 to 48 per cent TiO2.
P2O5 30.00
Provincial officials have indicated that on the basis (Ta, Nb)2O5 0.009
of limited drilling the resources in the area could total y2o3 2.22
millions of tons of ilmenite. An estimate by the USBM
based on very limited information is approximately 4 Mt Source: USBM, 1982. *: Total rare earth oxides.
Table 4.4.3 Beihai processing plant — of ilmenite in beach sands and another 4 Mt of ilmenite
ilmenite concentrate analysis in river sands (USBM, 1982).
The Beihai processing plant, owned and operated
Ilmenite Ilmenite
(Beach sand) (River sand)
by the Chinese Government, started as a small facility in
(%) 1966. Its current capacity is approximately: ilmenite
35,000 tons/year, zircon 450 tons/year, monazite 7 0
TiO2 55.04 53.50 tons/year, and rutile 50 tons/year. Production levels in
Total Fe 29.17 32.89 recent years have been considerably lower than this, about
FeO 23.80 37.15 20,000 tons/year of ilmenite. Analyses of ilmenite con
Fe2O3 15.25 5.75
centrates produced at Beihai from both beach and river
sands are given in table 4.4.3, and of monazite concen
CaO 0.057 0.044
trate in table 4.4.4. In addition to these products the
MgO 0.10 0.10 plant also has the capacity for production of 1,000 tons/
Mn 1.55 150 year of synthetic rutile (88 to 90 per cent TiO2) from
A12O3 0.73 0.42 1,800 tons of ilmenite concentrate (USBM, 1982).
SiO2 1.44 0.71
An important undeveloped ilmenite deposit occurs
S 0.0027 0.0080 in the eastern part of Quangxi Province at 23°30' N:
P 0.070 0.032 110°50' E on the Xun Jiang River (Si River?), near the
ZrO2 0.43 0.20 town of Teng Xian, 275 km east of the provincial capital
V2O5 0.11 0.14 of Nanning. Although it reportedly covers an area of
8 sq km the exact dimensions of the deposit are not known.
Cr2O3 0.047 0.045
The average thickness of the heavy-mineral-bearing unit is
Nb2O5 0.18 0.16
about 5 m, and the heavy mineral content (mostly ilmenite)
Sn 0.01 0.01 is about 5 to 7 per cent. The TiO2 content of the ilmenite
As 0.0067 0.0025 is in the 44 to 46 per cent range. Measured reserves based
Pb 0.0095 0.0067 on a 1975 drilling programme are 4.0 Mt of ilmenite. There
Ni 0.0048 0.0044 are additional indicated reserves but their extent is un
0.036 0.030 known (USBM, 1982).
Zn
Cu 0.017 0.0021 Guangxi provincial officials have indicated an
Cd 0.00064 0.0006 interest in developing the deposit, but this is dependent on
increased demand for ilmenite as existing Chinese ilmenite
Source: USBM, 1982 capacity is currently not fully utilized. It is assumed that
55
if mining does proceed it will be more mechanized and will the bars (Noakes, 1968). Data on the heavy-mineral-grade
have a larger processing plant than at existing operations sand resources in 11 of the major sand-bars are given in
(USBM, 1982). tables 4.4.5 and 4.4.6. Bars 5, 7 and 8 appear to offer the
best potential for mining as they have the highest grades
Ilmenite, monazite, and magnetite are also reported and are relatively close to the coast (Noakes, 1968). Al
in economic amounts in the alluvial tin deposits in the though small-scale mining using manual labour has occurred
north east of Guangxi Province. in the past there has not been any significant production
from these deposits. A problem facing any future mining
3. Taiwan Province (figure 4.4.1) operations is the frequent occurrence of typhoons. These
Taiwan Province, a 350 km long island located are most frequent during the period July to November but
about 200 km off southern mainland China, has abundant they can also occur at any time during the year. Other
heavy-mineral-bearing sands. Magnetite has been mined factors militating against the mining of the sand-bars are the
since 1918, and monazite and zircon were both mined metallurgical problems connected with the treatment of
during the Second World War. However, there has been no the black monazite, the unusually low TiO2 content of the
reported mining since about 1970. ilmenite (about 30 per cent in analysed samples), and in
clusions of magnetite in some of the zircon (Macdonald,
A major resource of heavy minerals is the offshore 1971).
sand-bars which occur over a distance of 50 km stretching
northwards off the south-west coast from the city of Substantial concentrations of monazite, zircon,
Taiwan. It has been estimated that 85 per cent of the total ilmenite, and rutile occur on the shores both north and
resources of heavy minerals in Taiwan Province is distri south of the area fringed by the offshore bars, but not
buted in these bars (Anon., 1968). The sands contain immediately behind them. The beaches of Kantoutso and
monazite (black and yellow varieties), zircon, rutile, magne Tunghsiao to the north of the bars and a beach at Hsinking
tite, ilmenite, and other heavy minerals, with quartz the to the south have economic potential but no resource
dominant gangue mineral. estimates are available (Noakes, 1968). Heavy minerals are
also present in river sands of south-west Taiwan Provinces
No information is available on the dimensions and but these concentrations are not considered to be economic
precise form of the sand-bars which extend from 1 to 10 (Ho, 1953).
km off the coast. It appears that the bars farthest from the
coast have the largest tonnages of heavy minerals but with In the north of Taiwan Province iron-bearing sands
marginal economic grades, whereas those closer to the coast occur. Known reserves amount to about 500,000 tons of
have smaller tonnages with higher economic grades. The heavy minerals, with an average grade of about 6.5 per
highest grades generally occur within the top one metre of cent heavy minerals with grades ranging between 5 and
Table 4.4.5 Summary data on heavy mineral deposits in offshore sand-bars of south-western Taiwan Province
Table 4.4.6 Recoverable heavy mineral concentrates from present known reserves in
offshore bars of south-western Taiwan Province
1. Haifengtao
2. Peitungshanchow 5,650 500 13,650 11,900 1,215
3. Tungshanchow 13,700 500 21,700 19,850 2,770
4. Wai.santingchow 2,550 120 3,970 4,500
5. Pu taichow 1,160 105 2,430 2,060 234
6. Haishanchow
7. Wangyehchow 2,180 200 5,160 4,900 1,060
8. Chingshankangchow 4,100 200 6,080 6,740 694
9. Wangtzcliaochow 800 60 1,785 1,680 243
10. Tingtoucchow 38 3 89 83 22
11. Foulun 22 2 52 46 7
14 per cent; the main constituent is titanomagnetite which zircon production (approximately 15,000 tons/year in
assays between 3 and 7 per cent TiO2, and 58 to 60 per recent years) has come from this area.
cent Fe. The major deposits in the Tanshui area in the
very far north of the island occur at Kinshan, Chunchoutse, Titanium-bearing placer deposits are reported in the
Sanchih, and Hsinchuanke. The reserves, grades, and Pulandian area in the southern part of Liaoning Province
chemical analysis of these and other deposits in the area and in the Jin Xian area near Jinzhou. It is possible that
are given in Macdonald (1971). Production of about these deposits are being mined and are supplying rutile to
10,000 tons/year of titaniferous magnetite was under a small titanium sponge metal plant located at Fushun
taken during the Second World War, and again between (Furukawa, 1984; Adams, 1984).
about the late 1950s and the late 1960s. These operations
Sichuan (Szechwan) Province in inland China is rich
mined out most of the high-grade beaches. No recent
in rutile sands, and reportedly contains most of China’s
mining or any development plans in the area have been
rutile resources (Furukawa, 1980). In Jilin Province in
reported.
northern China titanium-bearing placer deposits are
reported in the Shangin-Gou area (Furukawa, 1984).
4. Other Provinces
Fujian Province in southern China has several zircon and
Heavy-mineral sand deposits occur in other provinces gold-bearing placer deposits along its coastline. There is
in China but these are mainly worked for gold, silver, tin, no information available on any of these deposits and it
tungsten or diamonds, which are not specifically included appears unlikely that any significant development has
in this report. yet occurred.
Table 4.4.7 Chinese heavy mineral processing plantsa capital of Guangxi Province, has been upgraded into
— production capacities titanium slag. The product contains over 80 per cent
(tons/year) TiO2 but details of the quantity produced are not available.
Some of the slag is used in the production of titanium
Deposit Ilmenite Zircon Rutile Monazite sponge metal, and some may be used in the production
of TiO2 pigment. Significant expansion of titanium slag
Zhanjiang
production is forecast if plans for a new TiO2 pigment
districtb 75,000 3,000 250 375
plant in the region go ahead (Adams, 1984).
Wuzhaung 16,000 750 70 100
Sai-Lao 15,000 600 50 75
Synthetic rutile is produced at two localities in
Xinglongc mainland China and at another locality in Taiwan Province.
8,000 800 - 50
c One plant located at Beihai in Guangxi Province, near to
Nanyang 5,000 300 100 the heavy-mineral processing plant, produces about 1,000
Beihai 30,000 400 40 70 tons/year of synthetic rutile with 88 to 90 per cent TiO2.
Totald 150,000 6,000 400 800 The process used is similar to that developed by Australia’s
Associated Mineral Consolidated Ltd. Another synthetic
rutile plant is located at Pingguo near Nanning. The pro
Source: USBM. 1982; Australian Department of Trade and
Resources, 1982. duct here contains about 90 per cent TiO2, the quantity
a All deposits are in Guangdong Province, except Beihai,
produced is unknown but is estimated to be larger than at
which is in Guangxi Province. Beihai (Adams, 1984). In Taiwan Province, a Benilite-type
b Includes five processing plants located at Dianbai, Haikang, synthetic rutile plant was commissioned at Kaohsiung in
Xitou, Yangjiang and Zhanjiang. 1975 by the Taiwan Alkali Corp.. In recent years this
c Estimated.
plant has been operating at well below its capacity of
30,000 tons/year and may have closed down (Adams,
Figures may not add up to the total on account of rounding.
1984).
There is additional zircon and rutile production from unknown
plants, possibly in Shandong and Liaoning Provinces. China has been involved in the production of TiO2
pigment since the mid 1960s but little is known about the
largest plant is at Beihai (Guangxi Province) which has a industry. The plants are thought to be small-scale, general
capacity of 30,000 tons/year of ilmenite, and minor quan ly in the order of a few thousand tons/year capacity, and
tities of other heavy minerals. In addition to these ten are believed to be distributed among the main Chinese cities
known plants, there are other zircon processing facilities of Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou (figure 4.4.1 and
at an unknown locality or localities in the country, possibly 4.4.2). The total output is believed to be about 15,000 to
in Shandong Province where significant resources of zircon 20,000 tons/year (Lynd and Hough, 1980; Adams, 1984).
are known. In addition one or more rutile plants may be There is no TiO2 processing plant in Taiwan Pro
in operation in Liaoning Province. vince but a TiO2 pigment finishing plant is located at
Chinsahn near Kaohsiung. This plant, with a capacity of
Combined production capacity of all the known
12,000 tons/year, treats unprocessed TiO2 pigment sup
plants is estimated as: ilmenite 150,000 tons/year, zircon
plied by Ishihara of Japan (Adams, 1984).
6,000 tons/year, monazite 800 tons/year, rutile 400 tons/
year, and minor quantities of other minerals, such as gold Production of titanium metal in China began in
and tin. Actual annual production in recent years has been 1960. There are now three sponge metal plants in opera
only about 60 per cent of total capacity, with ilmenite tion at Fushun (Liaoning Province), Shanghai (Shanghai
production being about 90,000 tons/year. Total zircon Province), and Zunyi (Guizhou Province), with a combined
production from both the known and unreported plants capacity of 2,000 to 5,000 tons/year. The Zunyi plant uses
has been estimated at about 15,000 tons/year (Adams, titanium feedstock from the Panzhihau hardrock mine
1986). (Sichuan Province) and the other two plants use a rutile
feedstock derived from unknown sources, possibly beach
China also produces ilmenite from the Panzhihau sand deposits in Liaoning Province.
hardrock titanomagnetite deposit in Sichuan (Szechwan)
Province (USBM, 1982). Total Chinese ilmenite produc Most titanium sponge metal produced in China is
tion from both mineral sands and hardrock deposits in further processed into metal ingots and sold on the local
recent years as recorded by USBM and the British Geolo market. In 1980 and 1981 exports of sponge metal from
gical Survey has been 140,000 tons/year. China averaged 1,000 tons/year, mainly to the United
In recent years a growing proportion of China's States; no exports have been recorded since then (Adams,
ilmenite, probably from one plant located at Nanning, 1984; Furukawa, 1984; Chin, 1986).
58
China is a major world producer of rare earth Panzhihau hardrock titanomagnetite mine (Sichuan Pro
products. Most of the raw material comes from the Baiyun vince) where the Chinese Government has announced
Obo mine, a hardrock iron/rare earth mine near Baotou in plans for a 300,000 tons/year TiO2 pigment plant.
Nei Mongol Province (figure 4.4.1). The deposit is the
There are plans to establish two large-scale sponge
largest rare earth deposit in the world and contains 90 per
cent of China’s resources. The major processing plants for plants in China. A 10,000 tons/year plant is to be estab
rare earth products are located at Shanghai, Baotou, and lished near the Panzhihau hardrock mine (Sichuan Province)
Lanzhou (Gansu Province). The Lanzhou plant has a and a 5,000 tons/year plant is to be established in the
capacity of 9,000 tons/year of rare earth chloride. Minor Guangdong-Guangxi Province area using local mineral
production also occurs in Guangdong Province, probably sands as the feedstock.
the only Chinese plant to use monazite feedstock derived
from mineral sands. Rare earth-metal processing facilities Trade
are also located in Taiwan Province (Chin, 1986; Australian China has been a net importer of TiO2 pigment
Department of Science, 1986). since the mid 1950s. Imports reached a peak of nearly
China is ranked third in the world in total consump 9,000 tons in 1982 but have since declined. Japan, the
tion of rare earth products, although no precise figures are major supplier, had 80 per cent of the market in 1983;
available. Consumption is limited largely to electronics other suppliers are the United States, the Federal Republic
and metallurgical uses (Chin, 1986). China has been a of Germany and France. China also exports a minor
world pioneer of new applications of rare-earths and has quantity of TiO2 pigment, about 2,000 tons/year, mainly
undertaken particular studies on rare-earth additives in to Japan.
fertilizers.
Taiwan Province is a major importer of TiO2 pig
No information is available on the processing of ment, importing 20,000 to 30,000 tons/year in recent
15,000 tons of zircon produced annually in China. No years, mainly from Japan and the Federal Republic of
exports of zircon are reported, which suggests that it is used Germany (British Geological Survey, 1986). A small
locally, probably in the refractory industry. quantity is re-exported from the province, mostly to the
United States. (Adams, 1984; British Geological Survey,
Future developments 1986).
A 50,000 tons/year synthetic rutile plant has been Some 2,500 tons of rare earth compounds were
proposed for Fuzhou, the capital of Fujian Province. The exported from China in 1984; details are not available.
source of ilmenite for the plant is not known but may be Rare earth metal exports in 1983 were about 120 tons,
existing mining operations in Guangdong Province or other mostly to the United States. Exports of rare earth metal
deposits in the area (Adams, 1984). from Taiwan Province have been about 1,000 tons/year,
mainly to Indonesia and Hong Kong. China imported
A 10,000 tons/year sulphate-route TiO2 pigment 1,500 tons of rare earth metal in 1983, all from Japan.
plant is expected to be established near Pakhoi (Guang Taiwan Province imported about 100 tons in 1983, all
dong Province) or Changkiang (Guangxi Province). An from France and Japan (Chin, 1986; British Geological
ambitious long-term plan is under consideration for the Survey, 1986).
REFERENCES
Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan Anon., 1984 — Advances in coastal and offshore surveys for
cial Times Information Ltd. London 244 p. placer deposits in China. In Proceedings of the
twenty-first session, of CCOP. United Nations
Adams, W.T., 1986, - Zirconium and hafnium. In Minerals
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Yearbook, 1984, vol. 1: Metals and minerals. Pacific.
United States Bureau of Mines, p. 991 -999.
Australian Department of Science, 1986 - Rare earths:
Anon., 1968 - Preliminary investigation on exploration for report on a visit to the People’s Republic of China
and mining of heavy minerals from sands in Taiwan. by an Australian delegation under the leadership of
In Report of the fourth session, of CCOP. United Mr. N. Jackson, 87 p. (unpublished).
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the
Far East. Australian Department of Trade and Resources, 1982 -
59
Report of the Australian mining and minerals survey Yearbook, 1978-1979, vol. 1: Metalsand minerals.
mission to Hainan Island, People’s Republic of United States Bureau of Mines, p. 933-947.
China. Australian Government Publishing Service,
Canberra, 1982. Macdonald, E.H., 1971 Detrital heavy minerals. United
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Ear
British Geological Survey, 1986 - World Mineral Statistics East, CCOP Technical bulletin, vol. 5, pp 32-47.
1980-1984: production: exports: imports (Key
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey). Noakes, L.C., 1968 Reconnaissance of heavy mineral
deposits in beach sands of Taiwan, (a province of
Chin, E., 1986 The mineral industry of China. In the People’s Republic of China). In Fourth session
Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. 11 Area reports: of CCOP. United Nations Economic Commission
international. United States Bureau of Mines, for Asia and the Ear East.
p. 193-216.
Tan, Q. and others, 1984 Marine geology and quaternary
Furukawa, T., 1980 China sets titanium output at 1000- geology, vol. 4, No. 4. Institute of Marine Geology,
2000 tons/year. American Metal Market, 88, No. Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources.
101,5 p. People’s Republic of China.
Furukawa, T., 1984 - In China, the emphasis is on process
United Nations, 1970 Survey of world iron ore resources.
ing and refining. American Metal Market. Titanium
Occurrence and appraisal. Report of a panel of
special issue, 16 p. exports appointed by the Secretary-General.
Ho, C.S., 1953 - Mineral Resources of Taiwan. In The Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United
geological survey of Taiwan. Taipei, Taiwan (a pro Nations, New York.
vince of the People’s Republic of China), p. 146-
United States Bureau of Mines, 1982 Deposit summaries,
150,203-211.
foreign titanium properties, minerals availability
Lynd, L.E. and Hough, R.A., 1985 - Titanium. In Minerals system. Reports prepared by Kaiser Engineers, Inc.
4.5 INDIA
reaching 200,000 tons/year and rutile 7,000 tons/year in
History
recent years.
