ESCAP 1985 RP Mineral Sands Asia Pacific

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UNITED NATIONS

Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics

AUSTRALIA

MINERAL SANDS IN
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

MINERAL CONCENTRATIONS
AND HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATIONS
IN THE ESCAP REGION

Volume 4
UNITED NATIONS
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics

AUSTRALIA

MINERAL SANDS IN
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

MINERAL CONCENTRATIONS
AND HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATIONS
IN THE ESCAP REGION

Volumn 4
ST/ESCAP/548

The designations employed and the presentation of the materials do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The opinions, figures and estimates set forth in this publication are the respon­
sibility of the authors, and should not necessarily be considered as reflecting the views or
carrying the endorsement of the United Nations.

Mention of firm names and commercial products does not imply the endorsement
of the United Nations.
ii
FOREWORD

At its twelfth session in 1985 the Committee on Natural Resources recommended that the ESCAP secretariat review
the strategies affecting mineral resources development during the past 5 to 10 years in order to analyse and evaluate current
and projected demands and trends. In doing so it would be possible to identify those minerals on which exploration activities
should be concentrated in the light of projected short- and medium-term demand.

Subsequently, desk studies by the Mineral Resources Section identified minerals such as rutile, ilmenite, zircon and
monazite which had experienced both a strong demand and increase in price during 1985 and had strong potential for steady
growth in demand up to 1990. It was decided, therefore, that a comprehensive study of mineral sands would be both timely
and useful.

Handicapped by a lack of data at the outset, the secretariat was fortunate to obtain the support of the Australian
Bureau of Mineral Resources (BMR), which graciously agreed to provide experts to compile and analyse data, including those
available in its extensive data base, and to prepare a report on the findings.

The use of available data, augmented by missions to countries of the region to collect up-to-date information, expe­
dited the study of the significant mineral sand resources in Asia and the Pacific. In this connection the secretariat wishes to
acknowledge the proficient contributions of BMR staff, particularly the authors of this report, Mr. Jack Ward, Assistant
Director, and Mr. Roy Towner, Commodity Specialist.
CONTENTS
Page

1. ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................................. 1

2. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................... 3

3. OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Titanium minerals ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Zircon............................................................................................................................................................ 11
Monazite ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
World production ........................................................................................................................................ 17
Trade ............................................................................................................................................................ 19
Consumption ............................................................................................................................................... 19
Resources....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Other detrital minerals ................................................................................................................................ 23
Prices ............................................................................................................................................................ 24
References .................................................................................................................................................... 29

4. COUNTRY REPORTS............................................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 Australia ....................................................................................................................................................... 30
4.2 Bangladesh .................................................................................................................................................... 45
4.3 Burma ............................................................................................................................................................ 49
4.4 China ............................................................................................................................................................ 50
4.5 India .............................................................................................................................................................. 60
4.6 Indonesia....................................................................................................................................................... 70
4.7 Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ 76
4.8 Korea, Republic of........................................................................................................................................ 81
4.9 Malaysia.......................................................................................................................................................... 84
4.10 New Zealand.................................................................................................................................................. 89
4.1 1 Pacific Islands................................................................................................................................................ 97
(a) Papua New Guinea.............................................................................................................................. 97
(b) Fiji ....................................................................................................................................................... 98
(c) Solomon Islands ................................................................................................................................. 99
(d) Vanuatu................................................................................................................................................ 100
(e) New Caledonia ................................................................................................................................... 100
4.12 Pakistan.......................................................................................................................................................... 102
4.13 Philippines ..................................................................................................................................................... 103
4.14 Sri Lanka ........................................................................................................................................................ I 12
4.15 Thailand ........................................................................................................................................................ 1 16
4.16 Viet Nam........................................................................................................................................................ 120
v
CONTENTS (continued)

Page

5. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK 123


...............................................................................................

6. 127
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .........................................................................................................

7. APPENDIX 128
...................................................................................................................
7.1 BMR resource classification scheme............................................................................................................. 129

LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 Uses of titanium mineral concentrates — 1985 ............................................................................................ 9


3.2 World rutile production — 1986 (estimated) .............................................................................................. 17
3.3 Comparison of heavy mineral production — Australia, rest of ESCAP, world, 1970-1985 ..................... 17
3.4 World ilmenite production — 1986 (estimated) ......................................................................................... 18
3.5 World zircon production — 1986 (estimated) ............................................................................................ 18
3.6 World rare earth oxide production — 1986 (estimated) ............................................................................ 18
3.7 Export of heavy mineral concentrates — 1985 ............................................................................................ 19
3.8 World consumption pattern for titanium minerals .................................................................................... 20
3.9 Imports of zircon concentrates by primary destinations in 1985 ............................................................. 21
3.10 World resources of rutile ............................................................................................................................... 21
3.11 World resources of ilmenite .......................................................................................................................... 22
3.12 World resources of zircon ............................................................................................................................. 22
3.13 World resources of rare earth oxides ........................................................................................................... 22
3.14A Rutile export unit values............................................................................................................................... 25
3.14B Ilmenite export unit values .......................................................................................................................... 25
3.14C Zircon export unit values ............................................................................................................................. 26
3.14D Monazite export unit values.......................................................................................................................... 26
3.15A Australian rutile spot price .......................................................................................................................... 27
3.15B Australian ilmenite spot price........................................................................................................................ 27
3.15C Australian zircon spot price .......................................................................................................................... 28
3.15D Australian monazite spot price ..................................................................................................................... 28
4.1.1 East coast mineral sand deposits................................................................................................................... 32
4.12 West coast mineral sand deposits................................................................................................................... 34
4.1.3A Rutile production, Australia ........................................................................................................................ 37
4.1.3B Ilmenite production, Australia ...................................................................................................................... 37
4.1.3C Zircon production, Australia ........................................................................................................................ 37
4.1.4A Rutile exports, Australia................................................................................................................................ 40
4.1.4B Ilmenite exports, Australia ........................................................................................................................... 40
4.1.4C Zircon exports, Australia................................................................................................................................ 40
4.2.1 Location of heavy mineral sand deposits, Bangladesh ................................................................................ 46
4.4.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, China .................................................................................................. 51

vi
CONTENTS (continued)

Page

4.4.2 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces................................................ 51


4.5.1 Location of heavy mineral sand deposits, India ........................................................................................ 61
4.5.2 Location of the Quilon deposit, Kerala state ............................................................................................. 61
4.6.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Indonesia........................................................................................... 71
4.6.2 Location of iron sand deposits on Java (Indonesia)................................................................................... 71
4.7.1 Location of iron sand and ilmenite deposits, Japan................................................................................... 77
4.8.1 Location of heavy mineral sand deposits, Republic of Korea .................................................................. 81
4.9.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Malaysia ........................................................................................... 85
4.10.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, New Zealand ................................................................................... 90
4.11.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Papua New Guinea ......................................................................... 97
4.11.2 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Fiji..................................................................................................... 99
4.11.3 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Solomon Islands .............................................................................. 99
4.11.4 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Vanuatu and New Caledonia .......................................................... 100
4.13.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Philippines........................................................................................ 104
4.14.1 Location of heavy mineral sand deposits, Sri Lanka ................................................................................. 112
4.15.1 Location of amang dumps in the Phuket/Phang-nga area, southern Thailand ........................................ 117
4.16.1 Location of heavy mineral sand deposits, Viet Nam ................................................................................. 121

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Characteristic properties of common placer minerals .............................................................................. 5


3.2 Representative specifications of Australian mineral sands concentrates.................................................. 7
3.3 TiO2 pigment end use patterns in 1984 (percentages) ......................................................................... 10
3.4 Chemical specifications of zircon ............................................................................................................... 12
3.5 Monazite and xenotime chemistry expressed as percentage of total rare earth oxides ......................... 14
4.1.1 Correlation of shorelines on the Swan Coastal Plain ................................................................................. 35
4.1.2 Australian identified resources of mineral sands, december 1986 ............................................................. 36
4.1.3 Australian mineral sands producers ............................................................................................................ 38
4.1.4 Production of mineral sand concentrates .................................................................................................. 38
4.1.5 Exports of mineral sand concentrates ........................................................................................................ 41
4.1.6 Imports of TiO2 pigment ............................................................................................................................ 39
4.1.7 Available ilmenite feedstock typical analysis ........................................................................................ 39
4.1.8 Analysis of AMC synthetic rutile and natural rutile ................................................................................. 42
4.2.1 Mineralogical composition (percentage, by weight) of the total heavy fraction from the deposits of
the south-eastern coast of Bangladesh ....................................................................................................... 47
42.2 Chemical analyses of ilmenite, rutile and zircon, Moheshkhali Island, Bangladesh................................. 47
42.3 Summary of heavy mineral resources in the deposits along the south-eastern coast of Bangladesh . . . 48
4.4.1 Hainan Island reserves, grades and recent production............................................................................ 52
4.4.2 Hainan Island ilmenite concentrate ............................................................................................................. 53
vii
CONTENTS (continued)