Monazite was discovered in 1909 in the beach sands
at Manavalakurichi in the state of Travancore (now part of
Tamil Nadu state). The deposit was first worked in 1911; Geology (figure 4.5.1)
the monazite was exported in Germany where it was used
in the production of gas lamp mantles. In 1922 the extrac 1. Quilon deposit
tion of ilmenite from the sands commenced, following the This deposit occurs in the Quilon district of the
growth of the TiO2 pigment industry in the United King
state of Kerala, in the south-west of India. It extends
dom and the United States. Ilmenite production expanded
over 23 km between the villages of Kayankulam, Chavara,
rapidly, and within a few years India had established itself
and Neendekara, a few kilometres north of the large town
as the world’s major producer. In 1931 India accounted for
of Quilon (8°53' N : 76°36' E) (see fig. 4.5.2). The deposit,
over 80 per cent of the world’s ilmenite production with an
which is a former barrier beach, that is, an elevated offshore
output of some 300,000 tons/year.
sand-bar, lies in front of the mouths of two large rivers, the
Pallikkal River and the Punalar River (also known as
The area around Quilon, Kerala state became im
Kallada river). Where there was formerly deep water
portant for mineral sand production in about 1933. By this
between the bar and the original mainland there are now
time zircon was also being produced and in 1936 the
lagoons and low-lying flats which are flooded during the
production of rutile began (Viswanathan, 1957). India
rainy season (Gillson, 1959).
maintained its position as the world’s major ilmenite
supplier during the 1930s. In 1940 it produced some Black sands containing up to 80 per cent heavy
243,000 tons of ilmenite or about 7 0 per cent of world minerals are present on the modern-day beach, the enrich
production. Ilmenite production reached a peak of 346,000 ment resulting from wave action. The black sands extend
tons in 1958. However, by then other countries, particular to 3 m below low tide mark. Behind the beach are grey-
ly the United States, had expanded production and India’s coloured dunes containing up to 40 to 50 per cent heavy
production in that year was only 20 per cent of the world minerals, and rising to 7 m above sea level. Buried under
total. Indian production of rutile, zircon, and monazite in neath these dunes are old beach deposits as rich in heavy
this period was relatively minor. minerals as the modern-day beach deposits. The extent of
these buried deposits has not been fully determined (Lynd
In 1959 one of the major producing companies,
and Lefond, 1975). The average width of the deposit is
Hopkins and Williams (a subsidiary of Laporte) shut down
240 m; the average grade is quoted as 18 per cent heavy
its Chavara (Quilon) operations (Adams, 1984). In addi
minerals (Clarke, 1983).
tion, production by the other two major producers, Tra
vancore Minerals and F.X. Pereira, fell sharply, so that total The khondalite-migmatite complexes of late Pre
ilmenite production decreased to a low of 13,000 tons in cambrian age which occupy a large part of the south of
1964. The reasons for this decline included a tightening of Kerala state have been suggested as the source of the
control on mineral exports by the Kerala state government, heavy minerals (Soman, 1985).
the development of new ilmenite sources in Australia and
Canada, and the undesirable properties of the Indian The average composition of the heavy mineral
ilmenite (high chromium and ferric iron content) (Stamper, suite is shown in table 4.5.1; the average composition of the
1964). ilmenite, rutile, and zircon is given in table 4.5.2. The
ilmenite has a relatively high chromium content (0.12 per
In 1965, the Indian Government-controlled com cent Cr2O3) and a high ferric iron content (24.18 per cent
pany, Indian Rare Earths (IRE), acquired control of Tra Fe2O3), both undesirable properties for pigment manufac
vancore Minerals, and shortly after this F.X. Pereira ceased ture.
production completely. In the early 1970s a company
owned by the Kerala provincial government, Kerala Metals The Department of Atomic Energy has estimated
and Minerals Ltd (KMML) started operations in the Quilon the resources of the deposit as 17.53 Mt tons ilmenite, 1.27
area (Adams, 1984). Production of mineral sands in India Mt rutile, 1.29 Mt zircon, and 0.12 Mt monazite (Roy
has increased over the past decade with ilmenite output 1973).
61
Table 4.5.1. Composition of heavy-mineral suites in Table 4.5.2. Chemical analyses of Indian heavy minerals
major Indian deposits
(percentages) Quilon “MK” Chatrapur Ratnagiri
Mines, 1985). More extensive resources are present nearby, 4. Ratnagiri district (figure 4.5.1)
for example in the area between Lipuram (8°07' N :
77°33' E) and Vattokotta (8°08' N : 77° 19' E). The Ratnagiri district is part of the Konkan coast in
Maharashtra state on the central-west coast of India. It
IRE, the only company mining the deposit, has a contains extensive resources of heavy minerals in both
dry separation plant near Manavalakurichi with a capacity onshore and offshore deposits. The beach deposits were
of 65,000 tons/year ilmenite, 1,500 tons/year rutile, 5,000 discovered in 1935 and several organizations have since
tons/year zircon, 3,500 tons/year monazite, and 4,500 undertaken investigations to evaluate them and the off
tons/year garnet (Adams, 1984). shore deposits. The district has considerable economic
potential but to date there has been no development
apart from minor local production.
3. Chatrapur deposit (figure 4.5.1) The onshore beach deposits extend over a 40 km
This deposit is located at the small village of Gopal- coastline extending from Rill in the north to Gaokandi in
pur (19° 18' N : 84°57' E), 22 km east of the large town of the south (latitudes 17° 14' N to 16°48' N). The black
Berhampur, in the Ganjam district of Orissa state. It con ilmenite-rich beach sands occur in three different forms
sists of Quaternary aeolian sand dunes which form a belt of within the white sands: thin laminae seams 10 to 20 cm
fixed dunes 1,500 m wide and 19 km long; the maximum thick alternating with white sand, and massive beds up to
elevation of the dunes is 17 m above sea level. There are 1.5 m thick. Currently only the massive beds arc of eco
two main transverse dunes, a coastal dune and an inland nomic significance. Heavy mineral scams are usually covered
dune, separated by lower internal dunes. by a thin layer of barren white sand (Raju and Rao, 1978).
In addition low-grade deposits occur in dunes behind many
The high-grade heavy mineral sands are generally of the beaches.
above the water table which is approximately at sea level. Ilmenite, magnetite, and titaniferous magnetite
Below this level, lower-grade sands occur but are not mined. are the dominant constituents, with minor amounts of
The average grade of heavy minerals in the sand is 14 per rutile, leucoxene, hematite, and zircon. The minerals
cent, lower than the south-west Indian deposits, and con are generally medium- to fine-grained and sub- to well-
sists of ilmenite 9.5 per cent, rutile 0.5 per cent, zircon rounded, with many of the ilmenite grains coated with a
0.4 per cent, monazite 0.64 per cent, and sillimanite thin film of iron oxide. The ilmenite content of the sand
3.3 per cent. The composition of the heavy mineral suite is varies from 17 to 74 per cent (Siddiquic and others, 1984).
given in table 4.5.1. The major gangue minerals are quartz The white sand is primarily composed of calcareous shell
(approximately 80 per cent), garnet (not recovered), and fragments and quartz.
minor amphiboles. The ilmenite assays 50.8 per cent TiO2,
the rutile 96.2 per cent TiO2, and the zircon 65.6 percent The most important beach deposits arc Rill,
ZrO2 (USBM, 1982). Malgund, Nevra, Rewadi, and Kalbadevi (Anon., 1973a).
Total onshore resources of the Ratnagiri area have been
Proven resources of the Chatrapur deposit over an estimated as 4 Mt of ilmenite (Siddiquie and others, 1984).
area of 2,850 ha total 240 Mt of ore containing approxi During the period from 1975 to 1980, the National
mately 23 Mt ilmenite, 1.2 Mt rutile, 1.0 Mt zircon, 1.5 Mt Institute of Oceanography conducted a detailed offshore
monazite, and 7.9 Mt sillimanite. An additional 4,000 ha survey of a 130 km stretch in the area. Ilmenite-rich
of mineralized dune sand has been identified and, assuming heavy-mineral sands were located in water depths of 10
similar grades as in the proven area, a further 350 Mt of to 15 m, covered by a clay unit up to 3 m thick; they
inferred recoverable resources are available (USBM, 1982).
extended out to approximately the 20 m water-depth
contour. The heavy-mineral sand unit is about 6 m thick,
The deposit is owned by IRE. Construction of the
varying from 2 to 10 m; thicker units arc associated with
mining and processing plant started in 1979 but because of
buried ancient river channels and local sand lenses. The
various delays, particularly in the supply of equipment,
sands arc often underlain by a barren pebbly sand unit
production did not commence until late 1986. The planned
which overlies the basalts of the Deccan Trap (Siddiquie
production capacity of the plant is 220,000 tons/year il
and others, 1984).
menite, 10,000 tons/year rutile, 2,000 tons/year zircon,
4,000 tons/year monazite, and 30,000 tons/year sillimanite. The offshore sands contain up to 90 per cent
A plant to produce 100,000 tons/year synthetic rutile heavy-minerals, ilmenite exceeding 60 per cent (table
using the total ilmenite output, as well as an acid regenera 4.5.3). Magnetite which may be titanomagnetite or con
tion plant to produce up to 80,000 tons/year of micron-size tain fine growths of ilmenite is the other major component
iron oxide, has been constructed in the area. of the heavy-mineral assemblage. Also present arc minor
64
Table 4.5.3. The range (in percentages) of heavy minerals, in India. The more important of these are listed below
magnetite and nonmagnetic fractions and ilmenite by state and district.
in the offshore placers of the Konkan coast,
Maharashtra, India Tamil Nadu state
In addition to the four major areas described, Puri district : Puri (19°45' N : 85°25' E),
many other occurrences of heavy mineral sands arc known ilmenite, monazite.
65
Chilka lake, landward shore, il Rajasthan : Ajmer, Kishengarh, Nagaur, Pali,
menite, monazite. Sikar, all ilmenite; Alwar, rutile;
Degana, tungsten.
Gundelba (19°56' N : 86° 17' E),
ilmenite, monazite. Uttar Pradesh Mirzapur, ilmenite.
- Cuttack district Wheeler lslands(?) (20°44' N : West Bengal Bankura, ilmenite; Purulia,
87°03' E), ilmenite, magnetite, ilmenite, rutile.
garnet.
Laccadive Islands ilmenite.
- Mayurbhanj district: unlisted locality, ilmenite, rutile.
There are other unlisted heavy mineral sand occur Available information on the identified resources
rences in the following districts: of heavy minerals in India’s major deposits is given in
table 4.5.4.
Andra Pradesh : Nellore, ilmenite; Srikakulam, il
menite; Visakhapatnam, ilmenite, Resource figures quoted for the whole country
monazite, zircon; Kham man, zir vary widely depending on the source. The USBM Mineral
con. Commodity Summaries (1986) quote total Indian de
monstrated resources of heavy minerals as 63 Mt ilmenite,
Bihar Bhagalpur, ilmenite; Singhbhum,
5 Mt rutile, 3 Mt zircon, and the equivalent of approxi
ilmenite, rutile.
mately 6 Mt monazite. However, demonstrated resources
Gaya, monazite; Hazaribagh, quoted by the United Nations Economic Commission for
monazite, zircon. Africa (1981) are much larger at 104 Mt ilmenite and 7.6
Mt rutile (4.35 Mt contained Ti). Inferred resources
Gujarat Surat, ilmenite; Sabarkantha,
quoted by this source are 267 Mt ilmenite and 19 Mt rutile.
monazite.
No total Indian resource figures are available for garnet or
Jammu and Kashmir : Jhelum Valley, ilmenite. sillimanite, detrital magnetite, and chromium.
onshore 4.0 NA NA - -
offshore 12.5 NA NA — —
Sources: Roy, 197 3; USBM, 1982; Siddiquie and others, 1984; Indian Bureau of Mines, 1985
Current Capacity:
Quilon IRE 130.0 6.0 9.0 0.4 3.0
The production of heavy minerals in India over the are given in table 4.5.7.
period 1981 to 1984 is shown in table 4.5.6.
Table 4.5.6. Heavy mineral production 1981-1984 Production of ilmenite and rutile over the past few
(tons) years has been approximately 60 per cent of the total
installed capacity, and zircon and monazite production
1981 1982 1983 1984
close to full capacity. Production levels are expected to
increase substantially when the IRE Chatrapur operation
Ilmenite 162,514 152,938 134,476 140,000 and the KMML expanded Chavara (Quilon) operation
Rutile 6,710 5,782 5,500 6,000 achieve full production.
Zircon 12,400 10,483 11,395 12,000
Total cumulative production (in tons) of heavy
Monazite 3,704 4,000 4,000 4,000
minerals in India as recorded in USBM Mineral Yearbooks
Garnet 1,539 2,249 735 2,000
is as follows:
Ilmenite
Kerala/Quilon 118,873 112,403 123,876 115,941 107,535
Tamil Nadu/Kanyakumari 53,668 50,506 60,680 72,887 69 518
Rutile
Kerala/Quilon 5,734 5,209 5,450 7,256 6,454
Tamil Nadu/Kanyakumari 1,373 1,433 1,741 1,496 1,412
Indian output of rutile is consumed locally by welding-rod metal ingot plant owned by Mishra dhatu Ngam at
manufacturers (Adams, 1984). The synthetic rutile pro Hyderabad (Adams, 1984).
duced by Dhrangadhra Chemical Works Ltd has traditional
Zircon is exported, primarily to Japan, by IRE on
ly been exported to the United States. Most of the planned
synthetic rutile production (130,000 tons/year total) of a sport market basis. KMML zircon is taken up by a num
IRE and KMML is initially planned for export, but some ber of local manufacturers for use in ceramics, foundries
may later be taken up by the TiO2 pigment plants planned and refractories (Clarke, 1983). In 1978, India imported
by each company. 56 tons of zirconium metal but, according to the USBM
Minerals Yearbooks for 1979 to 1984, no metal has been
Traditionally, India has imported much of its imported.
requirements for TiO2 pigment, mainly from the United
Kingdom, and also from the United States, Australia, and India is not recorded as an exporter of monazite or
Japan. Most recent statistics are for 1981 and show TiO2 rare earth elements in USBM or BGR statistical summaries.
pigment imports of both rutile and anatase types as 9,400 In 1981 it imported over 1,118 kilograms of rare earth
tons (Kinney, 1986). If the proposed development plans metal (including alloys), mainly from Japan.
of IRE and KMML proceed, India should become a net
The current small IRE output of sillimanite is
exporter of TiO2 pigment by the late 1980s.
consumed locally. Approximately 3,000 tons/year of
India imports titanium sponge metal from Japan, garnet is exported to Japan, with smaller amounts to the
China, and the Soviet Union for use at the 900 tons/year Republic of Korea and Europe (Clarke, 1983).
REFERENCES
Adams, R., 1984 — Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan Kinney, G.L., 1986 — The mineral industry of India. In
cial Times Information Ltd., London. 244 p. Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III: Area reports —
international. United States Bureau of Mines,
Anon., 1973a — Geology and mineral resources of Ratnagiri p. 383-404.
district (Maharashtra). Mineral Research. Director
ate of Geology and Mining. Government of Maha Lynd, L.E., and Leford, SJ., 1975 - In Lefond, S.J.
rashtra, Nagpur. (ed.) Industrial minerals and rocks (Nonmetallics
other than fuels), p. 1149-1204. American In
Anon., 1973b — Dhrangadhra set to expand beneficiated
stitute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum
ilmenite capacity. Industrial minerals, No. 71,
Engineers Inc. 4th edition. Mudd series.
35 p.
Raju, M.S. and Rao, B.R., 1978 — Some aspects of beach
Anon., 1985 - Industry in action. Indian mineral sands
and offshore placers of Ratnagiri area, west coast of
find. Mining Journal, February 8, 98 p.
India. Indian minerals, vol. 32(1), p. 59-62.
British Geological Survey, 1986 — World mineral statistics
Roy, B.C., 1973 - Indian mineral resources, industries and
1980-1984: production: exports: imports (Key
economics. p. 99-96, 110, 124-125. Editions
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey).
Indian. Calcutta.
Clarke, G.M., 1983 — The industrial minerals of India.
Siddiquie, H.N. and others, 1984 — Superficial mineral
Industrial minerals, No. 191, p. 35-36.
resources of the Indian Ocean. Deep-sea Research.
Coope, B., 1982 — Titanium minerals — focus on produc Part A. Oceanographic research papers. Vol. 31
tion. Industrial minerals, No. 178, p. 32-33. (6-8A). Marine science of the north-west Indian
Ocean and adjacent waters, p. 763-812. Pergamon
Gillson, J.L., 1959 - Sand deposits of titanium minerals. Press. Oxford.
A world survey of processes as illustrated by Indian
deposits. Mining engineering, April 1959, p. 421- Soman, K., 1985 — Origin and geologic significance of the
429. Chavara placer deposit, Kerala. Current science,
Vol. 54(6), p. 280-281.
Griffiths, J., 1984 - Rare earths - attracting increasing
attention. Industrial minerals, No. 199, p. 22-23. Stamper, J.W., 1964 — Titanium. In Minerals yearbook,
1963, vol. 1: Metals and minerals (except fuels).
Indian Bureau of Mines, 1985 - Indian yearbook, 1982. United States Bureau of Mines, p. 1133-1154.
69
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 1981 United States Bureau of Mines, 1982 Minerals availability
p. 267-269. United Nations, New York. system deposit report. Orissa Chatrapur deposit
India, 10 p.
Upadhyaya, G.S., 1973 — Prospect of sponge titanium
production in India - a technological study. Journal Viswanathan, P., 1957 Beach sands in Travancore. The
of mines, metalsand fuels, August, 1973. p. 237-238. mining magazine, November 1957, p. 313-315.
4.6 INDONESIA
Deposit Location Major heavy mineral Geology and general comments Reference
Cilacap South Java: 150 km Ti-magnetite Beach and dune sands are present-day coast. Di Geological Survey
West of Jogjakarta mensions: 45 km long, 500-800 m wide, 1.5 m of Indonesia, 1971
thick. Average grade: 20-50 per cent magnetic Macdonald, 1971
fraction, consists of magnetite closely intergrown United Nations,
with ilmenite and hematite. Concentrate analysis 1970,Wu, 1986
57-59 per cent Fe, 11 per cent TiO2, 4.5 per cent
Sio2, 5 per cent A12O3, 0.05 per cent P, 0.03 per
cent S. Resource: 6 million tons conc. (1971) at
37 per cent Fe cut-off grade: tonnage would be
much higher if lower cut-off grade was used (say
10 per cent Fe). Mined since 1971 by P.T. Aneka
Tambang by hydraulic sluicing. Production in
recent years 80,000-140,000 tons of concentrate;
most used by local cement industry.
Pelabuanratu 100 km S of Jakarta, Ti-magnetite Mined by P.T. Aneka Tambang between mid 1970s Wu, 1985
South Java and 1982. Reportedly worked out. No details
available
Jogjakarta South Java: Bog- Ti-magnetite Undeveloped deposit in the form of a long raised Tambang, 1974
(Yogyakarta) wonto R - Progo R, beach occurring as a plateau 5-7 m above sea level.
30 km South of Jog A number of discontinuous dune systems may be
jakarta recognized. Dimensions: 22 km long, 1-1.5 km
wide, average 8.1 m deep (including 1.4 m below
sea level). Average grade 12.25 per cent Fe. Highest
grades near surface and at eastern end of the depo
sit. Sand composition: titanomagnetite, plagioclase,
pyroxene, minor quartz, amphibole and mica. Con
centrate: 59 per cent Fe, 7-10 per cent TiO2. Full
analysis in Tambang (1974). Resources: 230
million tons sand, 28 million tons recoverable con
centrate.
Jampang Kulon South Java: 140 km Ti-magnetite, Mag Deposit occurs in two forms: a weathered palaeo MacDonald, 1971
(Djampang Kulon) South of Jakarta netite Ilmenite placer and a modern coastal dune system. It con
sists of an intergrowth of ilmenite and magnetite
grains cemented by iron. It has a cellular structure.
Average grade is 37 per cent Fe and 12 per cent
TiO2. The coastal dune has average grade 20 per
cent Fe and 4 per cent TiO2. Reserves 6.7 million
tons at 37 per cent Fe in palaeoplacers.
Cipatuja South Java: 100 km Ti-magnetite Beach and dune sands. Area 3.6 sq km, 100-400 m Silitonga and Sur-
South-east of Ban wide, 2.6-3.6 m deep. Average 19.8 per cent mag jono,1984
dung netic fraction but western end has average 31.5 per
cent magnetic fraction. Concentrate: 57 per cent
Fe, 12.8 per cent TiO2, 0.25-0.4 per cent V. 0.05-
0.1 per cent P. Resources: 4.21 million tons conc.
(7 per cent magnetics cutoff).
Cidaun South Java: 70 km Ti-magnetite Beach and dune sands. Dimensions: 10.3 km long, Surjono, 1983 Sili
South of Bandung 182 m av. width 3.9 m.av. depth, 1.89 sq km area. tonga and Surjono,
Average grade: 23.2 per cent magnetic fraction. 1984
Major minerals: Titanomagnetite, pyroxene, quartz,
minor feldspar, amphiboles, mica, hematite and
ilmenite. Resources: 3.22 million tons conc, at
57.39 per cent Fe, 12.75 per cent TiO2.
Cikaso South Java: 150 km Ti-magnetite Beach and dune sands between Cikaso R. and Subandoro, 1982
South of Jakarta Cibuni R. Dimensions: 12 km long, 240 m av.
width, 4.7 m av. depth, 2.9 sq km area. Average
grade 18.5 per cent magnetic fraction. Concentrate:
57.18 Fe, 12.32 per cent TiO2. Resources: 25.0
million tons sand, 4.65 million tons conc. An ad
ditional 0.46 million tons conc, present below sea
level. Deposit preserved as a national reserve for a
possible future steel industry.
73
Deposit Location Major heavy mineral Geology and General Comments Reference
Sindang Barang South Java: 150 km Ti-magnetite Very near Cikaso deposit, average 120 m wide, Silitonga and Sur-
South of Jakarta 3.45 m deep, 20.15 per cent magnetic fraction. jono,1984
Major minerals titanomagnetite, pyroxene, quartz,
minor hematite, ilmenite. Concentrate 57.67 per
cent Fe, 13.76 per cent TiO2.
Puger-Lumadjang South Java: 100 km Ti-magnetite Dimensions: 25 km long, 400 m average width, 4 m MacDonald, 1971
South-west of Ban- (or more) av. depth. Further reserves possibly on
juwangi nearby Barung Island.
Baljuwangi East Java Ti-magnetite 2 separate beach deposits in the area, combined MacDonald, 1971
total length 30 km, av. 10 m width, av. 2 m depth.
Dload Barawah Bali Ti-magnetite Possible large-scale deposits in the beach dune area. MacDonald, 1971
They cover a length of about 50 km width: 10 m,
depth: 2 m.
Sondan East Sumatra Ilmenite 14 km-long beach, 20-50 m wide. H.M. content Subandoro, 1976
4.10 per cent composed of ilmenite, and traces of
leucoxene, zircon and amphibole.
Banda Aceh North Sumatra Ti-magnetite The sand is composed of quartz, feldspar, chlorite, Subandoro, 1976
amphibole, titanomagnetite and traces of zircon,
monazite and others. Highest tonnages occur at
Alur Naga with 61,000 tons conc, and Krueng Aceh
with 27,500 tons conc, (approx. 56 per cent Fe,
8 per cent TiO2). Grades in the latter area are 10.6
per cent magnetic fraction. The sands might be
utilized in a planned cement industry in the area.
Pasar Ngalam - South Sumatra: 45 Magnetite Most reserves are in the flat frontal beach dunes Djumhani and Husin,
Pasar Talo km South-east of Ti-magnetite but reserves also present in back dunes. The depo 1974
Bengkulu Ilmenite sit extends over 45 km with average width 250 m.
Composition of sand (from 3 samples): magnetite
7.3-11.6 per cent; Ti-magnetite 0-3.2 per cent;
ilmenite 1.6-1.8 per cent.
Bukit Duabelas East Sumatra Ilmenite Beach and dune sands. Also present are monazite United Nations,1976
Sarolangun Suru- Magnetite zircon and cassiterite. These sands were encoun Subandoro, 1976
langun Wai Sepu- tered in preliminary surveys but are probably not
tih Telek Betung significant.
Kalianda Wa-
tubelah
West and North Monazite Mineral is reported to be abundant in some areas.
Sumatra
Barito Plains South-east Kali Rutile-Zircon Geological Survey
mantan of Indonesia, 1971
Balikpapan East Kalimantan Ilmenite Zircon Highest grades of 5.5 per cent H.M. at Tanah Merah Subandoro, 1975
-Semboja but area has generally low grades.
Mahakam delta East Kalimantan Limonite Ilmenite Area is not very promising, but possibility of palaeo Subandoro, 1976
placers in hills to the east.
Martapura- South-east Rutile Zircon Also minor platinum and diamond. Geological Survey
Pleihari area Kalimantan of Indonesia, 1971
Landak Central Kalimantan Diamond Geological Survey of
Indonesia, 1971
Purukcahu Central Diamond Geological Survey of
Indonesia, 1971
Kembajan West Kalimantan Monazite Geological Survey of
Mountains Indonesia, 1971
East, North-east, Monazite Significant quantities of monazite have been iden
South, South-west tified in beaches and river placers in these areas.
Borneo
74
Deposit Location Major heavy mineral Geology and General Comments Reference
Endeh South Flores Ti-magnetite These are four specific beaches with a total of Subandoro and
175,000 tons of concentrates (59 per cent Fe, 12.25 Pudjowalugu, 1978
per cent TiO2). Possibly may be exploited for use Subandoro, 1976
in domestic cement industry.
South Sulawesi Chromite A 200 sq km concession was being explored by three South African
Japanese companies in the late 1970s. There are Minerals Bureau,
said to be hundreds of kilometers of beaches with 1982
sufficient Cr content to allow economic mining.
Additional exploration was carried out by Explora
tion of Australia Ltd.
NE Halmahera Chromite South African Mine
rals Bureau, 1982
Momi River Irian Jaya Xenotime, Samples tested showed high radioactivity, 3-27 times Sigit and others,
Monazite, Zircon normal background. 1969
Monazite is reported at several localities in Kaliman Past production has been over 300,000 tons/year of con
tan (Borneo) and also from Berhala Island in the Strait of centrate but in recent years production has been in the
Malacca. Xenotime, monazite, and zircon are reported at range of 80,000 to 145,000 tons/year. The company
the mouth of the Momi River in Irian Jaya. A small iron operated another mine at Pelabuanratu in south Java from
sand deposit occurs at Endeh in the south of Flores Island. the mid 1970s until 1982.
Heavy minerals are associated with tin mining in the Since 1979, annual production has declined to
‘Tin Islands’ of Singkep, Billiton, and Bangka off the east about 100,000 tons/year following the fall in exports to
coast of Sumatra. A major portion of tin production, Japan (Nippon Kokan Co. Ltd) to about 10,000 to 12,000
which is now about 20,000 tons/year of contained metal, is tons/year. The bulk of production is used by local industry
derived from offshore placers, stream gravels, and old principally as an additive in the production of portland
palaeo beaches. The associated heavy minerals monazite, cement (Wu, 1986). Total production of iron sand con
zircon, ilmenite, wolframite, xenotime, and others are not centrate from both mines up to 1985 was 3.05 Mt.
recovered from the ‘amang’ dumps. Monazite, however,
was recovered as a by-product of tin mining in the period In recent years Indonesia has imported 11,000 to
1936-1938, when 1,431 tons were produced from Billiton 15,000 tons/year of TiO2 pigment mainly from Japan, the
Island, accounting for about 10 per cent of the total world Federal Republic of Germany, and Australia. A few hun
monazite output at the time. dred tons/year of rare earth metal and alloys have also been
imported, mainly from Japan (Wu, 1986).
REFERENCE
Djumhani and Husin, A., 1974 Notes on the titaniferous Subandoro, 1976 Progress of heavy detrital mineral in
magnetite sand deposits on the west coast of vestigations in Indonesia between 1974 and 1976.
southern Sumatra. Bengkula Province, In Proceed In Proceedings of the thirteenth session of CCOP.
ings of the eleventh session of CCOP. United Na United Nations Economic and Social Commission
tions Economic Commission for Asia and the Far for Asia and the Pacific, p.194-200.
East, p. 273-278.
Subandoro, 1982 Beach sand investigations in Indonesia,
Geological survey of Indonesia, 1971 Notes on prospect 1980-1981. hi Proceedings of the eighteenth
ing for placer deposits in Indonesia. In Report of session of CCOP. United Nations Economic and
the eighth session, CCOP. United Nations Economic Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, p.21 -29.
Commission for Asia and the Far East, p. 195-197.
Subandoro, and Pudjowalujo, H., 1978 Iron sand in
Geological Survey of Indonesia, 1969 The titaniferous
beach sand of South Java and Bali, Indonesia. In coastal areas of Flores, Indonesia. In Proceedings
of the fifteenth session of CCOP. United Nations
Report of the sixth session of CCOP. United Na
tions Economic Commission for Asia and the Far Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific,
East, p. 105-106. p.155-161.
Geological Survey of Indonesia, 1971 Notes on the Smjono,S., 1983 Exploration for iron sand in the coastal
development of titaniferous iron sand deposits in area of Ciduan, West Java, 1983. In Proceedings of
Indonesia. In Report of the eighth session of CCOP. the twentieth session of CCOP. United Nations
United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
the Far East, p. 192-193. Pacific, p.52-57.
Macdonald, E.H., 1971 Country report: Indonesia. Tambang, P.N.A, 1974 Yogyakarta iron sand project, hi
United Nations, CCOP, Technical bulletin, vol. 5, Proceedings of the eleventh session of CCOP.
p. 48-53. United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific, p. 278-289.
Silitonga, P.H., and Surjono, 1984 Exploration for
titaniferous iron sand in the coastal area of Cipa- United Nations, 1976 Indonesia: Mineral resources devel
tryah, West Java. In Proceedings of the twenty-first opment. Proceedings of the Committee on Natural
session of CCOP. United Nations Economic and Resources, No. 43, p. 68-69.
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, p.4-45.
United Nations, 1970 Survey of world iron orc resources:
Sigit, S., and others, of 1969 Minerals and mining in
occurrence and appraisal.
Indonesia, Djakarta.
South African Minerals Bureau, 1982 Chromium. A Wu, J.C., 1985 The mineral industry of Indonesia. In
mineral commodity review. Department of Mineral Minerals yearbook, 1983, vol. 111, Area reports:
and Energy Affairs internal report No. 86, 1 50 p. international. United States Bureau of Mines.
Suhandoro, 1975 Occurrence of zircon and rutile in Wu, J.C., 1986 The mineral industry of Indonesia. In
beach sands of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Pro Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. Ill, Area reports:
ceedings of the twelfth session of CCOP. United international. United States Bureau of Mines,
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia p.405-419.
and the Pacific, p. 295-299.
4.7 JAPAN
Table 4.7.1 Chemical analysis of Japanese Table 4.7 3 Iron sand production by provincea
iron sand concentratesa 1957,1961 and 1964
(percentages) (million metric tons magnetite concentrate)
of ore at 14.5 per cent Fe (about 9.8 Mt of Fe) (United contained 70 to 72 per cent TiO2. Yearly production levels
Nations, 1970). were between 2,700 and 4,500 tons, but reached peaks of
8,700 tons in 1956, and 7,900 tons in 1970 (USBM Mineral
Total Japanese magnetite production from iron
Yearbooks 1950 to 1980). Total production up to 1979
sands between 1941 and 1979 was 24.26 Mt. The period
was 96,720 tons. Initially, three companies were involved,
of maximum production, averaging between 1.2 and 1.5
but after 1962 the only producer was Hokuatsu Electric
Mt/year, was during the 1960s. A peak of 1.71 Mt was
Chemical Industries. The entire titanium slag output was
achieved in 1961. A breakdown of production for 1957,
used by Osaka Titanium in the production of titanium
1961, and 1964, by district, is given in table 4.7.3. Japan
sponge metal (Adams, 1984).
would therefore appear to have substantial resources of
iron sand remaining, especially in the potential resource
There are only a few ilmenite deposits in Japan.
category.
They were mined on a relatively small scale. Six deposits
The high price of rutile and the relatively high TiO2 were exploited, all in central-north Honshu Island: three in
content of the magnetite concentrate (approximately 10 Fukishima Prefecture, one each in Miyagi and Niigata
per cent) led to the development of a titanium slag industry Prefectures. All of the deposits occur on beaches, except
in the early 1950s. Production ceased in 1979. The slag for the Miyagi Prefecture deposit, which is an inland terrace
Sources: Ore resources - United Nations, 1970; %Fe - United Nations, 1966.
a Total resources include ‘potential’ resources.
b Total production of Fe since 1965: 5 Mt.
79
deposit. The deposits, which may be considered iron sand Table 4.7.4 Production of processed commodities,
deposits with a high ilmenite content, contain between 2 Japan 1982-1984a
and 20 Mt of ore with an average grade of between 6 and (’000 short tons)
8 per cent TiO2 (Geological Survey of Japan, 1982;
AMIRA, 1972; Australian Embassy Trade Office, 1971). 1981 1982 1983 1984
Mining of ilmenite began in the late 1950s; produc
Titanium dioxide 178 186 198 206
tion during the 1960s was between 4,000 and 6,000 tons/
year with a peak production of 6,880 tons in 1967. Pro Titanium metal 24.9 16.9 10.6 15.4
duction declined in the early 1970s and ceased in 1974. Zirconium oxides 4.0 4.3 4.9 6.0
Total production from 1960 onwards was 62,700 tons Zirconium metal 0.05 0.05 NA NA
(AMIRA, 1972; USBM Mineral Yearbooks 1969 to 1975). Lanthanum oxide 0.23 0.12 0.16 0.24
The major portion of the concentrate was used in the Cerium metal 0.85 0.63 0.60 0.63
production of titanium dioxide pigment, a small amount
Steel (million tons) 102 100 97 106
was used as an ‘additive’ for iron and steel manufacture
(AMIRA, 1972).
Source: Wu, 1986.
The mining of mineral sands in Japan ceased com a Not all produced from mineral sand concentrates.
pletely in 1979 because the deposits were no longer econo
mic. Large resources of low-grade titanium-bearing-iron with a combined capacity of 228,000 tons/year, the largest
sands remain; these may become economic with improved being Ishihara with a plant capacity of 118,000 tons/year at
mining techniques. There have been no recent reports of Yokkaichi. The Sakai and Teikoku Kako companies
any exploration or development activities of the mineral together account for another 60,000 tons/year. Eighty-
sand resources in Japan, and reactivation of this industry nine per cent of the production is via the sulphate route.
appears unlikely in the near future. Details on the operations of the seven producers are given
in Adams (1984).
Production and Trade
Japan is second only to the United States as the
Japan is a leading world processor of mineral sand world’s largest market for TiO2 pigment, with most of the
products. It produces synthetic rutile, titanium dioxide country’s production of about 200,000 tons/year (table
pigment, and metal from ilmenite and rutile; zirconium 4.7.4) consumed locally. Exports in 1982 and 1983 were
dioxide (ZrO2) and metal from zircon; rare earth com about 17,000 tons, the bulk going to the Asian market,
pounds and metals from monazite and xenotime; iron and particularly China, and the Republic of Korea, with Indo
steel from magnetite. It relies totally on imported raw nesia and the Philippines also being important markets.
materials, which are mined from hardrock deposits as well Japan imports some TiO2 pigment, presumably of special
as mineral sand deposits. Production details from 1981 grades. In 1982 and 1983 imports were about 6,000 tons,
to 1984 are given in table 4.7.4. mostly from the Republic of Korea and Europe (Adams,
1984; Wu, 1986).
In 1984, for the production of titanium products,
Japan imported 645,000 tons of mineral sand concentrates, Titanium sponge metal production in Japan began
primarily ilmenite, mainly from Malaysia, Australia, and in 1952. There are five producers with a total capacity of
India in addition, 63,000 tons of titanium slag was im 38,900 tons/year (compared with a western-world capacity
ported from South Africa and Canada. of 69,860 tons/year). The largest producers are the Osaka
The only producer of synthetic rutile (92 per cent Titanium Corporation with a 18,000 tons/year plant at
TiO2) in Japan is Ishihara Sangyo Kaisha which has a Amagasaki, near Osaka, and Toho Titanium with a 14,400
48,000 tons/year plant at Yokkaichi near Nagoya. The tons/year plant at Chigasaki near Yokohama. Three other
company uses a sulphuric acid leaching process with companies have a combined capacity of 6,500 tons/year.
ilmenite feedstock. Most of Ishihara’s production is con Adams (1984) describes the operations of these companies.
sumed by the company’s own 24,000 tons/year chloride As shown in table 4.7.4, Japanese production in recent
route pigment plant at Yokkaichi, the remainder being years has only been at about 10 to 50 per cent of capacity.
exported to the United States. Plant capacity may be Japan has long been the world’s largest exporter of
expanded in the near future. Mitsubishi Metal has devel titanium sponge metal, traditionally exporting about 50
oped a synthetic rutile process of its own and is considering per cent of its production. According to USBM, sponge
setting up a plant in the late 1980s (Adams, 1984). exports in recent years have been between 2,000 and 6,000
Titanium dioxide pigment production in Japan tons/year (Wu, 1986); the United States is the major
began in about 1935. Currently there are seven producers market. The sponge that is not exported is processed into
80
ingot and mill products. The chemical industry accounts 1981-1984 imports of zirconium metal as 400 to 600 tons/
for 41 per cent of consumption; desalination and power year.
plants account for a further 40 per cent (Adams, 1984). Japan is a leading world producer of a wide range of
In recent years Japan has imported about 200,000 rare earth compounds and metals, with 11 companies
tons of zircon concentrate annually, most from Australia; actively involved in the industry. Production data are
South Africa is also an important Japanese supplier. The available only for lanthanum oxide (220 tons in 1984) and
zircon is used mainly for refractory bricks in the foundry cerium metal (570 tons) as given in table 4.7.4. Raw
industry but a minor amount is used in the production of materials used by the industry are mainly monazite from
zirconia and zirconium metal. Australia, India, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka, xenotime from
Malaysia, and bastnaesite from the United States. In 1984
Zirconia is produced from zircon and baddelyite, Japan imported over 600 tons of rare earth compounds and
which is imported from South Africa. Japanese zirconia about 150 tons of rare earth metals and alloys, with the
production (table 4.7.4) in recent years has been 4,000 to United States, France, China, India, and Malaysia the major
6,000 tons/year, of which 1,000 to 2,000 tons/year are suppliers (British Geological Survey, 1986). In 1983 and
manufactured from zircon. There are a few companies pro 1984, exports of rare earth metals and alloys were about
ducing zirconia from zircon, the largest being Daichi Kigenso 350 tons (destinations unreported). A summary of the
and Toyo Soda. Japan is one of the world’s major users of Japanese rare earth industry including consumption and
zirconia for special ceramics and refractories (Dickson, import data is given in Griffiths (1984).
1985); no zirconia is exported.
Total steel production in Japan in recent years has
Only one company, Nippon Mining, is involved in been about 100 Mt/year (see table 4.7.4). Of this only a
the production of zirconium sponge metal, with a 300 tons/ very small quantity (approximately 1 per cent) is produced
year plant at Tokyo (AMIRA, 1972). Production has been from iron sands. Average annual consumption of iron sand
relatively small (approximately 50 tons in 1981-1982, between 1982 and 1984 was 2.32 Mt (Tex Report Co.,
unrecorded in 1983-1984) because the metal has not yet 1986), imported from New Zealand. The iron sand is
been accepted for use in nuclear reactors, a major user of blended with other forms of iron ore to produce steel to
the metal. The British Geological Survey (1986) records meet required specifications.
REFERENCES
Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan session of CCOP. United Nations Economic Com
cial Times Ltd., London, 244 p. mission for Asia and the Far East.
Australian Embassy Trade Office, 1971 — A Survey of the Okano, T., Shimazaki, Y., and Maruyama, S., 1968 - Off
Japanese titanium industry, p. 1-3. Unpublished. shore detrital heavy minerals in Japan. Japan geolo
gical survey bulletin, 19(6), p. 411-418.
Australian Mineral Industries Research Association
(AMIRA), 1972 - Report on titanium and zir The TEX Report Co. Ltd., 1986 — Iron ore manual 1985-
conium, p. 139-140. International Technical 1986, p. 108-109. The TEX Report Co. Ltd.
Services Ltd., Sydney. Tokyo.