Page
4.4.3 Beihai processing plant — ilmenite concentrate analysis............................................................................. 54
4.4.4 Beihai processing plant — monazite concentrate analysis .......................................................................... 54
4.4.5 Summary data on heavy mineral deposits in offshore sand-bars of south-western Taiwan Province . . . 55
4.4.6 Recoverable heavy mineral concentrates from present known reserves in offshore bars of south­
western Taiwan Province............................................................................................................................... 56
4.4.7 Chinese heavy mineral processing plants — production capacities ........................................................... 57
4.5.1 Composition of heavy mineral suites in major Indian deposits ................................................................ 62
4.5.2 Chemical analyses of Indian heavy minerals .............................................................................................. 62
4.5.3 The range (in percentages) of heavy minerals, magnetite and non-magnetic fractions and ilmenite in
the offshore placers of the Konkan coast, Maharastra, India..................................................................... 64
4.5.4 Identified resources of major Indian deposits ............................................................................................ 65
4.5.5 Current and planned production capacity................................................................................................... 66
4.5.6 Heavy mineral production 1981-1984 ........................................................................................................ 66
4.5.7 Production of ilmenite and rutile, 1978 to 1982, by states and districts ................................................. 66
4.6.1 Mineral sand deposits, Indonesia................................................................................................................... 72
4.7.1 Chemical analyses of Japanese iron sand concentrates............................................................................... 78
4.7.2 Japanese iron sand resources by province ................................................................................................... 78
4.7.3 Iron sand production by province, 1957, 1961, 1964 ............................................................................... 78
4.7.4 Production of processed commodities, Japan 1982-1984 .......................................................................... 79
4.8.1 Major heavy mineral deposits, Republic of Korea....................................................................................... 82
4.9.1 Mineralogical composition of heavy minerals collected from some tin mines and the Kampong Ajil
ilmenite deposit............................................................................................................................................... 86
4.9.2 Malaysian ilmenite analysis .......................................................................................................................... 86
4.9.3 Kampong Ajil reserves .................................................................................................................................. 87
4.9.4 Number of amang treatment plants operating in Peninsular Malaysia ...................................................... 87
4.9.5 Malaysian heavy mineral production, 1981-1984 ....................................................................................... 87
4.10.1 Major features of North Island sand-bearing formations............................................................................. 91
4.10.2 Iron sand resources of west coast North Island deposits............................................................................. 92
4.10.3 Chemical analyses of magnetic concentrates from North Island iron sand deposits ............................... 92
4.10.4 Ilmenite resources in west coast South Island deposits ............................................................................. 93
4.13.1 Mineral sand deposits of the Philippines...................................................................................................... 105
4.13.2 Analysis of magnetite concentrate from La Union Province ..................................................................... 108
4.14.1 Chemical analysis of ilmenite, rutile, and zircon from Pulmoddai, Sri Lanka ......................................... 113
4.14.2 Production and export of mineral sands, Sri Lanka..................................................................................... 114
4.15.1 Mineral constituents of samples from palongs at gravel pump mines, Thailand....................................... 116
4.15.2 Heavy mineral production in Thailand, 1980-1984 ..................................................................................... 118
4.16.1 Heavy mineral analyses from selected localities, Viet Nam........................................................................ 120

viii
Frontispiece 1: Self-elevating scraper mining basement ore in the eastern section of North Capel Mine,
now closed after 23 years of mining, with the wet concentration plant in the background.
(Photo by courtesy of Westralian Sands Ltd and Harry Mills Advertising)

ix
X

Frontispiece 2: Gordon mining operation - dredge and concentrator (capacity 3,500 tons/hour) mining high dunes located
at the southern end of North Stradbroke Island.
(Photo by courtesy of Consolidated Rutile Limited and K. Yarwood a Associates Pty Ltd)
ABSTRACT

Throughout most of this century, countries of the ducing countries.


ESCAP region have been a major world source of titanium,
zirconium and rare earth ores, and this position is likely to This report reviews the development and current
be maintained into the 21st century. Over the years the position of the heavy mineral sands industry in relevant
bulk of production has been exported in the form of raw countries of the ESCAP region, and suggests and examines
concentrates to the more advanced economies for proces­ possible scenarios for the long-term world supply/demand
sing and consumption. However, increased sensitivity to position in heavy minerals with emphasis on the region’s
negative aspects of environmental problems and pollution contribution to future supply.
associated with the industry, the location of relatively
cheap power sources, and national aspirations in the devel­ The need for a scientific and systematic approach to
oping countries are opening up new opportunities for the delineate and quantify the mineral sand resources of the
processing of mineral concentrates before export, with the region as a basis for future development of the industry is
potential for substantial increase in returns to the pro­ stressed.
INTRODUCTION

In June 1971, the Committee for Co-ordination of does not cover detrital tin (with the exception of the
Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources in Asian Offshore amang associated with cassiterite) nor alluvial gold. Most
areas (CCOP) published a comprehensive review of the of the report is based on literature research using the
current status of knowledge of detrital heavy mineral extensive data base already held in BMR, supplemented
deposits in eastern Asia, both on land and offshore. with information obtained from specialists during short
visits to Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India and Bang­
The review — Technical bulletin volume 5 (Special
volume — Detrital heavy minerals) — included reports by ladesh. Nevertheless, detailed data on some facets of the
Mr Eoin H. Macdonald on his visits to member countries industry were unavailable, and the authors experienced
in 1969, and on subsequent visits in late 1970 and early considerable difficulty in assembling reliable information
1971. on a number of countries.

Since then, many changes have taken place in the Information on countries in the region is reviewed
mineral sands industry, and at its twelfth session in 1985 under the following headings:
the Committee on Natural Resources of the Economic
and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) • History of the development of the industry
recommended that the secretariat, after a full and careful
• Resources (including geological setting and
review of the strategies promoted and effected during the
provenance of deposits)
past 5 to 10 years on mineral development, analyse and
evaluate current and projected demands and trends, and • Production
endeavour to identify those metals and minerals on which
exploration activities could be cncentrated in the light of • Processing
their projected demand in the short and medium term.
• Domestic consumption
The Mineral Resources Section of ESCAP in re­
viewing industry data noted that minerals such as rutile, • Trade (imports and exports by country of
ilmenite, zircon and monazite were experiencing a strong origin/destination)
demand and increasing prices especially during 1985. • Potential for and future developments in the
Furthermore, it noted that a steady annual growth in de­ industry.
mand was envisaged for the same mineral products up to
1990. This outlook is encouraging for the ESCAP region, Understandably, country-by-country treatment of the
which is the world’s largest producer of mineral sands, and industry on such a detailed scale cannot be exhaustive in
also has a substantial portion of world resources of these a report of this length and readers are encouraged to
minerals. After evaluating some trends and developments avail themselves of the extensive reference lists which
in production, marketing, and resources, the ESCAP are provided for in the relevant sections.
secretariat suggested a study of the mineral sand resources
of the region. An overview section briefly describes the nature
The Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources (BMR) of the minerals, how they are mined, concentrated and
undertook to compile and analyse information, and to separated, and what they are used for. Production and
prepare a report on the mineral sand resources of the resources of these minerals on a world scale in summarised.
ESCAP region for publication.
The report concludes with some general observa­
This report concentrates mainly on ilmenite, rutile, tions on the outlook for the heavy mineral sands industry
zircon, monazite/xenotime, chromite, and magnetite. It in the region.
3. OVERVIEW

Most detrital minerals occur as accessory types MINERAL IDEAL FORMULA TiO2 CONTENT*
within their host rocks, and become valuable only when
Rutile TiO2 92 to 98%
released by weathering and subsequently concentrated in a
favourable environment. The minerals originate from a Anatase TiO2 90 to 95%
wide variety of primary source rocks ranging from simple Brookite TiO2 90 to 100%
quartz veins to complexes of magmatic and/or metamorphic Ilmenite FeTiO3 35 to 60%
origin, and are also recycled through sedimentary rocks
Leucoxene TiO2 • nFeO 60 to 90%
such as sandstones and conglomerates, which, in some
cases, provide important secondary sources. Economic Perovskite CaTiO3 40 to 60%
concentrations occur wherever a catchment area of source Sphene CaTiSiO5 30 to 42%
rocks has yielded sufficient quantities of valuable minerals
and where physiography and climate have provided suitable The theoretical and actual TiO2 contents may differ, particu­
conditions for deposition. larly when natural chemical processes such as oxidation and leaching
have been active. Some secondary deposits contain minerals with
The characteristic properties of common detrital higher TiO2 contents than calculated from their theoretical com­
minerals are described in table 3.1 (after Macdonald, 1983). positions.