British Geological Survey, 1986 - World mineral statistics United Nations, 1966 — Economic aspects of iron ore pre
1980-1984: production: exports: imports (Key paration. Prepared by the Secretariat of the Econo
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey). mic Commission for Europe, Geneva, 1966, p. 181-
188. United Nations, New York.
Dickson, E.M., 1985 - Zirconia - growth of a speciality.
Industrial minerals, No. 209, p. 49-53. United Nations, 1970 — Survey of world iron ore resources.
Occurrence and appraisal. Report of a panel of
Geological Survey of Japan, 1983 Geological Atlas of experts appointed by the Secretary-General, p. 130-
Japan. Geological Survey of Japan, Tokyo. 134, 195-199. Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, United Nations, New York.
Griffiths, J., 1984 Rare earths attracting increasing
attention. Industrial minerals, No. 199, p. 30-33. Wu, J.C., 1986 The mineral industry of Japan. In Mine-
rals yearbook, 1984, vol. Ill, Area reports: inter
Maruyama, S., 1969 Exploration of iron sand deposits in national. United States Bureau of Mines, p. 465-
Volcano Bay, Hokkaido. In Report of the sixth 491.
4.8. REPUBLIC OF KOREA
The Republic of Korea has substantial resources of region, just south of the border. Ilmenite resources arc
detrital heavy minerals, chiefly ilmenite, monazite, zircon, given as 60,000 tons indicated, and 145,000 tons inferred;
magnetite, and gold. No production of these minerals, the ilmenite comprises 4.4 per cent of the raw sand. Over
except gold, has been reported since the mid 1970s. 40,000 tons (indicated and inferred) of combined zircon
and monazite are also present (MacDonald, 1971). Ad
Production of monazite started in the late 1940s. ditional mineralization has been noted elsewhere in the
Maximum production was between 1951 and 1958 when 100 km stretch between Koseong and Yangyang.
a total of about 5,000 tons was produced. After that
production was sporadic, about 10 tons/year, and ceased Ilmenite deposits occur on Chumun and Acha
altogether in the mid 1970s. Minor quantities of ilmenite Islands off the far north-west coast. Grades are reported
and zircon, about 10 to 20 tons/year were produced in the to be about 5 per cent ilmenite, and the ilmenite resources
late 1960s and early 1970s (Kim, 1970). In 1958, the of the islands as 133,000 tons indicated and 470,000 tons
Geological Survey of Korea began systematic investigation inferred. Analyses of the ilmenite give a TiO2 content of
of the country’s detrital mineral deposits and by 1970 most 47.18 per cent (MacDonald, 1971).
of the important deposits had been outlined; further
detailed work was undertaken throughout the 1970s. Another major heavy mineral deposit occurs on the
Namdaechon River in the Muju area in the centre of the
Some of the more important heavy mineral deposits country. This deposit contains 240,000 tons (indicated)
(table 4.8.1) in the Republic of Korea are outlined below of heavy minerals, including 87,000 tons of ilmenite at a
(see fig. 4.8.1). grade of 0.44 per cent, as well as magnetite, monazite,
zircon, and gold (Table 4.8.1). The Asan Bay area on the
A major heavy mineral deposit, the Hwajinpo north-west coast is important for gold, but substantial
deposit, occurs on the far north-east coast of the Koseong quantities of ilmenite are also present. Measured ilmenite
resources are 120,000 tons at an average grade of about
0.1 per cent of ilmenite.
Deposit Location Grade (per cent of sand) Resources (tons, indicated) References
So Yonpyong Is. 120 km W of Seoul mgnt +5% mgnt 137 000 Kim,1968
NW Korea Geological Survey
37°40'N : 125°45'E of Korea, 1968
near future is likely to satisfy the increasing local demand. imported about 3,000 tons/year, chiefly from Japan and
The plant consumes 35,000 tons/year of ilmenite imported Federal Republic of Germany. In recent years the Republic
from Malaysia (Adams, 1984). of Korea has also imported 350 to 400 tons/year of titanium
metal, mainly from the United States and Japan, and about
in recent years, while Korea has exported about 15,400 tons/year of zircon concentrate, principally from
2,000 tons/year of TiO2 pigment, mainly to Japan, it has Australia.
REFERENCES
Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the
cial Times Information Ltd., London, 244 p. Ear East, p. 225-240.
Chin, E., 1986 The mineral industry of the Republic of Kim, Won Jo, 1968 Outline of placer deposits in Korea
Korea. In Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III: area (Document 1&NR/R56). In Report of the fourth
reports international. United States Bureau of session of CCOP. United Nations Economic Com
Mines, p. 501-513. mission for Asia and the Ear East, p. 96-101.
Geological Survey of Korea, 1968 Summarized Data of Kim, Won Jo, 1970 Placer deposits of detrital heavy
Eleven Main Placer Deposits in the Republic of Minerals in Korea. United Nations, CCOP, Tech
Korea. In Report of the fifth session of CCOP. nical Bulletin, vol. 3, p. 127-136.
United Nations Economic Commission for Asia
Lee, J.K., 1982 An investigation report of the heavy
and the Ear East, p. 105-117.
sands of Namdaecheon River, Muju area. Korea In
stitute of Energy and Resources, Miscellaneous Re
Geological Survey of Korea, 1972 — Preliminary investiga
port 12, 21 p.
tion of detrital heavy minerals in the Asian Bay
area, west coast of the Republic of Korea. In MacDonald, E.H., 1971 Country report Republic of
Report of the ninth Session of CCOP. United Korea. United Nations, CCOP, Technical Bulletin,
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Vol. 5,p. 54-73.
Ear East, p. 171-174.
Miyazawa, T., 1969 Heavy sands deposits of fergusonite
Geological Survey of Korea, 1976 Investigation of and columbite in Kikune (Kukkun) Min, Yonback-
detrital heavy minerals and silica sands on Inyada kun, Hwanghae-do, Lorca. In Geology and mineral
Island and in the Kusipo area, west coast of Korea. resources of the Far East, (ed. Tsutomu Ogura)
In Report of the thirteenth session, CCOP. United vol. 3,p. 85-99.
4.9. MALAYSIA
THAILAND
KEDAH
KELANTAN
PENANG
TERENGGANU
PAHANG
NEGERI
SEMBILAN
Table 4.9.1. Mineralogical composition of heavy minerals collected from some tin mines and the
Kampong Ajil ilmenite deposit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Corundum - - - 0.5 - - - -
Pyrite 1 1 Tr - - 23 1.5 -
Siderite 3 - - - - 5.5 Tr -
Wolframite - 24.5 - - - - - -
Xenotime 1 1 1 Tr Tr Tr Tr -
Leucoxene - - - - - - - 0.13
Table 4.9.2. Malaysian ilmenite analysis the ilmenite is given in table 4.9.2. The dimensions of the
deposit, using a cut-off grade of 5 per cent heavy mineral,
Average Average Average is about 2.8 km long by 0.8 km wide. The reserves in this
Concentrate1 Export Grade2 Kampong Ajil2 area are estimated as 2.1 Mt ilmenite. A breakdown of
resources by grade is given in table 4.9.3 (Aw, 1986).
TiO2 51-55 54.8 53.09
Fe2O3 8-18 9.81 3. Other deposits
FeO 26-32 26.9
Other heavy mineral deposits (mainly ilmenite)
MnO 2.5-4.5
not associated with tin are known at the following localities
Cr2O3 0.03-0.1 0.016 (Geological Survey of Malaysia, 1973):
SiO2 2
5° 35' N : 102° 00' E, near kuala Kerai (Kelantan);
ZrO2 2
5° 20' N : 102° 10' E, near Kuala Kerai (Kelantan);
V2O5 0.03-0.1
2° 50' N : 102° 05' E, near Seremban (Negeri
P2O5 0.1-0.2 0.14 0.007
Sembilan);
SnO2 0.25
2° 05' N : 103° 05' E, near Batu Pahat (Johore);
S 0.017
6° 20' N : 99° 40' E, on Langkawi Island (perlis)
Source: 1. Adams, 1984 and near Bukit Payong (Terengganu) (Wessel, 1974);
2. Aw, 1986 Keluang district (Terengganu) (MacDonald, 1971).
87
Table 4.9.3. Kampong Ajil reserves material provided by several tin-mining companies in the
area, as well as tin tailings imported from China, Indonesia
Cut-off grade Area Ilmenite reserves and Thailand. The company specializes in the extraction
(hectares) (tons) of the rare earth minerals monazite and xenotime, and also
20%
produces up to 60,000 tons/year of ilmenite and substantial
12 216 000
quantities of zircon (Adams, 1984).
15% 20 2 45 000
Malaysian heavy-mineral production in the period
10% 84 7 67 000
1981-1984 is shown in table 4.9.5. Total ilmenite produc
7% 88 550 000 tion from 1925 to 1985 was 5.1 Mt (Towner and others,
5% 76 3 34 000 1987).
Total 280 2 112 000 Table 4.9.5. Malaysian heavy mineral production
1981-1984
Source: Aw, 1986 (tons)
Japan is the main market for Malaysian ilmenite chlorides (46 per cent REO). This plant, located at Ipoh,
concentrate. The concentrate is sold in three grades: high has a rated annual capacity of 4,000 tons/year of rare
grade (min 60 per cent TiO2, max 10 per cent Fe); medium earth chlorides (Griffiths, 1984).
grade (min 52 per cent TiO2, max 28 per cent Fe), and A 20,000 tons/year sulphate-route TiO2 pigment
low grade (various specifications). The Republic of Korea, plant was to have been established in Perak state in the
Singapore, the United Kingdom and the United States also
mid 1970s by the Gopeng Consolidated Group and other
import the ilmenite, mainly for use in the production of
Malaysian mining companies, but the project did not
TiO2 pigment. The main market for zircon is Europe,
proceed, mainly because the country has no substantial
Japan, and the United States where it is processed into
sulphurous raw materials, no existing large-scale acid
zirconium metal (Wu, 1986.)
facilities, and has high energy costs (Adams, 1984).
Further processing of xenotime and monazite is
carried out by two companies, both of which are joint Trade
ventures of Beh Minerals Sdn. Bhd. and Mitsubishi Chemical In recent years Malaysia has imported between
Industries Ltd (Japan). Xenotime is processed by Malaysian 5,000 and 7,000 tons/year TiO2 pigment, mainly from
Rare Earth Corp. Sdn. Bhd. (formed in 1976) to produce Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. A
yttrium concentrate (containing 60 per cent Y2O3). The minor but unspecified amount of rare earth metal is im
plant located at Ipoh, Perak, has a rated capacity of 80 ported, mainly from Japan. Up to 300 tons/year of zircon
tons/year of yttrium. Monazite is processed by Asian concentrates have also been imported (Wu, 1986; British
Rare Earths Ltd (formed in 1982) to produce rare earth Geological Survey, 1986).
REFERENCES
Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan Hasbi bin Haji Hassan, A., 1983 — Recovery of by-product
cial Times Information Ltd., London, 244 p. minerals from Malaysian tin mining industry. In
Hasbi bin Haji Hassan, A., de le Fuente, J.C., and
Anon., 1985 — Malaysia: explanatory brochure. Volume 1
Baylis, D.M. (eds.) Beneficiation of tin and associated
in Atlas of mineral resources of the ESCAP region.
minerals. Technical publication No. 3. SEATRAD
United Nations Economic and Social Commission
Centre, Ipoh, Malaysia.
for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, 16 p.
Aw, P.C., 1986 - Titanium resources in Peninsular Malaysia. Hedrick, J.B., 1987 — Rare earth metals. In Mineral
Economic Geology Report, Geological Survey of commodity summaries, 1987. United States Bureau
Malaysia. 16 p. of Mines, p. 126-127.
British Geological Survey, 1986 — World mineral statistics Macdonald, E.H., 1971 — Country report - Malaysia.
1980- 1984: production: exports: imports (Key United Nations, CCOP, Technical Bulletin, Vol. 5,
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey). p. 74-78.
Coope, B., 1982 - Titanium minerals - focus on produc Towner, R.R., Gray, J., and Porter, L.M., 1987 - ISMI
tion. Industrial minerals, No. 178, p. 33. summary report - titanium. U.S. geological survey
circular 983 - G.
Department of Mines, Malaysia, 1983 - Bulletin of statistics
relating to the mining industry of Malaysia. Depart Wessel, F.W., 1976 — Titanium. In Minerals yearbook,
ment of Mines. Kuala Lumpur, 59 p. 1974, vol. 1: Metals, minerals, and fuels. United
Geological Survey of Malaysia, 1973 - Annual report. States Bureau of Mines, p. 1295-1305.
Peninsular Malaysia mineral distribution maps.
Wu, J.C., 1986 - The mineral industry of Malaysia. In
Figure 4.
Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III, Area reports:
Griffiths, J., 1984 - Rare earths - attracting increasing international. United States Bureau of Mines,
attention. Industrial minerals, No. 199, p. 19-37. p. 537-544.
4.10 NEW ZEALAND
In the southern area, around Wanganui, only the 4.10.2. Resources of the deposits currently mined at
Patea Dune sand is considered as a possible source of iron Waikato North Head are put at: 94 Mt concentrate at 57.5
sand. This formation, mined at Waipipi, has an average per cent Fe; Taharoa: 300 Mt concentrate at 55.3 per cent
grade of 18 per cent titanomagnetite. However, the under Fe; and Waipipi: 55 Mt concentrate at 56.0 per cent Fe.
lying Rapanui formation has economic potential where it These estimates are based on a cut-off grade of 8 per cent
occurs in association with the Patea Dune sand. The other concentrate in the sand (NZGS, 1981; Kear, 1965). An
two formations have lower grades, 10 per cent or less, and additional 74 Mt of concentrate (average grade 10 per cent)
are covered by 1.5 m or more of overburden (table 4.10.1) occur offshore in the region (McDougall, 1961); these are
(Kear, 1965; NZGS, 1981). currently of no economic interest.
The components of the sands are titanomagnetite, Chemical analyses of some magnetic concentrates
titanohematite, augite, hornblende, hypersthene, andesine, from the major deposits are given in table 4.10.3. Total
and minor zircon, apatite and garnet. Rock fragments are iron content in these analyses is higher than the 55 to 58
common, and ilmenite forms over 8 per cent in some depo per cent that is typical of the concentrates produced. TiO2
sits in the far north. The titanomagnetite is considered to content is about 8 per cent and V2O5 generally about
be derived mainly from the erosion of Quaternary andesitic 0.5 per cent. Description of the mineragraphy of the
volcanoes (Mount Egmont and its ancestors) near the coast titanomagnetite is detailed in Williams (1974).
(Kear, 1965; Williams, 1974).
New Zealand Steel Ltd, through its subsidiary New
Identified resources of iron sand from major deposits Zealand Steel Mining Ltd, owns and operates the Waikato
on the west coast of the North Island are estimated to be North Head mine at the mouth of the Waikato River about
more than 780 Mt of iron concentrate, of which at least 50 km south of Auckland. The deposit covers an area of
550 Mt assays better than 55 per cent soluble iron. The 12 km2 and has an average thickness of 17 m (Thompson
breakdown of these resources by deposit is given in table and others, 1985). Mining commenced in 1969, and pro-
91
Table 4.10.1 Major features of North Island sand-bearing formations Northern region - Kaihu Sands group
Major lithology Loose gray sand Consolidated grey sand, Thick clayey brown sand Clayey brown sand with
with loose sand below with loose grey sand black stainings
below
Soil clay Nil Thin Thick Very thick
Chy penetration from Nil Average 15 ft Average 35 ft Over 100 ft
surface
Vegetation None or lupin Usually grassed Grassed or bushed Grassed or bushed
Topography Good dune form Dune form Eroded, no dune form Deeply dissected
Maximum height 10 ft 70 ft 135 ft 550 ft
above sea level of beach
sands
Volcanic ash cover None None Possibly thin ash Thick ash
Age Late Holocene Late Pleistocene Mid Pleistocene Early Pleistocene
(Monastirian) to early (Tyrrhenian and Penultimate
Holocene Glaciation)
Titanomagnetite Variable (average about Most beds not very rich Includes richest iron sand Only in younger higher
Content 20-25%) (average about 10-15%) beds, named Waiuku beds, say over 400 ft above
Blacksand Member sea level where average
(average about 40%) may be 15-20% locally, but
generally low
Remarks Actively drifting or very - - Pumice and lignite com-
recently fixed sands mon in older beds
Major lithology Loose grey dune-sand Marine sand, lignite and Marine sand, ash and Alluvial sand, silt, etc.
dune-sand dune-sand
Overlying soil, ash, and Virtually nil Few feet (say 5 ft) Commonly 5 to 5 ft, plus 10 ft and more
blown sand cover Rapanui dunes locally
Vegetation None or scrub Grassed Grassed Grassed
Topography Good dune form Terraces and dunes Eroded terraces, no dune Highly eroded terraces, no
form dune form
Age Holocene Late Pleistocene (e.g. Mid-late Pleistocene (e.g. Mid Pleistocene (e.g.
Monastirian) Tyrrhenian) Milazzian)
Titanomagnetite content 20% 10% 11% Less than Brunswick
(average)
Possible source of iron Yes No No
sand
Table 4.10.2 Iron sand resourcesa of west coast North Island deposits
Table 4.103 Chemical analyses of magnetic concentrates from North Island iron sand deposits
A B C D E
duction in 1974 was 217,000 tons of concentrate; the owned and operated by Waipipi Ironsands Ltd. The deposit
operation has been expanded to 1.5 Mt/year concentrate has an average thickness of 9 m and is mined by two
(Anon., 1983; Anon., 1985). cutter-suction dredges; an offshore loading system similar
Two bucketwheel excavators are now used to ex to that at Taharoa being used for loading concentrates
tract the ore. The concentrate is trucked to the Glenbrook onto ships. Mining commenced in about 1971. In 1984,
steel mill about 20 km away. Production by New Zealand 568,000 tons of titanomagnetite concentrate was produced
Steel Ltd in 1984 was near capacity of 135,000 tons of and exported to Japan (DSIR, 1981; DSIR, 1985).
crude steel billets; a fivefold expansion programme was to
be completed by late 1986 (New Zealand Steel Ltd, 1985;
2. Ilmenite
Anon., 1983).
The Taharoa operation 10 km to the south of Detrital deposits of ilmenite are known in several
Kawhia Harbour, about 160 km south of Auckland, is also districts in New Zealand, mainly along the west coast of
owned and operated by New Zealand Steel Ltd. The the South Island. Most of the present-day beaches and
deposit, which averages about 6 m in thickness, is mined by sand dunes along the 420 km of coastline between the
a combination of a cutter-suction dredge which floats on Karamea River in the north and Jacksons Bay in the south
a man-made pond, and bulldozers working around buried contain substantial concentrations of ilmenite, associated
feeder systems. The raw sand is piped or conveyed to a with garnet and other heavy minerals. Some of the deposits
concentrating plant, from where it is pumped as slurry onto have been dredged for gold.
an offshore loading buoy and then to an ore carrier. Mining The largest of the deposits occur at Barrytown and
commenced in 1971, and 1,518,000 tons of titanomagne Westport; deposits at Karamea North and Hokitika South
tite concentrate was produced and exported to Japan 1984. are also important. The resources and grades of these and
The Waipipi operation 7 km to the south-west of other deposits in the area are given in table 4.10.4, and
Waverly, about 50 km to the north-west of Wanganui, is their localities are shown in figure 4.10.1.
The Barrytown deposit, which extends from the indicated. At the Waikato North Head operation, the
present-day beach to about 1 km inland, occurs as north ilmenite grades about 0.6 per cent, and could eventually be
south trending beach and dune sand and has an average recovered as a by-product of the titanomagnetite. However,
thickness of about 10 m. Most of the deposit contains beds the TiO2 content of the ilmenite is very low, about 35 to
and stringers of gravel and pebbles and has an average thick 43 per cent (Williams, 1974).
ness of overburden of about 1.5 m. Grades tend to be
Ilmenite beach sands are present on the eastern
lowest in the older inland dunes, as is the case at the nearby
Coromandel Peninsula in the north-east of the North
Westport deposit (Mann and James, 1986; McPherson,
1978). Island. Four specific localities have been reported: Whare-
kaho Beach near Whitianga, Opoutane Beach near Whare-
An extensive drilling programme was undertaken kawa, Waihi Beach near Waihi, and Waimana Beach on the
during 1984-1985 by the current operators, Fletcher Chal eastern side of Cape Colville.
lenge Ltd (throughtheir wholly-owned subsidiary, Grampian
Mining); the results are not yet available. On the basis of While the heavy mineral concentrations occur
drilling in the early 1970s by the previous operators, Car mainly in sand dunes, both modern and fossil, deposits are
pentaria Exploration, inferred resources are estimated as also known in modern beaches and in the estuary and off
10.8 Mt of ilmenite, averaging 8.5 per cent ilmenite (DSIR, shore bay areas. The first two localities referred to above
1981). Other heavy minerals include garnet 15 to 20 per contain a combined tonnage of 2.5 Mt of ilmenite, of
cent, zircon 0.1 to 0.3 per cent, monazite 0.1 to 0.3 per average grade of 35 per cent ilmenite. Waihi Beach is of
cent, rutile 0.1 per cent, gold 0.06 g/ton, and minor cassite lower grade, about 6 per cent ilmenite, but probably
rite and scheelite. While the zircon, monazite, and gold contains larger tonnages. Zircon averages about 1 per cent
have economic possibilities, the associated garnet is unlikely in the sand. The TiO2 content of the ilmenite, as elsewhere
to have any commercial value because of its relatively low in New Zealand, is low, on average 40 to 45 per cent
value and the isolated location of the deposit (DSIR, 1981). (NZGS, 1981; Williams, 1974).
The TiO2 content of the ilmenite is relatively low Heavy mineral occurrences have been reported
(45 to 47 per cent, table 4.10.3) because of minute (10 to elsewhere in New Zealand but few, if any, are of commercial
20 micron) inclusions of albite, minor quartz and apatite. interest. On the north-east coast of Stewart Island small
Chromium and vanadium contents are low and well within quantities of high-purity black sand are known. One
commercial specifications. The ilmenite has an unusually sample contained 85 per cent magnetite and 13 per cent
high ferrous to ferric iron ratio (Fe ++/Fe+++) which makes ilmenite (containing 44 per cent TiO2 ). At George Sound
it particularly suitable for acid leaching. This characteristic in Fiordland, and Orepuki in Southland, small quantities of
has enabled Fletcher Challenge Ltd to develop a new process ilmenite are present, but at both localities the ilmenite
which produces TiO2 pigment directly from the ilmenite. assays only 26 per cent TiO2. The Orepuki area also con
A pilot plant to test this process was to be in operation in tains minor quantities of rutile, zircon, and gold.
late 1986 (Judd and Palmer, 1973; Terry, 1985). Rutile occurs as a minor or trace component of
The other major ilmenite deposit in the district is at many of the heavy mineral beach-sand deposits of New
Westport,some 50 km to the north. Large resources of Zealand. In the ilmenite deposits of the South Island it
ilmenite, approximately 10 Mt (inferred) are present on and is generally less than 0.16 per cent — too low for economic
close to the present shoreline at Carters Beach and Nine recovery unless perhaps as a by-product. However, a grade
Mile Beach (table 4.10.4). Bulk grade is about 10 per cent of about 2 per cent was reported in a sample from Carters
ilmenite. Additional resources are known in the older Beach at Westport. Small quantities of garnet-rich beach
Pleistocene strandlines further inland and these are esti sands containing up to 1 per cent rutile have been reported
mated to contain between 10 and 20 Mt ilmenite (inferred). at Transit Beach and Poison Bay (south of Milford Sound),
The sands grade about 3 to 5 per cent ilmenite and are not and the nearby Anchorage Cove in George Sound (NZGS,
regarded as an economic resource. Gold in the sands is 1981; Williams, 1974).
currently being evaluated by Buller Minerals and CRA Gold has been recovered from beach and alluvial
Exploration. The Westport deposit is described in detail deposits at many localities in New Zealand, mainly in the
in McPherson (1978). South Island.
Ilmenite is a significant component of some titano
magnetite sand deposits, particularly north of the Waikato Production and processing
River mouth of the North Island (figure 4.10.1). At Manu-
kau Heads, Piho and Muriwai Beach, average values of 7 to In 1984, production of titanomagnetite concentrates
9 per cent ilmenite are recorded, with substantial tonnages from North Island operations totalled 2.303 Mt (56 per
95
cent Fe) as shown below (DSIR, 1985): An expanded operation will include a vanadium recovery
operation. Details of the steelmaking process and expansion
Waikato North Head
programme are given in Anon., 1983.
(New Zealand Steel Ltd) 216,991 tons
No other heavy minerals, apart from gold, are com
Taharoa mercially produced in New Zealand. A pilot plant lor the
(New Zealand Steel Ltd) 1,5 17,567 tons production of 5 to 10 tons/year of TiO2 pigment from
Barrytown ilmenite was planned for late 1986. If success
Waipipi ful, the operating company, Fletcher Challenger Ltd,
(Waipipi Ironsands Ltd) 568,235 tons intends to construct by 1990 a full-scale plant capable of
producing 250,000 tons/year of pigment forexport (Terry,
The bulk of production from the Taharoa and 1985). The process developed by the New Zealand Depart
Waipipi mines is exported to Japan; a minor amount is ment of Scientific and Industrial Research, under contract
exported to Korea. The titanomagnetite is important to to the operators, uses the low TiO2 ilmenite. The process
the Japanese steel producers for blending in minor quan
employs hydrochloric acid and produces minor toxic wastes,
tities with other iron ore feedstock to extend the life of the
hydrochloric acid being regenerated within the system. The
refractory linings of the blast furnaces. It also helps to
process is particularly applicable to the New Zealand
reduce and remove nitrogen in the pig iron. Concentrates
ilmenite with its high ferrous to ferric iron ratio. Details of
are purchased by seven steel producers in Japan, the major the process are given in Judd and Palmer, 1973. The
purchasers being Nippon Steel, Nippon Kokan and Kawa
process is energy-intensive and a suggested site for the
saki Steel. Because of declining steel production in Japan
pigment plant is Charleston where low-grade Coal could be
over recent years iron sand exports from New Zealand
converted into gas to operate a power station. Other sites
have decreased (Tex Report Co. Ltd, 1986).
with access to low-cost energy arc being considered, includ
ing those on North Island and overseas locations (Terry,
New Zealand Steel Ltd steel plant at Glenbrook uses
1985; Fletcher Challenge, personal communication, 1985).
the entire production from the Waikato North Head mine.
Production at the plant in recent years has been near
Trade
capacity of about 135,000 tons/year of steel billets. An
expansion of the operations to 775,000 tons/year capa New Zealand imported 2,400 to 2,600 tons/year of
city of slab and billet is currently under way and isexpected TiO2 pigment in 1983 and 1984, mainly from Australia,
to be completed in 1987. The plant, which began operation with lesser amounts from the United Stales and the Federal
in 1969, uses the Steelco-Lurgi process. Sub-bituminous Republic of Germany. Imports of rare earth products in
(non-coking) coal from the Hentley area is used to produce 198 3 and 1984 arc unspecified, but less than $NZ 10,000
a highly-metallized sponge iron which is directly converted, in value, mainly from the United Kingdom and Japan.
without liquifying to steel, in a conventional electric arc Imports of minor amounts of zirconium products have been
furnace. The slag, rich in titanium, is currently stockpiled. recorded.
REFERENCES
Anon., 1983 New Zealand: iron sand to steel. Mining of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, Monograph 4,
magazine, May, p. 346-353. p.5-17.
Anon., 1985 New Zealand iron sand exploration. Mining Judd, B. and Palmer, E.R., 1973 Production of titanium
journal, Feb. 8, vol. 304, No. 7799, 94 p. dioxide from ilmenite of the west coast. South
Island, New Zealand. Proceedings of the Austra
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1981 lasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, No. 247,
The iron sands industry. Information leaflet, p. 23-33.
No. 22.
Kear, D., 1965 (Ecology of New Zealand’s iron sand
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1985 resources. Publications of the Eighth Common
Mine production data for iron sand deposits. New wealth Mining and Metallurgy Congress: Paper 219,
Zealand Geological Survey. p. 1-10.
Jones, L.S., 1974 History of mineral prospecting and Mann, G. and James, D., 1986 The evaluation and devel
production. In Williams, G.L., (Ed.) Economic opment of the Barrytown ilmenite deposit as a
geology of New Zealand. Australasian Institute source of titanium dioxide pigment. In Australia:
96
a world source of ilmenite, rutile, monazite, and and 1983-1984. Department of Scientific and
zircon, Symposia Series No. 46, Australasian Insti Industrial Research, New Zealand Geological Survey,
tute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, p. Report Ml42. p. 1-33.
139-142.
Terry, S., 1985 — Uniques west coast sands boost new
McDougall, J.C., 1961 — Iron sands deposits offshore from industry hopes. National business review, October
the west coast, North Island, New Zealand. New 21,p.37.
Zealand journal of geology and geophysics, 4,
p. 283-300. The TEX Report Co. Ltd, 1986 — Iron ore manual 1985-
1986. The TEX Report Co. Ltd. Tokyo.
McPherson, R.I., 1978 — Geology of Quaternary ilmenite
bearing coastal deposits at Westport. New Zealand Thompson, B.N., Braithwaite, R.L., and Sherwood, A.M.,
Geological Survey bulletin 87. 1985 — Mineral resources map of New Zealand.
Scale 1:2,000,000. New Zealand Geological Survey,
New Zealand Steel Limited, 1985 - Annual report 1985. Lower Hutt.
NZGS, 1981 — Minerals of New Zealand — A Summary of Williams, GJ., 1974 — Iron and titanium-bearing minerals.
resources, prospects and other occurrences, Part A: In Williams.
Metallics. New Zealand Geological Survey, Report
NZGS 38A, p. 1-9. Williams, G.J., (Ed.) Economic geology of New Zealand.
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
NZGS, 1984 — New Zealand metallic and non-metallic Monograph 4, p. 127-142.
mineral commodity imports and exports 1982-1983
4.11 PACIFIC ISLANDS
Papua New Guinea has substantial heavy mineral The smith-east Papuan area appears to have the
beach-sand deposits consisting of titaniferous magnetite greatest economic potential with mineralized beach sands
sands, and chromite sands with minor associations of rutile. occurring on the fiat coastal plain, which has maximum
These deposits have not been developed to date. Alluvial width of 8 km in the four major areas. There are no sand
gold deposits, which have been worked since the last cen dunes. Drilling by the Australian Oil and Gas Corp. Ltd
tury, are not considered in this paper. (AOGC) in 1970 at specific localities indicated mineraliza
tion in the form of titanomagnetite-rich lenses parallel to
Iron sand deposits are known in the following areas: the present coastline. Each lense was several kilometres
on the south-east Papuan coast between Beagle Bay and long, with the broadest being 200 m wide. The shallow
Mullins Harbour; on the coast of the Gulf of Papua, drilling (average 1.7 m) rarely penetrated the mineralized
between Popondetta and Lae on the north coast of the lenses, and isolated deeper drilling indicated lense thick
Papua New Guinea peninsular; and on Bougainville Island nesses averaging 9 m. The lenses are underlain by uncon
(figure 4.11.1). solidated clays.
MANUS ISLAND
NEW
HANOVER
NEW
IRELAND
BISMARK SEA
JAYA
IRIAN
BOUGAINVILLE
SOLOMON SEA
GULF Of
PAPUA
DARK
Titanomagnetite is the major heavy mineral con Occurrences of heavy minerals - magnetite,
stituent. It generally occurs in the form of magnetite with ilmenite, chromite and others - are known at a few locali
minor ilmenite as sets of parallel lamellae. The magnetite ties between Popondetta and Lae on the north coast of the
is frequently altered to hydrated iron oxides and the Papua New Guinea peninsula (figure 4.11.1). Analysis of
ilmenite to leucoxene. Free ilmenite and rutile are rare sands from two areas near Cape Ward Hunt, 70 km north
and traces of silver, gold and platinoids are also present. west of Popondetta - Mambara beach and Douglas Harbour
beach - indicate heavy mineral content of between 3 and
The gangue material is comprised of pyroxene,
4 per cent. Minor platinum and gold may also be expected
quartz, kaolinised feldspar, and basic rock fragments in
in the sands. The quantities of sand above sea level in any
varying proportions. The limited drilling by AOGC
one area are probably insufficient to support a mining
indicated 21 Mt of titaniferous magnetite sands with an
operation (Davies, 1969).
average grade of 13 per cent magnetics (Berkman, 1972).
Berkman (1975) calculated an inferred resource of 445 Mt A large alluvial chromite deposit occurs 70 km
of titaniferous magnetite sand at a grade of more than south-west of Madang on the Ramu River. The deposit
10 per cent Fe for the south coast area. contains resources of 80 to 100 Mt of sand containing 8 to
The iron content of the titanomagnetite appears 10 per cent chromite, amenable to simple recovery and
too low to be currently of much economic interest. A processing methods. The deposit, which overlies substantial
concentrate produced from the area of Deba village, near resources of lateritic nickel and cobalt, could possibly yield
Magarida, contained about 39 per cent Fe, 10 per cent between 200,000 and 400,000 tons/year of metallurgical-
Ti, and 0.4 per cent V. However, tests carried out by grade chromite. However, a feasibility study undertaken by
CSIRO (Australia) indicate that the iron and titanium in the owners, Nord Resources (70 per cent) and MIM Hold
the concentrate may be separated by reduction techniques, ings (30 per cent) indicated that at current market prices
followed by smelting to produce a low carbon, vanadiferous exploitation of the deposit is uneconomic. The lack of
iron and a titania slag containing about 32 per cent Ti necessary infrastructure such as roads and harbour facili
(Berkman, 1975). ties is one of the major problems hampering future develop
ment (Power, 1985).
Deposits in the Gulf of Papua, to the west of Port
Moresby were jointly studied by Australian and Japanese Alluvial rutile deposits have been reported on an
companies (Catherine Investment Ltd and Kanematsu- unnamed island near Cape Blackwood, and on Goaribari
Gosho Ltd) in the early 1970s when the feasibility of in the Gulf of Papua. These were examined by Premier
shipping the sands to Japan was also examined. Resources Mining Pty Ltd (Australia) in the mid 1960s but no follow
were estimated at 300 Mt of concentrate assaying 63.12 per up activities are recorded.
cent Fe, 8.26 per cent Ti, 1.70 per cent Al, 1.11 per cent
A review of the exploration for beach sands in
Si, 0.05 per cent P, 0.035 per cent S (Minerals week), but Papua New Guinea is given in Power-Fardy (1985).
no development of the deposits has been undertaken.
Titanomagnetite deposits are also reported just north of Imports of mineral sand products into Papua New
the Fly River. Guinea are not listed (Lyday, 1986).
B.
Fiji has two main mineral sand deposits. Both are an area of 2.62 km2 , with a length of about 5 km, and an
titaniferous iron sands located on Viti Levu Island. Neither average width of about 500 m. They have an average height
has been developed. of about 20 m with a maximum height of about 60 m
The Singatoka deposit located in the south of the above sea level. The average thickness of the dunes below
island extends for 5 km west of the Singatoka River mouth sea level is about 13 m, but in some areas they extend down
(figure 4.11.2). Investigations of the deposit first began in to 30 m. Most of the mineralization is contained in the
1951, the first drilling programme being undertaken in upper 5 m of the dunes, in relatively fine sands (less than
0.25 mm). The principal heavy minerals are magnetite,
1961-1962 by Banno Oceanic Ltd in conjunction with
Fijian Government organizations. Limited offshore work ilmenite, and hematite, with gangue predominantly com
posed of quartz, feldspar and pyroxene. The sands overlie
was carried out by Crawford Marine in 1967. Further
late Tertiary marls and limestones.
exploration in 1969-1972 by Manganex Ltd involved
detailed drilling of the richer eastern zone.
The highest-grade sands occur at the eastern end of
The iron sands are concentrated in dunes that cover the deposit where the grade averages 5 to 7 per cent mag-
99
netic material; 1.9 to 2.0 Mt of magnetic concentrate have Concentrates produced from the deposits assayed
been proved in an area of 0.62 km2. The concentrate 57 to 58 per cent Fe, 6.7 to 7.5 per cent TiO2,0.7 to 1.0
contains about 77 per cent Fe and 5 per cent Ti. The per cent V2O5, and 0.3 to 0.35 per cent Cr2O3. The
remainder of the deposit, covering an area of about 2 km2, deposit is considered by the Geological Survey of Fiji to
is lower grade, containing about 2.5 to 4 per cent magnetic be subeconomic at present (Greenbaum, 1980).
material. Resources in this area are estimated at about
Substantial tonnages of magnetite, together with
4 Mt. Additional resources are also present in the area
chromiferous minerals, are reported in other offshore areas
offshore from the dunes. Samples recovered from an
of Viti Levu Island. Iron sands are also reported in large
average water depth of 20 in contained up to 21 per cent
quantities off Vanna Levu Island.
magnetic material. While the deposit is not considered to
be economically exploitable at present, further investiga Fiji imports about 300 tons/year of TiO2 pigment,
tion of the western and offshore areas could improve the mainly from Australia (Lyday, 1986).
C. Solomon Islands
Beaches of San Jorge Island and eastern Choiseul these prospects are given in the United Nations publication
Island contain minor quantities of chromite and magnetite. (Anon., 1985).
One such prospect in north-west San Jorge averages 7.38
per cent chromite over a depth of 8 m. Olivine-rich sands The Solomon Islands is not listed as an importer of
on Rendova Island in the New Georgia group have been any mineral sands products.
considered as a possible source of foundry sands. Notes on
D. Vanuatu
There is no record of imports of mineral sand Figure 4.11.4 Location of heavy minerals, Vanuatu and
products into Vanuatu. New Caledonia
E. New Caledonia
While no mineral sand deposits are currently being Faitao (figure 4.11.4). The major island is also reported to
exploited, several areas with appreciable concentrations of have potentially-economic rutile sand deposits (Anon.,
chromite sands are known. These include two areas in the 1985b).
south-east of the major island; two areas, near Noumea and
near Yate, in the centre of the major island; areas near New Caledonia imports about 30 tons/year of TiO2
Kone and near Houailu, and on one of the small islands off pigment from France (Lyday, 1986).
REFERENCES
Adams R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan Anon., 1985b — New Caledonia — mineral potential
cial Times Information Ltd., London, 244 p. assessed in new multi-client report. Industrial mine
rals, No. 217, p. 15-17.
Anon., 1985a - Solomon Islands: explanatory brochure,
vol. 1 in Atlas of mineral resources of the ESCAP Berkman, D.A., 1972 - Summary of mineral exploration in
region. United Nations Economic and Social Com eastern Papua, 1969 to 1972. A.O.G. Minerals Pty
mission for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. Ltd (unpublished).
101
Berkman, D.A., 1975 Magnetite beach sands deposits of on Mineral Assessment, Evaluation and Calculation
south-east Papua. In C.L Knight (ed.), Economic vol 1: Proceedings. Commonwealth Geological
geology of Australia and Papua New Guinea, vol. 1; Liaison Office CGLO SLR3/1, P. 75.
Metals. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metal
lurgy, Monograph No. 5,p. 1088-1090. Lyday, T.Q., 1986 The mineral industry of other South
Pacific islands. In Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. iii.