As indicated in the introduction, only the heavy


minerals rutile, ilmenite, zircon and monazite are dealt with The mining method used is dictated by the nature
in detail; reference is also made to chromite and magnetite. of the orebody, for example, unconsolidated sands are
amenable to dredging, while moderately indurated deposits
TITANIUM MINERALS are mined using a variety of equipment - front-end loaders,
self-loading scrapers, bucket-wheel excavators, and
The element titanium was named after the ‘Titans’ bulldozers.
- the first sons of the earth - of Greek mythology, to
indicate titanium’s strength and chemical affinity with Dredging is the typical surface mining method
oxygen. particularly in east Australia, India, South Africa, and
the United States of America. The most common dredge is
Although it is widely distributed in the Earth’s a suction cutter type which floats in its own pond feeding a
crust, titanium was not identified as a separate element primary concentrating plant (either fixed or floating)
until 1791. Nearly all igneous rocks contain a trace of through a large suction pipe. This dredge type is often
titanium, and some 60 minerals have it in their chemical equipped with hydraulic jets used to loosen and agitate the
composition. Approximately 0.62 per cent of the Earth’s sand prior to drawing it towards the suction pipeline, which
crust is titanium (1.05 x 1014 tons). It is ninth in order of moves a slurry of water, sand, organic matter and other
element abundance. But, in spite of its abundance, deposits trash to oversize screens and detrashing trommels. After
containing titanium minerals in sufficient quantity to be of organic matter, oversize material and trash is removed, the
commercial importance are relatively few. ore is deslimed using hydrocyclones. The use of dredges
allows deposits containing as little as 0.5 per cent heavy
Titanium never occurs in nature in the free state;
minerals to be mined profitably as at North Stradbroke
it is generally in chemical combination with oxygen, either
Island, Australia.
as the dioxide or as the titanate. The main titaniferous
minerals of commercial, or possible commercial interest, In the case of the placer deposits where factors such
are presented in the table overleaf. as orebody location (usually several kilometres inland),
size and shape, lithology, and the lack of adequate water
Mining supply make the use of dredges impractical, dry-mining
methods such as front-end loaders, self-loading scrapers,
Methods of mining placer mineral sand deposits are
and bulldozers are used.
relatively simple. Land is cleared prior to mining and the
top 155 mm of soil which contains the valuable plant At the Yoganup Extended deposits of Westralian
nutrients is stripped and stockpiled for eventual respreading Sands Ltd (Western Australia) self-elevating scrapers (25 m3
over landscaped tailings. capacity) are used to mine the ore. They load by driving
5

Table 3.1. Characteristic properties of common placer minerals


(after Macdonald, 1983)

Mineral Hardness Relative Crystal Common Weathered shape


(Mohs Scale) density system mesh size
(BSS)

Apatite 5 3.17-3.23 Hex. 100 Rounded elongated (egg shaped) grains, occa­
sional stumpy euhedral prisms.

Cassiterite 6-7 6.8-7.1 Tetrag. 100-240 Sometimes prismatic crystals, angular, rounded
grains and fracture fragments

Chromite 5-6 4.3-4.6 Cubic 52-150 Sometimes octohedral crystals, sub-rounded to


rounded grains, irregular fragments

Colombite 9 5.15-5.25 Orth Various Fracture fragments and sub-rounded grains

Corundum 9 3.95-4.15 Hex. 14-30 Irregular fracture fragments, sometimes


rounded

Diamond 10 3.50-3.53 Cubic Various Octahedral crystals, sometimes rounded

Garnet (var) 6.5-7.5 3.42-4.27 Cubic 14-100 Commonly irregular, fractured, very variable
to well rounded

Gold 2.5-3.0 19.3 Cubic 5-200 but Rounded or flattened grains, rods, wirelike
variable pellets and flakes

Hornblende 5-6 3.0-3.3 Mono 60-199 Platy, cleavage flakes, some with ragged ends,
rounded stumpy prisms

Ilmenite 5-6 4.5-5.0 Hex 52-150 Irregular sub-rounded to rounded grains usually
equidimcnsional

Leucoxene variable 3.5-4.5 Amorphous 14-200 Rounded to sub-rounded and angular pitted ir­
regular grains, coated

Magnetite 5.5-6.5 5.17-5.18 Cubic 14-100 Occasional octahedral crystals angular and well
rounded, irregular equidimcnsional

Monazite 5.0-5.5 4.6-5.4 Mono 30-150 Rare crystals, well rounded grains, usually
ellipsoidal, occasionally sub-euhedral tablets

Olivine 6.5-7.0 3.27-3.37 Orth 60 Usually irregular and much fractured, rarely
euhedral

Rutile 6.0-6.7 4.18-4.25 Tetrag. 14-200 Prismatic crystals, sometimes broken rounded
anhedral grains, fracture fragments, occasional
twins

Sphene 5.0-5.5 3.54 Mono various Occasionally diamond shaped, commonly ir­
regular or sub-rounded

Spinel (var) 7.5-4.6 3.6-4.6 Cubic 14-100 Rounded, octahedral grains

Staurolite 7.0-7.5 3.65-3.67 Orth 30-100 Usually irregular to platy

Tantalite 6.0-6.5 7.9-8.0 Orth various fractured, irregular, sub-rounded

Tourmaline 7.0-7.5 2.98-3.20 Hex 60-150 Well-rounded, angular fractures

Wolframite 5.0-5.5 7.10-7.90 Mono various Submetallic cleavage fragments

Xenotime 4.0-5.0 4.59 Tetrag. 30-150 Commonly rounded, sub-angular, rectangular


flakes, equidimcnsional

Zircon 7.5 4.20-4.86 Tetrag. 14-200 Prismatic and stumpy pyramidal crystals, com­
mon, rounded grains and fracture fragments
6

down the inclined mine-face and transport ore to a blending individual final concentrate desired. The degree of com­
stockpile adjacent to the feed preparation plant. The plexity of the metallurgical circuits depends basically on
blended ore is fed into a vibrating grizzly feeder. Here the type of ore, the relative quantities of the various
150 mm material is rejected and minus 150 mm ore is minerals present in the concentrate, and on product specifi­
fed at a constant rate to double-deck vibrating screens cations. If ilmenite is the largest component of the heavy­
where it is broken down with the assistance of water jets. mineral concentrate (as in the Western Australia deposits),
Any minus 2 mm material is pumped in a slurry to the wet it is extracted first by wet high-intensity magnets; where
concentrator. The oversize material is subjected to further the mixed concentrate is first dried, crossbelt magnetic
screening and drum scrubber/trommel action liberates separators are used first to extract the ilmenite.
heavy minerals contained in the clayey ore. Rejected
material is discharged to the mining pit. The non-magnetic fraction containing rutile, zircon
and monazite is separated into its specific mineral concen­
In contrast, some naturally concentrated beach trates by the use of high-tension electrostatic separators and
sand deposits in India are worked with shovels, and selective electromagnetic separators. The dry mill usually
transferred to stockpiles in buckets, baskets, or hand consists of several stages of separators referred to as
carts. After sun drying, the ore is taken either by conveyor roughers, cleaners, scavengers, and recleaners, which com­
belt or hand-pushed mine car to a ‘dry mill’ for final bine to recover and upgrade the final end product.
separation.
In summary, each of the heavy minerals has a
Wet concentration distinct physical property or a combination of properties
The objective of wet plants is to produce a high­ which allow it to be separated from the heavy-mineral
grade, heavy mineral concentrate with minimal losses of the suite. These characteristics are summarized in the following
table.
economic mineral, using mainly wet-gravity methods. The
feed to the wet plant varies from 2 to 20 per cent heavy
minerals. The concentrator exploits the size and the den­ Mineral Magnetic Conduc­ Relative density
sity differences between the heavy and the lighter gangue tive
minerals. The types of equipment most commonly used are
Ilmenite Yes Yes 4.5 to 5
the Reichert cone concentrator (for example, at Eneabba),
the Humphrey’s spiral concentrator (at North Stradbroke Rutile No Yes 4.18 to 4.25
Island), and the pinched sluices. The wet concentrators Zircon No No 4.2 to 4.86
may be land-based or floating, stationary or mobile. Monazite Yes (weakly) No 4.6 to 5.4
Leucoxene Yes Yes 3.5 to 4.5
The wet concentrate produced normally contains
in excess of 95 per cent heavy minerals. It is transported Xenotime Yes (slightly) No 4.59
from the wet plant, after being allowed to drain free of Quartz No No 2.65 to 2.66
moisture, to the dry mill, either by trucks, train or barge. (in crystals. Pure crypto-
crystaUine forms are
The quantity of residue or ‘tailings’ from the wet lower while impure
massive forms are
plant normally is in excess of 90 per cent of the orebody
higher).
mined. The sand tailings and slimes (clay) are returned to
the mined-out areas. As the mining pits are filled, the
surface is levelled or contoured to form stable dunes. To enable the small differences in properties to be
The previously stockpiled topsoil is returned, and the utilized, it is important that the mineral grains be discrete,
area sown with grasses, shrubs and trees. In frontal dunes and free from inclusives and surface staining.
areas, the surface may be covered with ‘brush matting’ to
protect the new growth from wind action. As the new Representative specifications of Australian mineral
growth develops, this brush matting decays, providing sands concentrates are given in table 3.2
additional humus for the restored area.
Processing
Dry plants
1. Upgraded products
Dry plants use magnetic, electrostatic, and gravity
separation methods to produce specific end concentrates. The abundance of ilmenite and scarcity of rutile
The flowsheets differ from company to company depend­ has led to the development of processes for upgrading
ing on the mineralogy of mixed concentrates and the ilmenite to a low-iron, hightitanium product referred to as
7