Bernie, L., 1984 Ocean mining activity shifting to exclu Area reports: international. United States Bureau
sive economics zones. Engineering and mining of Mines, p. 1069-1079.
journal, 1985, No. 7, p. 57-60.
Mallick, D.I.J., 1973 Review of the mineral deposits of
Carney and MacFarlane, 1980 Mineral resources of the the New Hebrides. In N.H. Fisher (ed.). Metallo-
New Hebrides. Report of the Regional Workshop genic provinces and mineral deposits in the south
on Mineral Assessment, Evaluation and Calculation, western pacific. Bureau of Mineral Resources,
vol. 1: Proceedings, Commonwealth Geological Geology and Geophysics, Australia, Bulletin 141,
Liaison Office CGLO SLR3/1 p. 105. p. 13-31.
Davies, H.L., 1969 Notes on Papuan ultramafic belt Power, T., 1985 Chromite the non-metallurgical mar
mineral prospect, territory of Papua New Guinea. kets. Industrial minerals No. 211, p. 17-51.
Bureau of Mineral Resources, Australia, Geology &
Geophysics, Record 1969/67 (unpublished). Power-Fardy, D., 1985 Commodity review: beach sands
of Papua New Guinea. Geological Survey of Papua
Greenbaum, D., 1980 - An assessment of the mineral New Guinea, Report 1985/9, 53 p.
resources of Fiji. Report of the Regional Workshop
4.12 PAKISTAN
There has been no mining of heavy mineral sands in sources in the area. A proposal for the development of the
Pakistan to date. Little information is available on the deposit was prepared by MacDonald (1978). However,
heavy mineral resources of the country. The area of greatest according to present knowledge, tonnages are too small
interest occurs along the margin of the Indus River delta to to support any substantial operation.
the east of Karachi where several Mt of sand containing sub
stantial quantities of heavy minerals have been identified. Additional resources have also been indicated in the
Tharparker Desert in south-east Pakistan, near the towns
The heavy-mineral-bearing sands have accumulated of Mithi and Diplo, but as yet no detailed work has been
on several small islands which are generally flat, low-lying carried out (Macdonald, 1978). Scheelite and minor quan
and marshy, and composed principally of mud, located at tities of other heavy minerals occur in alluvial deposits in
the front of the marshy delta area. The sand accumula the far north-east of Pakistan along the Indus , Gilgit and
tions are constantly reworked by the action of the tides and Hunza Rivers, the most promising locality being near Oghi
currents. Over 2.3 Mt of sand with 25 to 30 per cent heavy in the Hazara district, 100 km north of Islamabad. How
mineral content have been outlined on the four most ever, no economic deposits have been reported (Asrarul-
interesting islands. Total inferred resources are estimated lah, 1982; Ahmad and others, 1976).
as 662,000 tons of heavy minerals, composed largely of
magnetite and ilmenite, with minor zircon, monazite, and The only mineral sand product imported into
rutile. The TiO2 content of the ilmenite is not known Pakistan, apart from alluvial tin, is TiO2 pigment imports
(MacDonald, 1978). Additional work is required to deli of which are currently about 2,000 tons/year, mainly from
neate these deposits further and to locate additional re the United Kingdom and Australia (Connor, 1986).
REFERENCES
Ahmed, E., and others, 1976 — Investigations of placer Connor, K., 1986 — The mineral industry of Pakistan. In
mineral deposits in the Indus, Gilgit, Hunza, and Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. iii, Area reports:
Chitral Rivers of Pakistan. The Geological Survey International. United States Bureau of Mines,
of Pakistan, Record v 35. p. 637-648.
Asrarullah, 1982 — Investigations for tungsten in Pakistan, Macdonald, E.M., 1978 — Raw materials prospects (the
In Tungsten geology Jiangzi, China. Proceedings of assessment of mineral beach sands near Karachi).
a symposium jointly sponsored by ESCAP/RMRDC Report to the Government of Pakistan, Interna
and the Ministry of Geology, People’s Republic of tional Atomic Energy Agency, TA report No. 1305,
China, 12-22 October 1981, p. 9-13. 65 p.
4.13 PHILIPPINES
Iron sand
Chromite
Heavy mineral
LUZON
PACIFIC OCEAN
Bayawan
SULU SEA
MINDANAO
Laoag. NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — I Mt Ti-mgnt Mgnt conc. 62% Additional resources Anon., 1970
Ilocos Norte (identified) be, 4.8% TiO2, in Laoag Paoay Anon., 1975
Pr. 0.04% P, 3.7% area were explored
(18°4’ N: SiO2 by La Playa Mining
120°36’E) Corp., 1.7-13.65%
mgnt. extends to
3km inland
Vigan NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt av 24% mag 2 Mt Ti-mgnt 2-3 sq km area Anon., 1970
Ilocos Sur Pr. netics (parts (measured) 8 Phil. Bureau
(17°35' N: up to 40% Mt limagnt of Mines,
20°23'E) magnetics) (indicated/ 1968
interred)
Bauang NW Luzon Is. Mgnt 55% magne — 0.1-0.2 sq km Phil. Bureau
Ilocos Sur Pr. tics (from 3 area of Mines,
samples) 1968
Santa Lucia NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 18% be 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Production from Anon., 1970
Ilocos sur Pr. (identified) 1965 probably by
(minus post- Filmag. All sand
1970 produc mining operations in
tion) the Philippines were
suspended by govt.
in 1976.
Santa Cruz NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 15-35% Fe 3 Mt Ti-mgnt Mantas area has Important sands also Phil. Bureau
Ilocos Sur Pr. (identified) 0.9 Mt mgnt at at nearby village of of Mines,
(17°O8' N: av. 35% in area Agoo. 1968; Anon.,
120°27'E) 1,700 m x 500 m 1970; Macdo
x 2.5 m nald, 1971
Libtung NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — Mined by Filmag. A Macdonald,
Ilocos Sur Pr. pier and bulk-load 1971
(16°59' N: ing facilities were
120°28' E) installed here.
Bacnotan NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 30-40% Ti- 2 areas: Nth, and Mined by Filmag Phil. Bureau
La Union Pr. mgnt (from Sth Bacnotan, of Mines.
(16°45' N: 5 samples) combined area 1977; Mac
12O°21'E) 1.0 sq km donald, 1971
Aringay NW Luzon Is. Mgnt-hem 20% be 3 Mt mgnt 58-59% be in Mined by Filmag Anon., 1970
La Union Pr. (identified, conc. Production in 1965:
1970) 134,000 tons mgnt
Santo Tomas NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 58-62% be in Mined by the Anglo Anon., 1975
(offshore) La Union Pr. cone. Philippines Oil &
LingayenGulf Mining Co.
(16 30' N:
120°22' E)
Damortis Bay NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 9.4% mgnt up 1 Ml sand at Part of a sub Deposit is possibly Caguiat, 1971
(offshore) La Union Pr. to 40% mgnt 15% mgnt; merged sandbar, the same as Santo
LingayenGulf 6.4 Ml sand 4-7 m water Tomas
(16 15' N: at 9.4% mgnt depth, 7-8 km
120°25' E) (identified) long, 2-3 km
wide, av. 2.6 m
thick. Some mag.
has ilmn & hem
exsolutions.
(’one. av. 59.5%
be,7%Ti()2
San Fabian NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — 1 Mt Ti-mgnt (’one. 57-61% Anon., 1970
Pangasinan Pr. (identified) be, 6-7% TiO2
(16 15' N: 0.04% P.
120°24'E)
106
Aparri Nth Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt av. 35% mgnt 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Area 2-3 sq km An unspecified depo Phil. Bureau
Cagayan Pr. (from 5 sam (identified) Conc. 59-61% sit in Cagayan Pr. of Mines,
(18°22' N: ples) Fe, 4.8-5.8% TiO2 was mined by the 1968; Anon.,
121°40'E) Anglo Philippines 1970
Oil & Mining Co.
from 1972. Total
Luzon Is. production
by this company
300,000 tons.
Calamaniugan Nth Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Conc. 53-56% Fe, - Anon., 1970
Cagayan Pr. (identified) TiO2
Broad Earth Nth Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — 2 Mt Ti-mgnt — A company was in Noakes, 1968
(identified) vestigating possibi
lity of mining here
but it was reported
that Ti content was
too high.
Camiguin Is. Tinu island 70 Ti-mgnt over 2 Mt Ti- Conc. contains high Noakes, 1968
km nth of mgnt vanadium, up to
Luzon Is. (identified) 0.49%. Investigated
(18°55' N: by Filmag.
127°55'E)
Iba Botran SW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 1 Mt Ti-mgnt Cone. 60% Fe, — Anon., 1970
Bataan Pr. (identified) 7% TiO2 25%
(15°20' N: SiO2, 15%
119°59'E) A12O3, 0.03% S,
0.02% P.
Orani-Morong SW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Beach & dune Mined by Inco Anon., 1970
Bataan Pr. (identified) deposit rising to Mining Corp (1.5 Mt Anon., 1975
(14°48' N: (prior to 2 m a.s.l. 8 km 1970-1974) and Vera Cruz,
120°32'E mining) long, 300 m Long Beach Mining 1977 Bihis
wide, 2.3-4.7 m Corp (0.54 Mt 1971- and others,
thick. Overlies 1974). Deposit ex 1977
weathered horn hausted in 1974.
blende andesite
(Quaternary).
Conc. 56-60%
Fe, 6% TiO2,
0.04% P.
Mauban SW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 41% magne 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Beach deposit Phil. Bureau
Bataan Pr. tics (range (potential) over 16.5 km, of Mines,
10-77%) 50-150 m width. 1968
Conc, 50-58%
Fe, 10.78-12.67%
TiO2
Bagac SW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 22% Fe 2.3% 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Covers 25 ha, oc Anon., 1970
Bataan Pr. TiO2 (?) (identified) curs on beach - Apelo, 1977
(14°35' N: and on shallow
120°25'E) foreshore. Un
derlain by andesi
tic volcanics.
Dilalongan- NE Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt av. 17% Fe, 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Black sand layers Maraveni Consoli Noakes, 1968
Casiguran ? Pr. 2.7% TiO2 (measured) on beach 1.0-15 dated Mines started Anon., 1970
(16°22' N: (13-35% mag 1 Mt Ti-mgnt m thick,. Sand production here in Phil. Bureau
122°07'E) netic) (indicated/ alsocontains50% 1967 (120,000 tons/ of Mines,
interred) 1970 SiO2, 0.03% S, year but not re 1977
0.04%, P. 1.3% corded as producer
A12O3 in 1970
107
Palawan Is.
Narra-Teresa SE Palawan Chromite - 2.6 Mt chro Av. grade of Production by Phil- Wu, 1983
Is. (9°05' N: mite (identi Chrom. 44.3% chrome Mining Corp Power, 1985
118°05'E) fied, 1981) Cr2O3 Refrac started 1981, 20
tory grade 35- 25,000 tons/year
40%Cr2O3, 20% refractory grade
A12O3. Metallur chrom. plus some
gical grade 45-50 metallurgical grade
Cr2O3, 15-17% chrom.
Fe2O3.
Imuruan Bay NW Palawan Allanite, Approx. 0.05% Occur on beaches Grade is too low to Dela Cruz &
Is. (10°45'N: Sphene, (of sand) and coastal be economic but Tulay, 1983
119°20'E) Monazite shelves. Other possibility of other
Capoas-Era- heavy minerals higher concentra
wan also present incl. tions in area.
rutile, zircon,
cassiterite, mag
netite, leucoxene.
Negros Is.
Bayawan SW Negros Mgnt. - — - Mining started by Anon., 1975
Is. (9°21' N: Inco Mining Corp
122 47'E) in 1974.
Calatrava NE Negros Mgnt 13-58% Fe 1 Mt mgnt — — Anon., 1970
Is. (10°20’N: (potential)
123°20'E)
fraction (predominantly magnetite) in the sands ranges taining 7.4 Mt of ore with average magnetic content of 9.4
from 10 to 50 per cent. The average grade of the major per cent has been outlined in the Damortis Bay area of
deposits, pre-mining, was probably about 30 per cent; the Lingayen Gulf, La Union Province (table 4.13.1). This
grades of remaining resources are lower, with the grade deposit was mined by the Anglo-Philippine Oil and Mining
tending to decrease with depth (Anon., 1970).
Ilmenite, zircon, chromite, hematite, staurolite, Table 4.13.2 Analysis of magnetite concentrate
garnet and, rarely, gold are heavy mineral minor compo from La Union Province
nents of the deposits. Usually these minerals are not in (percentage)
sufficient quantities to warrant their recovery from the
FeO 25.21
magnetite tailings. The ilmenite is usually too intimately
Fe2O3 59.44
intergrown with magnetite to allow its separation. The
(Total Fe) (61.61)
lighter fraction of the sand is composed mainly of quartz,
feldspar, hornblende and pyroxene, with andesite frag TiO2 6.17
Al2O3 3.03
ments being common. The sand contains very little clay.
SiO2 2.34
Screen analysis of the magnetic fraction from the La Union
MgO 2.40
beaches indicated that 80 per cent is between 0.075 mm
CaO 0.66
and 0.25 mm in grain size, i.e. silt and fine sand (Noakes,
Mn 0.58
1968; Anon., 1970; Encina, 1976). The final magnetite
S 0.098
concentrate contained 57 to 62 per cent Fe; the titanium
Cr 0.021
was relatively high, ranging from 4 to 8 per cent TiO2,
Zn 0.081
averaging 6 to 7 per cent TiO2. The concentrates carried
Ni 0.006
0.2 to 0.3 per cent V (Noakes, 1968; Anon., 1970). A
Cu 0.011
typical analysis of the concentrate produced by Filmag
Bi 0.004
is given in table 4.13.2.
Pb trace
Additional resources may occur in offshore areas
of north-west Luzon Island. A magnetite deposit con Source: Macdonald, 1971
109
Company between 1971 and 1974 (Santo Tomas, table the Kinalablaban area has concentrations of chromium-
4.13.1). rich magnetite. The resources at these localities appear to
be too small to be of economic importance (table 4.13.1).
While total magnetite resources of north-west Luzon Other localities where magnetite sand deposits have been
Island have not been assessed proven resources of magnetite recorded are near Davao City, Linuza Bay, and Cateel Bay,
in Filmag leases were put at 38 Mt in 1971 (Macdonald, all on the east coast; details of the deposits are not available.
1971). Total production from this area to 1976 when sand Chromite sand is produced from an unlisted locality on the
mining was suspended by the Government was 6 Mt, island, possibly by the Acojoe Mining Co. (Power, 1985),
most of which was produced by Filmag. The only other to meet local demand.
company in the area was the Anglo-Philippine Oil and
Mining Company which mined a deposit in the Lingayen On Palawan Island chromite sand is currently being
Gulf (Bihis and others, 1977; Noakes, 1968). mined by the Philichrome Mining Corporation in the Narra-
Teresa area on the south-east coast. The company started
Magnetite-rich sands occur at several other localities operations in 1981 and currently produces 20,000 to
on Luzon Island (figure 4.13.1), all similar to those des 25,000 tons/year of refractory grade chromite (35 to 40
cribed in the north-west of the island. Summary data on per cent Cr2O3 with about 20 per cent A12O3). It also
each deposit are given in table 4.13.1. An important group produces an unknown but small quantity of metallurgical-
of deposits is located in Bataan Province in the south-west grade chromite (45 to 50 per cent Cr2O3 with 15 to 17
of the island. These are at Orani-Morong, Iba-Botran, per cent Fe2O3). Ore reserves are quoted as 2.6 Ml of
Mauban and Bagac. The Orani-Morong deposit was mined chromite averaging 44.3 per cent Cr2O3 (Power, 1985).
was mined by the Inco Mining Corp. and the Long Beach
Mining Corp. between 1970 and 1975, when up to 2 Mt of Beach sands containing radioactive minerals occur
ore was mined (Vera Cruz, 1977). on the shores and coastal shelves of the Imuruan Bay area
of north-west Palawan Island. The minerals allanite, sphene,
Another group of deposits is located on the north monazite, and zircon form significant proportions of the
coast, in Cagayan Province, at Aparri, Calamaniugan, and
heavy mineral fraction but the heavy mineral grades
Broad Earth. The Camiguin Island deposit 70 km to the
(averaging 0.05 per cent) arc generally too low to be of
north of Luzon Island is considered with this group. Mining any economic interest, although there is potential for
was undertaken at an unspecified locality in this area by the
economic concentrations elsewhere in the vicinity (Dela
Anglo-Philippine Oil and Mining Company from about Cruz and Tulay, 1983).
1972. Total magnetite production by the company from
all its Luzon Island operations (1972-1976) was approx On Leyte Island magnetite-sand mining was carried
imately 30,000 tons (Bihis and others, 197 7). out at unlisted localities on the south coast by the Inco
Mining Corp. production in 1974 being quoted as 667,000
An important deposit occurs in the Dilalongan- tons (Anon., 1975). A short-lived magnetite-sand-mining
Casiguran area on the east coast. Mining of the deposit was project (the Sibuguey project) was in operation in about
undertaken by Maraven Consolidated Mines from 1967 to 1966 at an unlisted locality on the east coast of the island
1970, at the rate of 100,000 tons/year of magnetite con (Macdonald, 1971). This may be the deposit at Elizalde
centrate (Philippine Bureau of Mines, 1968). Two other near Palo. Another magnetite-sand deposit is recorded near
unnamed localities are shown in figure 4.13.1, one in the Tolosa in Leyte del Norte in the north of the island.
Lamon Bay area on the central cast coast, the other in the
Albay Gulf region in the far south of the island. On the island of Negros, magnetite was mined from
1974 to 1976 by the Inco Mining Corp. at Bayawan on the
Mineral sand deposits on the other Philippine
south-west coast; no details are available (Anon., 1975).
islands are less widespread and arc generally of lower grade.
Another deposit is recorded at Calatrava on the east coast.
However, important deposits do occur on the islands of
On the island of Mashale a magnetite-sand deposit is
Mindanao, Leyte, Palawan and Negros; they arc shown in
recorded near the town of Masbate.
figure 4.13.1. Additional information on them is given in
table 4.13.1. Most arc titanium-rich magnetite sands Other beaches in the Philippines possibly contain
similar to those on Luzon Island. In addition, some are concentrations of magnetite and other heavy minerals, but
important for their concentrations of chromite or radioac further investigations arc needed to prove their economic
tive minerals. potential.
On Mindanao Island, beach-sand depositshave been While there has been little investigation of mineral
recorded in the province of Surigao del Norte in the north sands in offshore areas, prospects arc not encouraging as
east corner of the island. The Claver Bacuag village area many of the Philippine islands arc characterized by com
has substantial titanium rich magnetite concentrations and paratively narrow shelves surrounded by deep water. Areas
110
with broad, gently-sloping shelves adjacent to known on A minor iron sand mining operation by Construc
shore deposits, such as offshore north-west Luzon Island tion Aggregate Producers has been in operation since 1981.
and Leyte Island, would appear to offer the best prospects. Production in 1981 and 1982 was about 100 tons/year
(Wu, 1984).