Table 3.2. Representative specifications of Australian mineral sands concentrates

1. Rutile 2. Ilmenite
West coast
East coast West coast Typical %
Typical % TiO2 53.5-57.5
FeO 10.0-24.0
TiO2 96.20 95.2
Fe2O3 18.0-26.0
ZrO2 0.65 0.09
Cr2()3 0.02-0.05
Fe2O3 0.35 0.85 (total iron)
A12O3 0.6-1.2
SiO2 0.90 0.70
SiO2 0.4-0.8
A12O3 0.35 0.6
ZrO2 0.06-0.10
Cr2O3 0.20 0.15
V2O5 0.70 0.6 Guarantees %

Nb2O5 - 0.5 TiO2 min 53.5

CaO 0.05 less than 0.01 Cr2O3 max 0.05

MgO 0.05 less than 0.01 AI'S No. 75 to 80


MnO — 0.05
3. Zircon
P less than 0.02 0.02 East Coast West coast
S 0.02 0.02
Premium B
Typical % Premium A
Moisture 0.03 0.04
ZrO2 (incl HfO2) 66.6 66.2 66.4
Guarantee % TiO2 0.08 0.25 0.23
TiO2 96.0 min 95.0 min Fe2O3 0.025 0.04 0.07
ZrO2 1.0 max - A12O3 0.09 0.13 0.35
Fe2O3 0.5 max 1.0 max p2o5 0.09 0.13 0.03
Si()2 33.2 33.2 32.50
Approx. AFS No. 78
Free silica .04 0.5 0.01
Moisture 0.02
Guarantee %
ZrO2 min 66.0 66.0 66.0
TiO2 max 0.10 0.30 0.25
Fe2O3 max 0.05 0.05

Approx AFS No. 68 81 65 to 70

synthetic rutile. Most of the upgrading processes consist of Essentially all these processes involve a series of
one of the following: oxidation and reduction reactions which break
down the ilmenite at a relatively early stage into
• Acid Leaching. Ilmenite is leached under pressure
TiO2 and FeO/Fe2O3 fractions. The titaniferous
with hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid. This
fraction of almost pure TiO2 remains after the iron
technique is used by the Chinese at their Pingguo
has been oxidized and/or leached away.
plant near Nanning, and was used by Gulf Chemical
and Metallurgical Corp, at Texas, United States. Reduction/Chlorination. Several processes of this
• Reduction/Oxidation/Leaching/Rusting. There are type have been patented but none arc used com­
several patented processes for this method of mercially. Those held by Mitsubishi Metal Corp.
profucing synthetic rutile, the best known and most (Japan) and Chlorine Technology Ltd, a subsidary
successful being those of CSIRO/Western Titanium of RZ Mines (Newcastle) Pty Ltd involve essentially
Ltd (now a subsidiary of Associated Minerals the reduction of ilmenite which is chlorinated to
Consolidated Ltd), the Benilite Corp., and Ishihara produce a very high grade 95 to 98 per cent TiO2
Sangyo. Patented non-commercializcd processes synthetic rutile. The volatile iron chlorides produced
include those by Murphyores/CSIRO/and Tioxide/ during processing arc removed and oxidised to
Woodall Duckham. produce chlorine which is recycled. Tiron Chemical
8

Corp, of Canada has patented a process which pending on the TiO2 content of the feed material. For
involves the complete reduction of ilmenite followed every ton of TiO2 pigment produced, 3 to 4 tons of “cop­
by leaching with a ferric chloride solution. peras” and 8 tons of waste sulphuric acid is generated.

Another product with relatively high TiO2/low iron The chloride process was introduced commercially
content, and which is susceptible to sulphuric acid attack in 1956 by Du Pont. The process uses rutile, synthetic
and therefore can be used as feedstock by TiO2 plants is rutile, or high titanium slag as feedstock. The only excep­
titanium slag. Titanium slag is also used as feedstock in tion is Du Pont’s special patented process which uses a mix­
titanium metal manufacture in China and in the Union of ture of rutile, leucoxene, and ilmenite, ranging from 63 to
Soviet Socialist Republics (Adams, 1984). 80 per cent TiO2.

Slag is produced by the electric arc smelting of In the chloride process, the feedstock is chlorinated
ilmenite, either alone (as at Amagaski, Japan, and Richards at 850°C to 950°C in a fluid-bed reactor in the presence of
Bay, South Africa) or together with hematite (as at Sorel, oxygen and a carbon source. The products are titanium
Canada). The final grade of the slag is largely determined tetrachloride (TiCl4), and other titanium and iron chlorides.
by the grade of the ilmenite feedstock. QIT Fer and The TiCl4 is separated, purified by fractional distillation,
Titane smelter (Canada) uses 32 to 36 TiO2 ilmenite to and then oxidised with air or oxygen, yielding TiO2.
produce a titanium slag grading 70 to 74 per cent TiO2, Typical recovery for the chloride process, depending on the
and since 1984 an 80 per cent TiO2 slag. At Richards Bay TiO2 content of the feed material, is 90 per cent. For every
(South Africa) a 45 per cent TiO2 ilmenite is upgraded to ton of TiO2 pigment produced, about 1.6 t of ferric
an 85 to 87 per cent TiO2. chloride is generated.

The capital and operating cost of typical titanium


2. Titanium dioxide
pigment production for both the chloride and sulphate
Currently there are two processes for producing processes in various parts of the world is given by Fantel,
TiO2 pigment: the sulphate process and the chloride Buckingham, and Sullivan (1986).
process. The two major factors determining the process
used are: 3. Titanium sponge
(1) The availability of the raw materials (ilmenite There are three stages in the production of titanium
or titanium slag for the sulphate process; rutile, synthetic metal, namely titanium tetrachloride, titanium sponge, and
rutile, titanium slag, or leucoxene for the chloride process); finally titanium ingots. The production stages may be
located at different sites or integrated in one facility.
(2) Environmental concerns related to the disposal
of solid and liquid waste.
The first stage (titanium tetrachloride) involves
In the traditional sulphate process, feedstock finely ground rutile and coke being passed over a fluidised
(ilmenite or titanium slag) is ground to minus 200 mesh, chlorination bed resulting in the production of the
leached with concentrated sulphuric acid, agitated with air, tetrachloride.
and heated to 110°C by steam in a batch reaction tank.
The second stage (titanium sponge) is by the Kroll
The reaction requires an acid-to-ilmenite ratio of 1.3 to
process or the Hunter process involving the use of
0.8, with the ilmenite added over a period of from 15 to 30
magnesium or sodium to reduce the titanium tetrachloride.
minutes. A solid mass of soluble titanium and iron and
insoluble compounds is produced. The soluble sulphates The Kroll process, using magnesium, is the most
are dissolved by the addition of water or weak acid. This widely used. The reaction takes place in a sealed, pressurised
solution is passed over scrap iron to convert all ferric vessel, previously purged with argon or helium, and pro­
sulphate to ferrous sulphate if ilmenite was the feed duces a mass of titanium metal and magnesium chloride.
material. The resultant solution is clarified by filtration. The soluble magnesium chloride is tapped from the vessel,
The clarified solution is then cooled to 10°C in vacuum and broken down into its component elements, magnesium
crystalisers where about 50 per cent of the ferrous sulphate and chlorine, in an electrolytic cell; both elements are
precipitates out as product known as “copperas”. After recycled.
further concentration and filtration, the liquor containing
soluble titanyl sulphate is hydrolysed by injection of steam. In the Hunter process, titanium tetrachloride is fed
By careful seeding techniques, either an anatase-grade or into a stainless steel reaction vessel containing argon and
rutile-grade titanium pigment is produced. Typical titanium sodium. Titanium sponge forms in the centre of the
recoveries range from 80 per cent to 85 per cent TiO2, de­ reactor and sodium chloride coats the walls.
9

The impure titanium sponge is treated in one of two in the welding rod industry has been estimated to be in the
ways: region of 100,000 to 110,000 tons for 198 5. Important
criteria for titanium minerals used in welding include low
• acid leaching Fe2O3, and low levels of sulphur and phosphorus; high
• by vacuum distillation (as in Japan). Fe2O3 renders the slag too fluid for positional welding.

The production of titanium in the metal form Australian Consolidated Minerals Ltd (AMC), the
involves special techniques such as double arc melting, world’s largest mineral sands producer has developed a
electrolytics, or the iodide process. product called ‘Ferutil' at its Western Australian Capel
plant. This product, a reduced or metallised ilmenite
Within the ESCAP region, there are only two behaves similarly to a mixture of 70 per cent rutile and
countries with sponge capacity, Japan, with a total annual 30 per cent iron powder and as such has provided
capacity of 31,760 tons comprised as follows: manufacturers of arc welding electrodes with an alternative
Osaka Titanium Corp (at Amagaski) 15,600 tons economic source of flux additives.

Toho Titanium (at Chigaski) 12,000 tons Ilmenite is used in sand-blasting operations and
New Metal Industry Co. (at Nihongi) 2,160 tons more recently as a replacement for barite as a weighting
agent in well-drilling muds.
Showa Titanium (at Hiratsuka) 2,000 tons

and China, with an estimated total annual capacity of 2. Titanium metal


25,000 tons (Adams, 1984).
Approximately 4 per cent of the world's annual
Uses (figure 3.1) production of titanium minerals is used in the manufacture
of metal. All western world producers use natural rutile
Titanium minerals are used in three main forms: (about 25 per cent of the world’s rutile production) or
synthetic rutile in the manufacture of titanium metal;
(1) As raw concentrates only in the Soviet Union and China is ilmenite used.
(2) As fabricated titanium metal and alloys
Titanium metal and its alloys find an outlet in two
(3) As manufactured TiO2 pigment broad markets: the aerospace market and the industrial
market (Fig. 3.1). The aerospace market accounted for
1. Natural rutile and ilmenite 45 per cent of western world metal consumption (60 per
Rutile, ilmenite, and leucoxene are used widely in cent of Unites States consumption) in 1983 (Adams, 1984;
the welding rod industry as slag formers and slag modifiers Lynd, 1985). This market consists of commercial and
in flux formulations. The consumption of titanium minerals military aircraft as well as spacecraft and guided missile
assemblies. Titanium is used in airframe structural parts
and in jet engine components because of its high strength
to weight ratio, and its ability to maintain its mechanical
properties at elevated temperatures.

The industrial market includes a diverse group of


62% Surface coatings products where the metal is used for its resistance to cor­
rosion and non-toxic nature in addition to its other proper­
ties. This market includes marine engines and fittings,
94% for TiO2
15% Plastics deep water research and recovery vehicles, yacht fittings,
12% Paper golf clubs, bullet-proof vests, food-processing equipment
11% Other such as heat exchangers, storage tanks and piping,
TiO2 pigment 45% Aerospace prosthetic devices such as heart pacemakers and artifical
hips piping for water desalination plants, equipment for
28%
Chemical and chemical plants, and electricity generating plants, and oil-
Desalination plants
2% directly used slag and flux refining, and downhole equipment in the oil and gas in­
4% for titanium metal Food, medical
16% and marine dustries. Western world consumption of the metal for
World production 11% Power station
equipment
industrial uses in 1983 was: chemical and desalination
titanium mineral concentrate s
(Approx 6 Mt) Metal plants, 28 per cent; power station equipment, 11 percent;
and food, medical and marine application, 16 per cent
Figure 3.1. Uses of titanium mineral concentrates - 1985 (Adams, 1984).
10

Of the total titanium metal production, approxi­ brightness and brilliant whiteness; chemical inertness which
mately 30 per cent is used as the pure metal, 65 per cent as contributes to excellent colour retention; thermal stability
titanium alloys (with minor amounts of vanadium and over a wide range of temperatures ;non-toxic, non-fibrogenic,
aluminium), and 5 per cent as a minor additive to other and biologically inert; useful electrical properties; and
alloys based on nickel, copper, aluminium, or other metals others (Adams, 1984).
(Adams, 1984).
The largest market for TiO2 pigment is in the sur­
face coating industries, particularly paints but also varnishes
3. Manufactured titanium dioxide and lacquer. In all western countries it is the most widely
Some 94 per cent of the world’s mine production used white pigment in paints. Surface coating industries
of titanium ore is used today in the manufacture of accounted for 62 per cent of total world TiO2 pigment
titanium dioxide, one of the most widely used inorganic demand in 1984. The second largest market was the plastics
chemicals (figure 3.1). industry (15 per cent), and the third largest was the paper
industry (12 per cent). Table 3.3 shows an estimation of
Although titanium dioxide was not manufactured the global distribution of TiO2 by end use (from Callow,
commercially until 1916, more than 2 million tons a year 1985).
are now consumed mainly as a pigment.
Substitutes
Two types of manufactured titanium dioxide are
sold, namely ‘anatase’ and ‘rutile’, each having the same Synthetic rutile (85 to 93 per cent TiO2) can re­
crystal structure as the naturally occurring minerals. Their place natural rutile as feedstock in the manufacture of TiO2
different physical properties are reflected in their use for pigment by the chloride process.
particular applications. The ‘rutile’ type has been particu­
Ilmenite, leucoxene, titanium slag may substitute to
larly suited to products such as paints, printing inks, floor
some extent for rutile as a protective covering over the
coverings, plastics, and cosmetics. In contrast, the ‘anatase’
molten weld in welding electrodes.
type is generally preferred in the manufacture of paper,
textiles, latex rubber, pharmaceutical products and soap. Limestone and fluorspar can substitute for rutile in
Both pigment types have minor applications in leather some protective fluxes.
footwear, ceramics, roofing, gelatin capsules, artifical
gems, food colouring, catalysts, glass fibres, textiles, and High-strength, low-alloy steels, aluminium or other
cosmetics (Adams, 1984). metals can substitute for titanium in many structural ap-
plications, but such substitution may result in lower per­
The major use of titanium dioxide is as a pigment formance. Nickel steels are to some extent competitive
which reflects its special properties including: high refrac­ with titanium. Titanium carbide is used extensively in
tive index which imparts considerable opacity or hiding machine cutting tools where it is an alternative to tungsten
power; high reflectivity which imparts a high degree of carbide.