Resources of magnetite known in onshore areas are
Production of chromite sands in the Philippines
sufficient to support production for many years should the
commenced in 1981. The company, Philichrome Mining
Government allow large-scale mining to resume. Extensive
Corp., mines a deposit in the south of Palawan Island,
resources of chromite are contained in hardrock deposits
current production being about 20 to 25,000 tons/year
in the Philippines and currently these are mined extensively.
refractory-grade chromite (35 to 40 per cent Cr2O3) and
Against this background, there is not a great incentive to
an unknown, but probably small, quantity of metallurgi
search for additional mineral sand resources.
cal-grade chromite (45 to 50 per cent Cr2O3). Both
products are exported mainly to Japan, and some to the
United States. A chromite sand is also produced on
Production and processing
Mindanao Island when required for local use, probably
As has been mentioned, the production of magnetite for foundry and chemical industries applications (Power,
sands ceased in 1976 because of Government restrictions 1985). Most chromite production in the Philippines is from
based on environmental considerations. Prior to this, hardrock deposits. In 1984 total chromite production was
annual production was about 1.3 Mt, with a maximum of about 130,000 tons refractory grade and 120,000 tons
1.53 Mt in 1973. The companies involved were Filmag metallurgical grade (Wu, 1986).
Inco., the Inco Mining Corp., the Long Beach Mining Corp., A ferrochrome plant with 50,000 tons/year capacity
and the Anglo Philippine Oil and Mining Company (Philip was commissioned by Ferrochrome Philippines Inc. on
pine Bureau of Mines, 1977). Mining was based on the use Mindanao Island in 1983. It is unlikely that locally-
of suction dredges or bulldozers combined with other produced chromite sands are used in the operation.
heavy-earth-moving equipment. The magnetite was separ
ated at small on-site plants, which were usually dismantled Trade
and sold when mining ceased.
In recent years the Philippines has imported about
The magnetite concentrate generally contained 57 1,000 tons/year of titanium mineral concentrate (both
to 62 per cent Fe and an average 6 to 7 per cent TiO2, and rutile and ilmenite), mainly from Australia. Imports of
was exported mainly to Japan. The relatively-high titanium TiO2 have been approximately 2,000 tons/year, Australia
content allowed the production of a high-quality steel by and Japan being the major suppliers. About 100 tons/year
electric arc smelting. Some Japanese companies limited the of zircon concentrates have been imported, mainly from
TiO2 content of the concentrate to 8 per cent (Noakes, Australia. An unspecified but probably minor amount
1968). In some cases the concentrates were mixed with of rare earth metal alloy has also been imported, probably
Japanese iron sand concentrates which averaged 53 to 59 from the United States or the Federal Republic of Germany
per cent Fe and 8 to 12 per cent TiO2 (Macdonald, 1971). (Wu, 1986).
REFERENCES
Anon., 1970 — Survey of world iron ore resource: Occur Bihis, M.L., Vargas, C.T. and Apacible, A.M., 1977 - The
rence and appraisal. Report of a panel of experts phosphotungstate method of determining vanadium
appointed by the Secretary-General. United in magnetic sands. Philippine Bureau of Mines,
Nations, New York. Report of investigations, No. 88, 13 p.
reports: international. United States Bureau of mic Commission for Asia and the Far East, p. 112-
Mines, p. 737-749. 118.
Dela Cruz, N.B. and Tulay, J.N. Jr., 1983 — Radioactive Philippine Bureau of Mines, 1968 — Investigations on
detrital minerals in beach sands of northwest detrital heavy minerals in beach sands of the Philip
Palawan, Philippines. In Report of the Twelfth pines. In Report of the fourth session of CCOP.
session of CCOP (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). United United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia the Far East, p. 108-111.
and the Pacific, p. 14-19.
Power, T., 1985 - Chromite - the non-metallurgical mar
Encina, D.C., 1976 — Magnetite sand deposits of La Union kets. Industrial minerals, No. 217, 31 p.
Province. Philippines Bureau of Mines, Report of
Vera Cruz, B., 1977 — Long Beach Mining Corporation iron
investigations, No.82,p. 13-14.
sand deposits at Morong, Bataan. In The geology
and mineral resources of Bataan Province. Philippine
Esquerra, F.B., 1980 — Magnetite-bearing sand deposit
Bureau of Mines, Report of investigations, No. 90
along Claver-Bacuag, Surigao del Norte. Magnetite
p. 3-4.
bearing beach sand deposit along Mayangalson-
Taganito, Surigao de Norte. Chromite-magnetite- Wu, J.C., 1983 - The mineral industry of the Philippines.
bearing beach sand deposit along Kinalablaban, In Minerals yearbook, 1981, vol. III, Area reports:
Surigao de Norte. In Geology and mineral resources international. United States Bureau of Mines,
of Surigao del Norte. Bureau of Mines and Geo p. 789-803.
sciences, Report of investigations, No. 102, p. 17 -18.
Wu, J.C., 1984 — The mineral industry of the Philippines.
Macdonald, E.H., 1971 — Country report: The Philippines. In Minerals yearbook, 1982, vol. III, Area reports:
United Nations, CCOP, Technical Bulletin, vol. 5, international. United States Bureau of Mines,
p. 79-83. p. 729-742.
Wu, J.C., 1986 — The mineral industry of the Philippines.
Noakes, L.C., 1968 - Notes on iron sand deposits and off In Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III, Area report:
shore prospecting in the Philippines. In Report of international. United States Bureau of Mines,
the fourth session of CCOP. United Nations Econo p. 663-676.
4.14 SRI LANKA
Pulmoddai deposit
The ultimate source of the heavy minerals is the The heavy mineral content in the sands nearest to
(?) Precambrian rocks of the interior of the island, the the shoreline averaged 30.8 per cent by weight, with the
intermediate source being the Pleistocene and recent sedi highest values occurring in the southern part of the area.
ments which occur along the coast. Material eroded from Further from the shoreline the heavy mineral content in
these rocks is transported mainly by the Ma-Oya river to the the sands was lower and more diffuse, averaging 11.8 per
Kokkilai lagoon (8°59' N : 80°57' E) north of Pulmoddai. cent by weight.
It is then carried southward by coastal drift to the deposit The heavy mineral suite averaged 68.7 per cent
area, a promontory at Arisa Malai forming a reef barrier ilmenite, with an average TiO2 content of 56 per cent.
which prevents the material drifting further south. The Rutile and zircon were generally important only in a 50 m
rich heavy mineral sands are thereby confined to the short wide strip adjacent to the shoreline; concentrations were
stretch between Kokkilai lagoon in the north and the 4.65 per cent and 5.80 per cent respectively. Monazite was
Arisa Malai rocks in the south. estimated as less than 1 per cent.
The chemical composition of the ilmenite, rutile, Metallgesellschaft estimated total reserves in the
and zircon is shown in table 4.14.1. Export grades for each offshore area to be: ilmenite 903,000 tons, rutile 9,500
of the minerals is given as: ilmenite, minimum 53 per cent tons, and zircon 39,000 tons (Meyer, 198 3).
TiO2; rutile, minimum 95 per cent TiO2; and zircon,
minimum 65 per cent ZrO2. The monazite usually contains Other Deposits (figure 4.14.1)
about 55 per cent REO.
The deposit is described in detail in the following Heavy mineral concentrations have been reported
references: Fantel and others, 1986; Adams, 1984; Clark, in several other localities in Sri Lanka. However, little
1983; Herath, 1977; Lynd and Lefond, 1975 and Kanapa- information has been published on the occurrences.
thipillai, 1964. Prospecting by SIMEC LIMITED has outlined the
In 1979 the offshore areas adjacent to the Pulmod existence of other deposits in the vicinity of the Pulmoddai
dai deposit were investigated by three companies from the deposit. These occur in an 80 km stretch from just north
Federal Republic of Germany in conjunction with CMSC. of Mullaittivu (9°15' N : 80°48' E) south to Nilaveli
Substantial additional resources of heavy mineral sands (8°41' N : 81°H' E) (Clark, 1983). SIMEC LIMITED
were delineated in a narrow strip several hundred metres concluded that there were five potential deposits in this
wide to a water depth of approximately 10 m. The average area, containing some 47 5,000 to 700,000 tons of rutile,
thickness of the sand is 0.73 m. These resources are con 3 50,000 to 500,000 tons of zircon, and some 2.4 to 4.1
sidered to be an extension of the known beach deposit Ml of ilmenite. Further south along the cast coast at
and do not indicate any major offshore accumulations. Tirrukkovil (7°07' N : 81°51' E), a deposit has been
reported containing 25 per cent zircon (Siddiquie and
Table 4.14.1 Chemical analysis of ilmenite, rutile, others, 1984).
and zircon from Pulmoddai, Sri Lanka Heavy mineral concentrations occur to the south of
Colombo in the south-west of the island. An ilmenite
ilmenite Rutile Zircon-standard grade monazite-zircon placer occurs on the Kaikawela and Pol-
96.76 ZrO2 66.46 kotuwa beaches near Induruwa, Ihe sand containing 15 to
TiO2 5458 TiO2
40 per cent monazite. The source of the monazite is
Fe2O3 23.15 Fe2O3 0.89 SiO2 32.60
believed to be pegmatite veins which crop out nearby.
FeO 18.11 SiO2 0.64 Fe2O3 0.1 1 Monazite is also important at Beruwala (6°29' N : 79°59’
SiO2 1.51 ZrO2 0.38 TiO2 0.50 E). Zircon and monazite have been produced from a pilot
ZrO2 0.02 A12O3 0.16 Al2O3 0.2 plant set up al Kalutara (6°35' N : 79°59' E) but now
Al2O3 1.18 S nil closed (Herath, 1977; Siddiquie and others, 1984; Clark,
1983).
MnO 0.37 P less than .001
Cr2O3 0.07 Heavy minerals have also been recorded al Kudrem-
V2O5 0.09 alai Point to the south of Mannar (8°58' N : 79°54' E), the
Negombo area (7° 13' N : 79°51' E), the Kelani River near
MgO 0.85
Colombo (approximately 7° N : 80° E), and the Modara-
CaO 0.08 gam River (approximately 8°30' N : 80° E ) (Lynd and
P2O5Traces (0.1) Leford, 1975). They are present in substantial quantities
Total 100.01 in the ‘red and brown earths’ found in the Puttalam, Man
nar, and Jaffna areas in the north west of the island (Daha-
Source Clark, 1983. nayaka and Jayawardana, 1979).
114
Zircon is a major constituent of heavy residues from capacity is reflected in 1984 output (table 4.14.2). Rutile,
the washing of gem gravels in various parts of the island. zircon, and monazite are recovered from an ilmenite tailings
The mineral baddelyite occurs in some mineral sand treatment plant which did not undergo an increase in pro
deposits on the island, but no locality names are available. duction capacity along with the ilmenite plant; it is capable
Zircon-rich granites, a possible source of zircon placer of producing 14,000 tons of rutile, 9,000 tons of zircon
deposits occur in inland areas near Balangoda (6°38' N : and approximately 300 tons of monazite. However, as
80o41' E), and near Mirigama (7°15' N : 80°08' E) larger quantities of non-magnetic tailings are now available,
(Herath, 1977). the capacity of this plant could be expanded (Adams, 1984;
Clark, 1983).
No estimate of total resources of heavy minerals in
Sri Lanka is available. Ethnic problems in the area during 1985 resulted
in the disruption of the fresh-water supply to the main
Production and Processing plant, putting the wet magnetic plant out of action, and
causing a decline in the 1985 output. CMSC has restricted
The Pulmoddai deposit is mined by dragline, which its ilmenite production to 150,000 tons/year because of
hauls the sand into piles on the beach for natural drying. shipping problems. Production levels of rutile, zircon, and
Mining is by local contractors (mainly farmers) who are monazite have varied between 50 per cent and 100 per cent
paid by the ton of sand delivered to the wet plant plus a of rated capacity in recent years. CMSC is considering
distance allowance. Mining is earned out for up to 12 hours extracting sillimanite from the ilmenite tailings. In addi
a day, 7 days a week during the dry season, approximately tion, the production of small quantities of baddelyite has
250,000 to 300,000 tons of sand being mined annually. A been recorded from an unlisted locality (Herath, 1977).
royalty of Rs 50/- per ton of raw sand is paid to the Geolo
gical Survey Department. The ilmenite-processing plant Currentlh there are no facilities for the upgrading
was expanded in 1984 from 85,000 tons year to 150,000 of heavy minerals in Sri Lanka. In 1972 a proposal for an
tons/year with the installation of a wet gravity and magne electric arc smelter for the production of titania slag was
tic separation facility. The increased ilmenite production submitted by the Soviet Union under a UNIDO programme,
but the proposal did not go ahead. However, plans are now The maximum size of ships loaded is 46,000 tons. Ship
being prepared by CMSC for an ilmenite benefication ping of the concentrate is restricted to the dry season
operation, possibly a titania slag plant to produce minimum (April-August).
85 per cent TiO2, or a synthetic rutile plant to produce
minimum 92 per cent TiO2; no firm details have been Exports during 1982 and 1983 were at a very low
announced. Financial assistance for such a programme was level, less than 15,000 tons; they increased sharply to
offered by the United Nations in 1980. The company has 96,000 tons in 1984. The major markets are Japan
since been seeking foreign collaboration in such a project. (Ishihara), and the United States. Zircon, rutile, and
A TiO2 pigment plant is also under consideration (Adams, monazite have not been recorded as Sri Lankan export
1984; Clark, 1983). commodities in recent years. It is believed, however, that
the bulk of zircon production is exported to Europe and
Trade Japan; about 1 per cent is used by local industry. Most
rutile and monazite production is believed to be sold on the
Most of the heavy mineral production of Sri Lanka open world market. There appears to be no imports into
is exported. Port facilities at Pulmoddai have been im Sri Lanka of any heavy mineral commodities, either in the
proved recently with bulk shipment loading rates of 2,000 raw or processed state. (Chin and others, 1986; British
tons of concentrate a day now possible (Adams, 1984). Geological Survey, 1986; Clark, 1983).
REFERENCES
Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan States Bureau of Mines, Information circular 9061,
cial Times Information Ltd., London, 244 p. 48 p.
British Geological Survey, 1986 - World mineral statistics Herath, M.M.J.W., 1977 — Mineral based industries of Sri
1980-1984: production: exports: imports. (Key Lanka. Commonwealth Committee on Mineral
worth, Nottinghamshire). Resources and Geology liaison report CGLO LR
131,p.24-26.
Chin, E. and others, 1986 — Sri Lanka. In Minerals year
Kanapathipillai, K.C., 1964 — Ilmenite from the east coast
book, 1984, vol. III, Area reports: international.
of Ceylon. Mining magazine, April, p. 23941.
United States Bureau of Mines, p. 1033-6.
Lynd, L.E. and Leford, S.J., 1975 - Titanium minerals. In
Clark, G., 1983 — Sri Lanka’s industrial minerals — much
Lefond, S.J. (ed.), Industrial mineral and rocks,
potential to be realised. Industrial minerals, No.
4th edition. American Institute of Mining Metallur
193,p.61-71.
gical and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. p. 1303-1362.
Dahanayake, K. and Jayawardana, S.K., 1979 - Study of Meyer, K., 1983 - Titanium and zircon placer prospection
red and brown earth deposits of northwest Sri off Pulmoddai, Sri Lanka. Marine mining, vol. 4
Lanka. Geological Society of India, Journal, vol. (2/3),p. 139-166.
20, p. 433-440.
Siddiquie, H.N. and others, 1984 — Superficial mineral
Fantel, RJ., Buckingham, D.A. and Sullivan, D.E., 1986 — resources of the Indian Ocean. In Martin, V. (ed.),
Titanium mineral availability — market economy Marine science of the northwest Indian Ocean and
countries. A minerals availability appraisal. United adjacent waters. Deep sea research.
4.15 THAILAND
History Resources
Alluvial tin deposits have been mined in Thailand Almost all resources of heavy minerals ilmenite,
for over 1,000 years. The most important areas have been zircon, monazite, xenotime and tantalum-columbium in
in Phang-nga and Phuket provinces in the south-west of the Thailand are associated with alluvial tin deposits.
country. In the past two decades mining has shifted to
offshore areas as grades in onshore deposits have declined. All of the major known tin deposits are located in
the southern peninsular region, the most important area
Tungsten has been produced as a by-product of tin
being in Phuket and Phang-nga Provinces, situated on the
since the early part of the century, other associated heavy
western side of Thailand approximately 900 km SSW of
minerals traditionally being discarded or stockpiled. Since
Bangkok. As these two provinces and adjacent offshore
the late 1960s these commodities have been extracted along
areas are the most important areas for tin, they are also the
with the tin and tungsten. Columbium and tantalum con
most important known sources of other heavy minerals.
centrates were first produced in 1967. Within a few years
The composition of untreated gravel from 13 tin mines
Thailand had become the world’s largest exporter of
in these two provinces is shown in table 4.15.1.
columbium and tantalum.
Zircon was first produced as a by-product of tin in The heavy minerals are concentrated during the
1967. In 1969, production began from a zircon deposit separation of tin (in cassiterite) and are normally stockpiled
near Prachuab Khiri Khan in the Gulf of Thailand, the only as waste in open-air dumps, locally known as “amang”.
heavy mineral deposit not associated with tin or tungsten The Department of Mineral Resources of Thailand has
to be exploited in Thailand. Production of monazite began conducted a survey to assess resources in these amangs
in 1969, of ilmenite in 1976, and of xenotime in 1977. but most of the results have not yet been published. Waste
Production of these minerals has been maintained on a dumps from 222 tin mines in Phuket and Phang-nga Pro
relatively small scale, generally less than 1,000 tons/year vinces are estimated to contain 35,000 tons of monazite
(USBM Minerals yearbooks 1965-1984). (Kinney, 1986).
Table 4.15.1 Mineral constituents of samples from palongs at gravel pump mines, Thailand
Interesting results were obtained in a 1971-1972 Monazite up to 29 per cent of the suite was re
survey of the amang dumps in the Phuket/Phang-nga area corded in the coastal areas near Takua-pa, with scattered
(Isarangkoon, 1973). The sample localities of the survey minor occurrences, elsewhere. Rutile up to 16 per cent was
area are shown in figure 4.15.1. Of the 67 samples analysed, found in the northern inland areas of Phang-nga Province.
over half contained more than 80 per cent heavy minerals, Columbite-tantalite occurrences were minor in the region,
with many of the others containing between 40 and 80 except at Thoongkamin mine, south of Takua-pa, where
per cent heavy minerals. Quartz made up the bulk of the concentrations of 15 per cent were recorded.
non-heavy mineral material. From the survey results the
distribution of the various heavy minerals in the amang Garnet was abundant locally, up to 94 per cent in
dumps was delineated as contour maps (Isarangkoon, the centre of Phuket Island, and 53 per cent near Phang-
1973). Ilmenite was the most common mineral with nga town. While scattered occurrences of xenotime,
concentrations up to 94 per cent of the heavy-mineral wolframite and ilmenorutile were recorded, cassiterite often
suite occurring in the western coastal area north of Thai formed 2 per cent or more (up to 12 per cent) but these
Muang (Phang-nga Province) and in the area south of values were dependant on the efficiency of the ore treat
Phuket town (Phuket Province); ilmenite concentrations ment processes at individual plants.
decreased to the east. The TiO2 content of the ilmenite from the Phuket/
While concentrations of zircon up to 46 per cent Phang-nga area varies widely from, 32.75 per cent TiO2 to
of the heavy mineral suite were present in the northern 73.48 per cent TiO2 , because of the weathering and altera
coastal part of Phang-nga, near Takua-pa, most of this tion of ilmenite to leucoxene (Macdonald, 1971). A typical
province had low zircon concentrations. Substantial zircon analysis of ilmenite is TiO2 : 53.55 per cent, FeO; 38.08
concentrations (up to 27 per cent) occur on Phuket Island. per cent, Cr2O3: 0.04 per cent. Ilmenite from the area is
reported to be generally suitable for the pigment industry
(Anon., 1972).
rutile and others. No development plans for this deposit tons (in 1980). The production capacity is available to
have been announced (Rasrikriengkrai and others, 1984). increase the level of output of these heavy minerals.
Total resources of heavy minerals in Thailand have Accumulative production (to 1984) of heavy
not been estimated. minerals since recovery commenced (year in parentheses)
is: columbium-tantalum minerals (1967) 3,364 tons; zircon
Production (1967), 11,893 tons; monazite (1969), 3,377 tons; ilmenite
(1976), 1,870 tons; xenotime (1976), 265 tons.