Table 3.3. TiO2 pigment - end use patterns in 1984 (percentages)

Water Other Inks,


paints paints coatings Total Plastics Paper Fibre Other (a)

Western Europe 30.7 32.1 2.6 65.4 16.3 9.2 1.3 7.7
Eastern Europe 16.0 58.8 2.5 77.3 12.3 2.3 2.1 5.9
North America 29.0 19.2 1.9 50.1 16.8 22.5 3.0 7.5
South America 41.1 25.5 1.7 69.3 15.1 5.9 2.9 6.8
Middle East 45.0 42.5 1.0 88.5 5.5 - 1.8 4.3
Africa 52.8 35.4 2.6 90.8 5.9 0.8 0.8 1.6
World 29.2 30.6 2.5 62.3 15.2 12.1 2.7 7.7

Source: D.M. Callow, 1985


(a) includes rubber, enamels, soap, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, ceramics, electrical, etc.
11

ZIRCON The electric arc production involves heating a


mixture of limestone and zircon for a selected time and
Zirconium is widely distributed in nature, consti- at a particular temperature to form calcium zirconate, and
turing 0.22 per cent of the Earth’s crust. The principal tricalcium silicate clinker. The clinker is cooled to convert
zirconium minerals used in industry are the silicate, zircon, the tricalcium to dicalcium and lime. Further cooling
and the oxide, baddeleyite. results in the disintegration of the clinker into a very fine
Zircon derives its name from the Persian words ‘zar’, powder composed of dicalcium silicate and lime, and
meaning gold, and ‘gun’ meaning colour. The theoretical coarser zirconate crystals that are separated by air classifica­
composition of zircon is ZrO2, 67.2 per cent and SiO2, tion or flotation. The acid-soluble calcium zirconate crystals
32.8 per cent. However, it always contains some hafnium, are treated with either acids or other reagents to form
generally about 1 to 2 per cent. Mineral inclusions such oxides or salts.
as magnetite and rutile can exist as well as the elements Fe, Commercial plants for producing zirconium metal
Sn, Nb and Ta. Small amounts of weakly radioactive ele­ are based on the Kroll process in which zirconium tetrach­
ments such as uranium may substitute for zirconium in loride is reduced with molten magnesium in an inert at­
certain zircons. Alpha-particles derived from these ele­ mosphere. The resulting mixture is vacuum distilled to
ments cause a gradual breakdown in the crystal structure. remove the magnesium chloride. The zirconium is crushed,
The resulting amorphous glassy mixture of silica and sized, and blended to form an electrode which is arc-melted
zirconia is called metamict zircon, or malacon, which has in an inert atmosphere to remove impurities. This process
physical properties quite different from those of zircon. is repeated to remove all impurities.
Zircon is a common accessory mineral of igneous The zirconium tetrachloride is produced by
rocks, particularly in sodium-rich plutonic rocks such as chlorinating zircon sand directly in a fluidized bed contain­
granite where it occurs generally as small crystals. Because ing carbon. The reaction is endothermic and requires
of its resistance to chemical and physical weathering zircon temperatures of l,150°C or higher to obtain reasonable
is a common heavy mineral in sedimentary rocks. production rates.
Zircon may be colourless or of various shades of
brown, yellow, or green. It has a hardness of 7.5, and den­ Uses
sity of 4.2 to 4.86, a high birefringence, is optically positive,
Since the Second World War, zircon has become
and belongs to the tetragonal crystal system. Its normal
very significant as an industrial mineral with total con­
habit is square prismatic crystals terminated by pyramids.
sumption of about 780,000 t in 1984. It is used in three
Baddeleyite consists of zirconium dioxide, ZrO2, major areas, foundry sands, refractories, and ceramic
but it frequently contains iron oxide and silica as impurities. glazes. The following physical properties give it advantages
It is a monoclinic mineral with a density of 5.5 to 6, a for use in these areas:
hardness of 6.5, and a high refractive index.
Coefficient of linear thermal 4.5 x 10-6 per °C
expansion
Mining
Hardness, Moh’s scale 7.5
See under Titanium minerals. Refractive index 1.9 to 2.0
Specific heat, at 20 to 100°C 0.15 cal/°C/gm
Processing
Melting Point 2,430°C
Zircon for use in foundries is graded and sized
and, in many cases wet-or dry-ground prior to marketing. Zircon is stable to about l,700°C, above which
dissociation takes place with liberated zirconia tending to
Zirconium oxide for refractory, ceramics, and glass form a viscous protective coating on the grains. At very
applications is produced directly from zircon by either high temperature, obtained by plasma arc, the dissociation
plasma fusion or electric arc techniques. is virtually complete. This technique is used to isolate
the zirconia from the silicate.
The plasma fusion method for producing zirconia
involves heating finely divided zircon above its dissociation From early in the history of zircon use it was
temperatures, avoiding particle coalescence, to form found that some zircons were naturally purer and lighter in
extremely small zirconia crystallites and glassy silica. The colour, especially those from the east coast of Australia.
latter is leached out with a sodium hydroxide solution, These zircons are the basis of ‘premium grade zircon’ pre­
leaving the insoluble zirconia crystallites. ferred for the more specialized non-foundry applications.
12

Table 3.4.

Australia India Malaysia Sri Lanka


Premium Standard RZM IRE MMC CMS

ZrO2 + HfO2 min. % 66.0 65.0 66.6 65.0 65.5 65.0

TiO2 max. % 0.1 0.25 0.09 0.3 0.3 0.5

Fe2O3 max. % 0.05 0.15 0.025 0.08 0.1 0.2

Source: Clarke, G., 1987, p. 39

The less pure, darker zircons are the basis of ‘standard Refractoriness is important where large or complex
grade zircon’. The chemical specifications for these grades steel castings are being made; low expansion gives
of zircon concentrates from different locations are shown improved stability of moulds at high temperatures.
in table 3.4.
Reduced wetability by molten steel, together with
In the mid-1970s when premium grade zircon was in the absence of low melting point compounds leads to
relatively short supply, some standard grade zircon from improved surface finish, reduced penetration of the mould
Western Australia was upgraded by a leaching and calcining by molten steel, and reduced incidence of ‘burning on’ of
process to produce a ‘ceramic grade’ zircon. The chemical sand to casting surface.
analysis of this grade was minimum 66 per cent ZrO2,
maxima of 0.1 per cent TiO2, and 0.06 per cent Fe2O3. Ground zircon (or zircon flour) is added to zircon
moulding sand to reduce permeability and improve surface
The pattern of zircon use in 1984 (excluding the finish. It is widely used as mould paint or dry dressing on
Soviet Union) is estimated to have been: silica sand moulds, to improve surface finish and to reduce
the incidence of ‘burning on’ — caused by the formation of
Use Tons Percentage low melting-point compounds produced between iron
oxides and the silica sand.
Foundry 182,400 24

Ceramics 212,800 28
Ground zircon is also used in ‘investment’ or ‘lost
wax’ casting in which a wax pattern is dipped into a slurry
Steelworks refractories of ground zircon and a bounding agent, such as ethyl
288,800 38 silicate. The resulting coating can be thickened by al­
Glasswork refractories
ternate drying and redipping. When the desired thickness
Others 76,000 10 is attained the moulds can be hardened and the wax re­
moved by heating. The moulds, in shell form, are placed in
Total 760,000 100
mould boxes with loose zircon sand to back up the shell
and to give strength to resist the ferrostatic head of the
The global pattern of zircon use varies considerably molten metal. Investment casting is used for precision
from country to country, with the United States using casting of complex shapes and is capable of producing
more in foundries, Japan more in steelworks, and Europe ‘as cast’ items of precise shape and highquality surface
more in ceramics. finish.

Foundry Use The wax pattern can be replaced by accurately


moulded polystyrene foam patterns, complex patterns be­
Zircon is used in two forms: ing built up from simpler shapes.

1. As sand, for mould and core manufacture.


2. As ground zircon, for mould dressings and in Ceramics
special types of precision mould making. Zircon is used:
Zircon sand is used in place of silica sand where
(1) As an opacifier in ceramic glazes.
zircon’s greater refractoriness, low expansion, reduced
wetability by molten steel and high thermal conductivity (2) As a constituent of colours in glazes.
offer significant advantages over silica sand. (3) As a source of zirconia, ZrO2.
13

The major use in ceramics is as an opacifier, re­ lattice. These fused and cast refractories have greatly
placing the previously widely used, but very expensive, tin enhanced resistance to penetration by molten glass.
oxide.
Other Used of Zircon
For effective opacifying the zircon must be ground,
preferably to 5 microns. For optimum opacity, the glaze Significant minor uses of zircon include the pro­
matrix should have a refractive index of less than 1.5. duction of:
For the whitest opacifying glaze the zircon must be low in
1. Zirconium metal, with or without hafnium.
iron and titanium, both of which tend to give a yellow tint
to the glaze. The zircon content of the glaze is usually 2. Zirconium chemicals, including pure zirconia
within the range 5 to 15 per cent. High zircon content and its derivatives.
leads to poor surface smoothness of the glaze but improved
wear resistance. 3. Zirconia.

One defect of zircon glazes is ‘metal marking,’ - a Zirconium metal is used for sheathing fuel elements
knife edge will produce a grey mark on the glaze. For this in nuclear reactors. For this purpose, zirconium must be
reason, zircon opacifiers are rarely used in tableware. hafnium-free.
Sanitary ware and tiles often have zircon opacified glazes.
Zirconium metal, produced from zirconium chloride,
is an important alloying element in magnesium alloys. It
Steelworks Refractories has a high melting point, l,860°C, and is very corrosion­
resistant.
Large tonnages of zircon-based refractories are used
especially in the Japanese steel industry. Ferro-silicon zirconium has been used as deoxidant,
denitrifier, and grain refiner in steelworks practice.
Typically, zircon refractory bricks and shapes are
made from a mixture of zircon sand, zircon grog (a prefired Hafnium is used in nuclear reactor control rods
zircon sand), and finely ground zircon with appropriate where its ability to absorb neutrons readily is of importance.
bonding agents, usually clay or chemical bonding agents
such as phosphoric acid. The principal use is in ladle linings. Zirconium chemicals are used in pharmaceuticals,
The introduction of zircon and pyrophyllite refractories in toiletries, in tanning, and in the oil industry. They can
has resulted in an increase of 5 to 10 times the life of the substitute for chromium in the tanning of leather.
refractory compared with that of traditional alumino-silicatc
refractories. In pharmaceuticals, zirconia hydrates are used
because of their non-toxicity and chelating ability, that is,
Zircon refractories are also used in the vessels the ability to fix other desirable chemicals to an otherwise
involved in oxygen blowing steel-making processes, and in inert medium. Zirconium oxychloride and oxyhydrates
tundishes used for continuous casting. Zircon-based refrac­ are used in deodorants and anti perspirants.
tory shapes are used as nozzles, tap hole seals etc., where
erosion resistance and resistance to slag are important. The use of zircon compounds based on zirconia in
pigments for glazes is a growing market. For example, if
Some zircon refractories and shapes are fusion cast, which
vanadium is introduced into the zircon crystal lattice a
reduces porosity and enhances slag resistance and toughness.
blue colour results, praseodymium gives a yellow colour,
and a red colour can be obtained with neodymium.
Glassworks Refractories
While zirconia has a high melting point (2,800°C)
For glassworks refractories, the zircon must be low it suffers a destructive phase change at 1,000°C. It can,
in titanium and iron (typically Fe2O3 0.03 per cent maxi­ however, be stabilised with the addition of CaO, MgO, or
mum). Low TiO2 (0.10 per cent maximum) is especially Y2O3. Partially-stabilized zirconia (PSZ) which combines
important, as TiO2 encourages the dissociation of zircon hardness, high temperature resistance and for a ceramic
into ZrO2 + SiO2, as well as producing lower melting- toughness, can be used in wear-resisting components,
point compounds with SiO2; the same is true of Fe2O3. metal drawing dies, and shaping dies. PSZ is being used
Zircon when combined with alumina is resistant to attack cxpcrimctally in automobile engines, as heat- and wear-
by alkalies. resisting inserts in diesel engine piston heads.
For high-duty use, zircon refractories are often Zirconia is also used as a toughening agent in some
made by fusing zirconia, silica and alumina, to yield a alumina-based ceramics, and in porcelains for electrical
reconstituted zircon containing alumina within the zircon insulators.
14

Substitutes brown, translucent mineral having a higher proportion of


La2O3 than monazite. Table 3.5 gives typical chemical
Chromite, olivine, staurolite, magnesite, sillimanite analyses of monazite from Australia, India, and China,
and calcined clays are substitutes for zircon for foundry and xenotime from Malaysia.
moulds and facings, competing principally on a price basis.
Chromite is the preferred replacement for zircon. Its Monazite occurs as well-rounded, ovate, pale yellow
advantages over zircon include greater resistance to metal grains. It is widely distributed as a minor accessory mineral
penetration, less filler being needed because of its wider of crystalline igneous rocks particularly granites and high­
grain size distribution and greater chilling capacity. grade metamorphic rocks. It rarely constitutes more than
a few hundredths of one per cent of its host rock. Erosion
Clays, pyrophyllite, high alumina materials may
of these crystalline rocks releases monazite for transport
substitute for zircon in the linings of steel ladles.
and accumulation in sedimentary rocks. The most im­
Titanium dioxide and tin oxide may be substituted portant source of monazite deposits are beach placers,
for zirconium oxide in opacifiers for ceramic glazes and often the end product of several stages of weathering, and
enamels. concentration.
Titanium and tantalum can replace zirconium in Xenotime, a yttrium phosphate which also contains
many corrosion-resistant industrial applications. terbium, cerium, thorium, and uranium, is often associated
with monazite.
MONAZITE

Monazite was named by Breithaupt in 1829 from Mining


the Greek verb meaning ‘to be solitary’ in recognition of See Titanium minerals.
the rarity of the mineral at the site of its discovery near
Miask in the Ilmen Mountains of Russia. It is essentially a Processing
phosphate of rare earths with thorium and yttrium. The
composition and quantities of the component elements The processing of monazite and xenotime con­
vary within wide limits. It has a hardness of 5 to 5.5, and centrates separates phosphorus and thorium from the
a relative density of 4.6 to 5.4. Bastnaesite, a rare earth contained rare earth oxides, which are then separated in­
fluorocarbonate with yttrium is a colourless to yellow- dividually by solvent extraction techniques.

Table 3.5. Monazite and xenotime chemistry expressed as percentage of total rare earth oxides

Monazite Xenotime

Western Australia India China Malaysia

La2O3 23.90 23.00 23.35 .50


CeO2 46.03 46.00 45.69 4.00
Pr6O11 5.05 5.50 4.16 .70
Nd2O3 17.38 20.00 15.74 2.20
Sm2O3 2.53 4.00 3.05 1.90
Eu2O3 .05 .10 .20
Gd2O3 1.49 2.03 4.00
Tb4O7 .04 .10 1.00
Dy2O3 .69 1.02 8.70
Ho2O3 .05 .10 2.10
Er2O3 .21 1.50 .51 5.40
Tm2O3 .01 .51 .90
Yb2O3 .12 .51 6.20
Lu2O3 .04 .10 .40
y2o3 2.41 3.05 60.80

Source: Hedrick, 1985


15

The process consists initially of digestion in either Rare earths have very similar atomic structures,
sulphuric acid or sodium hydroxide, separation of the giving rise to similar chemical properties. Historically, this
thorium and certain other elements, and the subsequent made the separation of the individual rare earths difficult.
recovery of various mixed rare earth compounds and
individual oxides. The sodium hydroxide treatment is Seven of the 14 rare earths have dual valence
preferred because it removes phosphates from monazite states and since changes in valence state are accompanied
more readily than the sulphuric acid process. by substantial changes in properties, selective oxidation or
reduction can be a useful technique for separation.
In the alkaline process, monazite concentrate is
finely ground and reacted with a hot concentrated solution Solvent extraction is widely used to separate the
of sodium hydroxide at 140° to 150°C for several hours. rare earth elements. Solvents used are organic phosphate,
Hydroxides of the rare earths and thorium formed in the acids or amines, usually in multiple stages with aqueous
reaction are insoluble, and trisodium phosphate and excess solutions containing the rare earths. Other methods to
sodium hydroxide remain in solution. Water is added, and, separate rare earths are fractional crystallisation, fusion and
after settling, the insoluble hydroxides are recovered by volatilisation.
filtration, sodium hydroxide is recycled to digestion, and
trisodium phosphate is recovered by crystallization. The most common method for preparing mischmetal
The filtered hydroxides are washed, and the (mixture of rare earth metals), and lanthanum, cerium
thorium is removed using one of several methods. In one praseodymium, and neodymium metals is by the electro­
method the precipitated hydroxides are dissolved in nitric lysis of fused anhydrous rare earth chloride at about
or hydrochloric acid, and the thorium hydroxide is selec­ 900°C, using iron pots as cathodes and graphite rods as
tively precipitated by partial neutralization of the solution anodes.
with sodium hydroxide or ammonium hydroxide and
filtered. Molten metal accumulates at the bottom of the pot
and is tapped off. Slag from the process contains samarium
A second method to remove thorium is to dissolve and europium that is not reduced and is sometimes pro­
selectively the rare earth hydroxides. The precipitated cessed for its rare earth value. Other electrolytic methods
rare earth and thorium hydroxides are mixed with water that have been employed include electrolysis of oxides and
and brought to a pH of 3.4 by the addition of hydrochloric fluorides in molten fluoride baths, electrolysis from molten
acid. At this pH the rare earth hydroxides dissolve selec­ electrolytes into low-melting-point metals such as zinc and
tively, forming a rare earth chloride solution. Undissolved cadmium, and aqueous electrolysis into mercury cathodes.
hydroxide is removed by filtration and may be heated to
produce thorium oxide. Metallothermic reduction of rare earth compounds,
using calcium, lithium, or magnesium, is used to obtain
In the acid process, monazite or xenotime is finely
yttrium, gadolinium, terbium, and lutetium metals.
ground and reacted with concentrated sulphuric acid at
Samarium, europium, thulium, and ytterbium metals can
200°C. After digesting under controlled conditions of
be prepared by reducing their oxides with other rare earth
acid concentration and temperature, the rare earth and
elements, zirconium, or mischmetal. Purification of rare
thorium sulphates thus formed are dissolved in water.
earth metals has been accomplished by various methods,
Insoluble impurities are separated by filtration. The
including distillation, solid-state electrolysis, and zone
thorium is precipitated from the solution with ammonia
refining.
and sodium pyrophosphate. The rare earths are subsequent­
ly precipitated as an insoluble double sulphate by reacting
A recent development in the technology for separat­
with sodium sulphate, or as a rare earth oxalate by reacting
ing rare earth elements has been the ion-exchange
with oxalic acid. The double salt can be reacted with
chromatography method developed by Asahi Chemicals in
sodium hydroxide to form rare earth hydroxide.
Japan. The method depends upon the selective adsorption
Solvent extraction and ion exchange are the com­ onto and selective elution from a column packed with
mercial methods used for the separation of the individual resin. The potential advantage of this process is the elimina­
rare earth elements. One or both techniques are used by tion of multiple stages of the solvent extraction method.
most companies that produce individual rare earth com­
pounds.
Uses
The circuits used are usually quite complex, in­
volving many processing steps and multiple-stage solvent Rare earth applications arc numerous and diverse.
extraction. In general they can be ascribed according to the types of
16