Almost the entire output of heavy minerals in
Thailand is produced as by-products of tin. The main In the period from 1960 to 1984, tin and tungsten
methods of tin mining both on shore and offshore are concentrates produced totalled 540,000 tons and 5 5,000
by dredge and gravel pump from detrital deposits. tons respectively (USBM Mineral yearbooks).
Tungsten (present in wolframite and scheelite)
Thai tin production has declined over recent years
and columbium-tantalum (in columbite, tantalite and
in line with troubles experienced by the world tin industry.
struverite) can be concentrated with tin (cassiterite) during
This decline, however, has not been reflected in decreased
the ore treatment process. These commodities can be
production of tin by-products, with the exception of tung
recovered from the tin smelter slags. The other heavy
sten. The recovery of heavy minerals has in fact generally
minerals (ilmenite, zircon, monazite, xenotime, and
increased. This trend may continue as heavy minerals
others) are concentrated during the final stages of the
represent an important source fo income to the tin-mining
tin ore treatment process. In Thailand only a very small
companies, particularly at current prices.
proportion of the stockpiled amang is actually sent to
amang treatment plants for the separation of the individual
heavy minerals. Processing
The annual production of tin and associated by At present there are three tin smelters in Thailand
products for the period 1980-1984 is given in table 4.15.2. which process most of the country’s tin concentrate into
The combined current annual production of ilmenite, metal, two on Phuket Island and the other at Pathum Thani,
zircon, monazite and xenotime minerals has been less than just to the north of Pak Kret Island. (Chao Phraya River
1,000 tons — less than 5 per cent of tin production — and north of Bangkok).
is substantially below the maximum levels reached in the
past: zircon, 3,220 tons (in 1968); ilmenite, 780 tons (in Tantalum and columbium are present in the tin
1979); monazite, 441 tons (in 1974); and xenotime, 52 smelter slags and much of this is exported. The tantalum
extraction plant on Phuket Island which was expected to be
operational in late 1987 was destroyed by rioters. A new
Table 4.15.2 Heavy mineral production
plant is being planned for an area that is away from the
in Thailand, 1980-1984
environmentally-sensitive regions of Phuket Island. The
(tons)
plant will be supplied with slag from the Thaisarco tin
smelter. Tantalite and columbite raw concentrates are also
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984
to be used.
Tin metal 33,685 26,109 19,943 21,960 A project to produce up to 70,000 tons/year
Tungsten 3,134 2,348 1,661 1,092 1,439 ilmenite plus substantial quantities of other heavy minerals
Cb-Tan 657 93 49 824 507 was planned in the early 1970s by Fuji Titanium (Japan)
Ilmenite - 37 18 205 148 but the project has not eventuated (Adams, 1984).
Zircon 61 104 196 199 290
A pilot plant for the extraction of thorium from
Monazite 152 107 162 277 298 monazite was planned by the Government following a
Xenotime 52 45 46 38 28 survey of the monazite content in amang dumps in Phuket
and Phang-nga Provinces in 1984. The Government had
been considering since 1979 a proposal by Siam Tungsten
Source: Kinney, 1986.
to build a 3,000 tons/year ammonium paratungstate plant
Production refers to mineral concentrate, except for tin which at Ayuthaya, near Bangkok, but there have been no
refers to primary smelted metal.
reported developments (Kinney, 1986).
Tungsten contained in wolframite/scheelite.
Columbium-tantalum (Cb-Tan) contained in columbite, tantalite Currently there are no plans for the further process
and struverite. ing of ilmenite, zircon or xenotime.
119
REFERENCES
Anon., 1972 — Thailand by-product minerals from tin international. United States Bureau of Mines,
mining. Industrial minerals, June 1972, 35 p. p. 797-807.
British Geological Survey, 1986 — World mineral statistics Macdonald, E.H., 1971 - Country report: Thailand.
1980-1984: production: exports: imports. (British United Nations, CCOP, Technical bulletin, vol. 5,
Geological Survey. Keyworth, Nottinghamshire). p. 84-107.
Isarangkoon, P., 1973 - Distribution of heavy minerals in Rasrikriengkrai, C., Vongpromek, R. and Kittayabunlur,
the Phuket and Phang-Nga areas, southern Thailand. A., 1984 — Preliminary report on heavy mineral
In Report of the seventh session, of CCOP. United distribution at Maptaphut Beach, Rayong Province,
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far eastern Thailand. In Proceedings of the twenty-first
East, Technical Bulletin, vol. 7, p. 11-21. session of CCOP. United Nations Economic and
Kinney, G.L., 1981 — The mineral industry of Thailand. Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Techni
In Minerals yearbook, 1978-1979, vol. III: Area cal reports, p. 74-79.
reports - international. United States Bureau of
Mines, p. 921-934. Siddiquie, M.N. and others, 1984 - Superficial mineral
resources of the Indian Ocean. Deep-sea research.
Kinney, G.L., 1986 - The Mineral Industry of Thailand. Part A. Oceanographic research papers, vol. 31.
In Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III: Area reports — Pergamon Press. Oxford, p. 781-783.
4.16 VIET NAM
The central and southern coast of Viet Nam from available. (Tran-Huynh-Anh and Nguyen-Tan-Thi, 1972;
Hue to the Mekong Delta is a heavy mineral sand province Anon., 1972).
containing several prospective deposits. General reconnais Other important heavy-mineral-bearing beaches in
sance work was carried out in the area by the French in the Vietnam occur in the vicinity of the following locations,
late 1950s and early 1960s. Further reconnaissance work from north to south: Da Nang, Qui Nhon, Nha Trang,
in the early 1970s was undertaken by the Vietnamese Vinh Giat, Vinh Cam Ranh, Long Hai, and Vung Tau
Department of Natural Resources with a specialist assistant (figure 4.16.1). The Qui Nhon area includes important
from Australia. Follow-up investigations were carried out beaches at Hoi Loch, Bai Bang, Vinh Cuu and Bo Ngua.
in some areas but little detailed investigation of prospective A deposit of economic potential occurs at Thuan-An beach.
areas has been undertaken. No mineral sand mining has In addition to ilmenite, it contains a relatively high con
been reported. centration of rutile. Unfortunately, the precise location
Some 700 km of sandy beaches border the granitic of this beach is unknown (Anon., 1972).
rocks of the Vietnamese cordillera along the east coast of Heavy mineral analyses for four of the deposits are
Viet Nam. Substantial work is needed to assess accurately given in table 4.16.1. While details of the deposits are very
the mineral sand potential of the area. Several prospective limited, none of the these deposits appears to contain
areas are known on the beaches near Hue on the central sufficient resources to warrant a mining operation, and
coast and at Phan Thiet on the south coast (figure 4.16.1). further work is required to assess accurately the potential
In the vicinity of the large town of Hue (16°28' of the area.
n: 107°35' E) mineralized beaches occur at several localities. Vietnam produces a minor quantity of tin, approx
These include Vinh My, immediately adjacent to the city, imately 500 tons/year, from three mines. The proportion
Huong Dien, 20 km to the north, and at another locality recovered from detrital tin deposits is not known. Detrital
30 km to the south. The area was reported to contain some deposits of tin and wolfram occur in the Nha Trang area,
5.4 million m3 of mineralized sand averaging 5 per cent and detrital gold deposits are reported in the Da Nang area
heavy minerals. The heavy-mineral suite was approximately: (Anon., 1968).
ilmenite 65 per cent, zircon 30 per cent, rutile 1.5 per cent,
While there appears to be some trade based on
monazite 1.5 per cent, and minor magnetite and others. On
heavy mineral products (Kinney, 1986; British Geological
this basis the sand would contain about 216,000 tons
Survey, 1986), details are not available. In 1982, Viet Nam
ilmenite, 103,000 tons zircon, 4,500 tons rutile, and 4,500
exported 110 tons of tin metal to an undisclosed country,
tons monazite. On its own this beach could support only a
and in 1983, 622 tons of titanium dioxide was imported
very small operation, but combined with the other nearby
from Japan.
deposits it could possibly be the basis of a viable operation
(Noakes and MacDonald, 1972). Table 4.16.1 Heavy mineral analyses from
selected localities, Viet Nama
Substantial quantities of heavy mineral sands occur
in the Phan Thiet area (10°56' N : 108°06' E) particularly (percentages)
between the villages of Thien Phuoc and Mui Ne. The
Vinh My Vinh Cam
heavy minerals occur on the shorefront, in berms (sand (Hue)
Vinh Giat
Rank
Vung Tau
terraces), and in dunes up to 100 m high. Of the 24 sam
ples analysed, five contained heavy mineral grades exceed Ilmenite 65 78 85 92
ing 10 per cent, the highest value was 20.3 per cent and the Zircon 30 4 7 3
average was 5.2 per cent. The highest value occurred in the Monazite 1.5 3 2 0.25
top metre of the shorefront sands, with the berm and dune
Rutile 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
samples generally having less than 3 per cent heavy minerals.
Magnetite 15 0.1 1.5
The heavy mineral fraction is likely to have a composition
similar to that of other deposits in southern Viet Nam, Quartz 12 45 2
where ilmenite predominates, with minor quantities of Miscellaneous 1 0.9 0.75
zircon, monazite and magnetite, and generally very minor
amounts of rutile, kyanite, mica, tourmaline, hornblende, Source: Isnard,1957 In Anon., 1972.
and epidote (table 4.16.1). No estimate of resources is a See figure 4.16.1 for locations.
121
LAO
P. DR.
REFERENCES
Anon., 1968 - Regional geology and offshore prospects for Laos, Thailand and the Republic of Viet Nam.
minerals in the Republic of Viet Nam. In Report of United Nations mineral resources development
the fourth session of CCOP. United Nations Econo series, No. 39, p. 70-72.
mic Commission for Asia and the Far East, p. 68-72.
British Geological Survey, 1986 — World mineral statistics
Anon., 1972 — Mineral resources of the Lower Mekong 1980-1984: production; exports: imports. Key
Basin and adjacent areas of the Khmer Republic, worth, Nottinghamshire.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
The ESCAP region covers approximately 21 per future supply, particularly from the ESCAP region, are seen
cent of the world’s surface and has some 60 per cent of as follows:
its population. The region has been a major supplier of
heavy minerals over a large part of the present century 1. Titaniferous material
and seems likely to continue in this role. Apart from
Japan, which is already a major consumer of mineral sand, The recent trend towards production of pigment by
countries of the region have the potential for becoming the chloride-process has caused a shift towards high- TiO2
major consumers, but up till now consumption has been content material as the preferred feed. The resultant in
centred mainly in the more industrialized countries — the creased demand for high TiO2 material could be met: by
United States, Japan and Europe an countries — where expansion in the production of natural rutile; by the
mineral processing has been concentrated. development of alternate high TiO2 minerals, such as
anatase in Brazil; by upgrading current slag operations, such
However, new opportunities are now emerging for as at Sorel (Canada) and Richards Bay (South Africa); or
processing mineral concentrates locally, thereby adding by increasing the capacity for synthetic rutile production
considerably to revenue earned in the country of origin. using relatively low TiO2 ilmenite and leucoxene.
The more obvious opportunities for such developments
include: • Natural Rutile
• rutile — processing to TiO2 pigment using The potential for expanding output of natural rutile
the chloride process is not great, notwithstanding the following proposed expan
sions either announced or in the developmental stage:
• ilmenite — as a raw concentrate to produce
TiO2 pigment using the sulphate Australia — TiO2 Corporation in Western Aus
process tralia to produce some 15,000 tons/
— upgrading to synthetic rutile for use year of rutile by 1988-1989
as feed for the chloride process Africa — an increase in capacity in Sierra
— slagging to produce high-grade Leone from 100,000 tons to about
titania slag for sulphate/chloride 125,000 tons/year by 1987-1988
TiO2 pigment
— a 30 per cent capacity increase by
• zircon — manufacture of refractory bricks Richard Bay Minerals of 19,000
tons/year of rutile by late 1987
— processing to zirconia for refrac
tories and abrasives India — possible production of 10,000 tons/
— processing to ceramics, particularly year of rutile from the Orissa Com
as value-added partially-stabilized plex by 1988
zirconia (PSZ) Such developments could provide an additional
• monazite/xenotime 70,000 tons/year of rutile to world markets by 1990; of
this, about 35 per cent would be provided by ESCAP coun
— processing of concentrates to rare tries, namely, Australia and India.
earth oxides, and recovery of
thorium • Anatase
— separation of individual rare earth
oxides Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) currently
produces 15,000 tons/year of 90 per cent anatase from the
— manufacture of “high-tech” pro
Tapira mine in Minas Gerais, Brazil. CVRD is reported to
ducts such as superconductors and
have commenced construction of a commercial plant
supermagnets.
(capacity 300,000 to 400,000 tons/year of 90 per cent
Possible future supply and demand scenarios for the anatase concentrate) to be in operation in 1988. Anatase
principal beach-sand heavy minerals, with emphasis on is considered to be suitable for chloride process pigment
124
production. However, it seems unlikely that production the production of synthetic rutile. Given the continuing
from this plant will reach full capacity before the end of problems associated with the commissioning of this plant,
the decade. some of the ilmenite may be exported in the short term.
India’s other producer, Kerala Minerals and Metals, also
• Ilmenite plans to increase production from 2 7,000 to 100,000 tons/
year, with some 20,000 tons/year of ilmenite available for
Ilmenite is used as feedstock for two intermediate export.
processes titanium slag and synthetic rutile as well as
as a feedstock in its own right, for pigment production via Ilmenite deposits in Madagascar are not expected
the sulphate route. to be developed until the early 1990s; ilmenite from this
source will be dedicated to slagging to high TiO2 in Canada.
(i) Titanium slag Of the planned world increased output of 600,000
tons/year of ilmenite, about half will be available from the
Currently, titania-slag production by South Africa,
ESCAP region for pigment production by the sulphate
Canada, and Norway is based on ilmenite produced in these
route.
countries. There are no titania-slag operations in the
countries of the ESCAP region. However, some countries, During 1986, the world supply of and demand for
for example Australia and Sri Lanka, are considering the titaniferous materials were in balance at about 3.3 million
development of such operations; none are likely to be tons of contained TiO2. Future expansions in the pigment
operational before the middle of the next decade. industries by the 1990s include the conversion of plants
from sulphate to chloride processing, and the commission
(ii) Synthetic rutile ing of new chloride plants (Brazil, Taiwan a Province of
the Peoples’ Republic of China the Republic of Korea,
Western world synthetic rutile capacity is about and Saudi Arabia) and some expanded capacity in current
470,000 tons/year (including that of the two new Austra
plants. These developmentswill result in increased pressure
lian plants commissioned in early 1987). This capacity is on supplies of chloride feedstock, despite the increase in
expected to increase to 570,000 tons/year when the Indian natural rutile production capacity. This pressure will be
synthetic rutile plant at Orissa becomes operational. Al reduced by the use of synthetic rutile, or high TiO2 titania
though the plant was to be commissioned in 1987, full slag by some chloride-route plants. Australia and India
capacity is not expected to be reached until late 1988 or
should be well placed to take advantage of the increased
even later. Total world capacity of synthetic rutile is demand for synthetic rutile.
projected to remain at 570,000 tons/year until the mid
1990s. Over 80 per cent of this capacity will be located in In addition, operators of sulphate-route TiO2 plants
the ESCAP region, and 70 per cent of the resultant syn will be under continuing pressure to choose between the
thetic rutile production will be exported from the region. use of raw ilmenite and more environmentally-acceptable
In addition, China’s Sichuan Non-Ferrous Metals Industries titania slag as feedstock for their operations.
is working with SCM (United States) with the aim of
In summary, the ESCAP countries are well placed in
building a 120,000 tons/year synthetic rutile plant in
the short term to expand supplies of titaniferous materials,
China.
and to benefit from improved world demand for TiO2
pigment. However, in the 1990s the introduction of
(iii) Sulphate-route pigment
Madagascar ilmenite (as slag) and continuing expansion in
World supply of ilmenite (TiO2 content of about South African slag will provide strong competition for the
54 per cent) available to the sulphate pigment plants could ESCAP countries as world suppliers of high TiO2 feedstock.
increase by up to 600,000 tons/year in the short term (up
Rutile prices are expected to plateau at current
till 1990). This increase will come mainly from Australia
levels and then to decrease marginally in real terms as the
(TiO2 Corporation - Cooljarloo mine, Consolidated Rutile
gap is narrowed between supply and demand, and as large
Ltd ilmenite plant), from Brazil, Sierra Leone, and the
tonnages of synthetic rutile became available to the market.
United States (reworking the old New Jersey mine). Capa
city in Malaysia is not expected to increase; in fact, actual Ilmenite prices are expected to rise further in the
production is unlikely to reach current capacity levels short term (1987-1988), but further increases appear
because of the recent decline in tin production. No change unlikely, at least in the medium term. Only minor new sul
is expected in Sri Lanka’s capacity, and output may actual phate plant capacity is planned; TiO2 pigment manufac
ly fall in the short term given current political unrest. turers are showing preference towards titania slag as a
Ilmenite from the 200,000 tons/year plant at the Orissa feedstock; and large resources of ilmenite remain to be
Complex in India is to be stockpiled locally for use in developed.
125
REFERENCES
Fantel, RJ., Buckingham, D.A. and Sullivan, D.E., 1986 - international. United States Bureau of Mines,
Titanium minerals availability - Market economy p. 1037-1041.
countries — A minerals availability appraisal. United
Noakes, L.C. and MacDonald, E.H., 1972 - Activities con
States Bureau of Mines information circular No.
cerning detrital heavy minerals in CCOP Countries
9061, p. 42.
1967-1972. In Report of the ninth session of CCOP.
United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and
Towner, R.R., Gray, J. and Porter, L.M., 1987 - ISMI
the Far East, p. 137.
Summary report — Titanium. United States Geolo
gical Survey circular, 980-G. Tran-Huynh-Anh and Nguyen-Tan-Thi, 1972 — Heavy
mineral sands near Phan-Thiet and Long-Hai,
Kinney, G.L., 1986 — Viet Nam. In The mineral industry Republic of Viet Nam. In Report of the ninth
of other areas of the Far East and South Asia. In session of CCOP. United Nations Economic Com
Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. Ill, Area reports: mission for Asia and the Far East, p. 194-196.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank staff of various geoscien- Evans for typing sections of the initial draft, and to Eliza
tific organizations in countries visited in the course of the beth Walker for typing the final manuscript.
survey for their assistance and co-operation; and to acknow
ledge the untiring effort of Jonathan Gray and Denis The report is published with the permission of the
Fortowski who were responsible for much of the literature Director, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geo
search involved with the report, of Ken Barrett, Rex Bates, physics, Canberra.
Norma Price, and Greg Scott for all the drafting, to Felicity
7. APPENDICES
TOTAL RESOURCES
IDENTIFIED UNDISCOVERED
DEMONSTRATED
INFERRED HYPOTHETICAL SPECULATIVE
MEASURED INDICATED
ECONOMIC
MARGINAL
PARA
Decreasing degree of economic feasibility
SUBECONOMIC
SUBMARGINAL
BMR classifies known (identified) mineral resources Resources are classified in accordance with circum
according to two parameters: degree of assurance of occur stances at the time of classification. Resources which are
rence (degree of geological assurance) and degree of econo not available for development at the time of classification
mic feasibility of exploitation. The former takes account because of legal or land-use factors are classified without
of information on quantity (tonnage) and chemical com regard to such factors; however, the amount of resource
position (grade); the latter takes account of changing thus affected will, wherever possible, be stated for each
economic and technical factors such as commodity prices, classification category.
operating costs, capital costs, discount rates and mining and
metallurgical recoveries.
TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS
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