compounds involved, which can be divided into two Ceramics: Colourings for glazes, vision-protection
categories: goggles, high temperature refractories, internal combustion
engine components, metal substitutes, corrosion-resisting
(1) Compounds consisting of a mixture of rare coatings on metal, stabilizers in refractory ceramics,
earths either
mineralizers.
(a) In proportion to their occurrence naturally
Illumination: Phosphors (fluorescent tubes and
in the ore for example, ‘natural’ mischmetal
television tubes, x-ray intensifying screens, data display
is about 53 per cent Ce, 25 per cent La,
tubes), mercury vapour lamps, carbon arc lamps, trichro­
16 per cent Nd, 5 per cent Pr, 1 per cent
matic fluorescent lamps, gas mantles.
others), or
Electronics: capacitors, cathodes, electrodes, semi­
(b) Where one or more of the rare earth ele­
conductors, thermistors, gadolinium-gallium garnets (GGG)
ments has been removed ‘cerium-free’ for computer memories, integrated circuit substrates,
mischmetal is about 42 per cent La, 42
yttrium-iron garnets (YIG), ferrite materials, yttrium­
per cent Nd, 14 per cent Pr, 2 per cent aluminium garnet (YAG) crystals as diamond substitutes
others)
(in jewellery) and in lasers.
(2) Compounds containing an individual rare
Magnets: For electric motors, alternators, genera­
element oxide either
tors, computer disc drive actuators, proton nuclear accelera­
(a) In the 60 to 90 per cent purity range, or tors, travelling weve tubes, Une printers, headphones,
loudspeakers.
(b) Of greater than 98 per cent purity.
Nuclear: Control rods, reactor components,
The application of the mixed rare earths is based
burnable poisons, shielding, detectors and counters, fuel
on the fact that the chemical behaviour of the individual
reprocessing.
rare earth elements is similar. Uses include petroleum­
cracking catalysts, and glass-polishing compounds. Other: Jewellery, paint and ink driers, textiles,
hydrogen fuel storage devices, refrigerating devices,
The application of compounds in category (1)
thermometers.
above is based on individual chemical, physical and nuclear
properties; or as in the case of (2)(a), the associated ele­ The main markets for rare earth products by market
ments are merely divalents which are not detrimental to sector are estimated, by B.T. Kilbourn of Molycorp, to be:
the effectiveness of compounds, and hence the cost is
kept to a minimum, for example, for the production of Market 1984 1986
permanent magnets. Percentage Percentage

Category (2)(b) is restricted to very highly tech­ Catalysts and chemicals 45 47


nical and advanced applications where cost is a secondary Glass and ceramics 32 32
consideration to the technical advantage of the material,
Metallurgy 20 18
such as in phosphors and electronic application.
Electronics and magnets 3 3
Uses of rare earth elements (after Hedrick, 1985)
are summarized as follows: Source: American Ceramic Society Bulletin, May 1984, and
May 1986.
Catalysts and chemicals: Principally as catalysts
in the petroleum industry, with a multitude of minor
About 98 per cent by weight of the rare earth ele­
uses in catalysts for pharmaceuticals and chemicals for
ments produced are used in mixed form in metallurgy,
water treatment, chemical processing, analysis, fertilizers
chemicals and catalysts, glass manufacture and polishing
and moisture-retaining polymers.
compounds; the use of individual rare earth elements in
Metallurgy: Alloying agents for iron and steel, phosphors is the most important single use, by value.
magnesium, superalloys, pyrophoric alloys (lighter flints),
pure metals for research, corrosion resistant alloys. Substitutes

Glass: Polishing compounds, decolourizers, Substitutes can be used for rare earths in many of
colourizers, colour correctors, high refractive index glasses, their applications. However, in most instances, the sub­
radiation stabilizers, light absorbance, fibre optics. stitutes are significantly less effective than the rare earth
17

BRAZIL
elements. Selenium and arsenic compounds can substitute CENTRALLY PLANNED
ECONOMIES
in part for cerium oxide as glass decolorizers. Iron oxide
(rouge), alumina, and zirconium oxide can replace rare
earth oxides for optical polishing. U.S.A

In carbon arc electrodes, iron and calcium fluorides


have been used in place of rare earth fluoride. Lighter
flints have been made of zirconium-impregnated lead. SOUTH AFRICA

Palladium and ultrastable zeolites can be used in


AUSTRALIA
petroleum cracking catalysts in place of rare earths. There
are a number of compounds such as zinc and strontium
sulphides which can substitute for yttrium compounds as SIERRA LEONE
the host materials in phosphors for colour television.

434,000 tons
WORLD PRODUCTION

1. Titanium minerals CHINA


INDIA SRI LANKA
World production of rutile in 1986 is estimated as
434,000 tons (fig. 3.2). Production has been dominated by
Australia for many years, and since the 1970s Australia has Figure 3.2. World rutile production — 1986 (estimated) (e)
accounted for nearly all of world production (fig. 3.3).
However, in recent years Sierra Leone and South Africa

WORLD
WORLD

Monazite Rutile

Zircon Ilmenite
WORLD

WORLD

AUSTRALIA

AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA

REST ESCAP
REST ESCAP
REST ESCAP

REST ESCAP

1970 (IGS, USBM) 1975 (IGS) 1980 (BGS) 1985 (USBM)

Figure 3.3. Comparison of heavy mineral production - Australia, rest of ESCAP, the world, 1970-1985
18

have become significant producers (fig. 3.2). Australia now OTHERS


BRAZIL
contributes 220,000 tons/year or 5 3 per cent of the world
total. Other ESCAP countries contribute only 16,700 tons
or 4 per cent of the total. The United States and the Soviet U.S.A

Union are the only other significant world producers.

Until a decade ago, the ESCAP countries dominated


U S.S R
the world production of detrital ilmenite (fig. 3.2) now
estimated as 3.02 Million tons (Mt) Together with hardrock
production, total ilmenite production amounts to 5.52
AUSTRALIA
Mt/year. Australia is again the leading producer with 1.31
Mt, almost on a par with Canada’s hardrock production of SOUTH AFRICA
1.30 Mt. ESCAP countries - Australia, Malaysia, India,
China and Sri Lanka - contributed an estimated 2.0 Mt
to the world total in 1986 (fig. 3.4) or 66 per cent of total 770,000tons
detrital ilmenite production. South Africa and the United
States are the only other notable detrital producers outside SRI LANKA
the ESCAP region. MALAYSIA
INDIA
CHINA

BRAZIL
Figure 3.5. World Zircon Production - 1986 (estimated)

U.S.A.
3. Monazite (figure 3.6)
U.S.S.R.C

AUSTRALIA The 1986 estimated world production of rare


earth oxides was 41,850 tons (USBM, 1987; Hedrick, 1985;
BMR). Hardrock production of rare earth oxides, mainly
SOUTH AFRICA a from bastnaesite deposits, accounted for approximately
MALAYSIA
25,000 tons or nearly 60 per cent. Of the 16,850 tons of
rare earth oxides produced from detrital monazite deposits,
INDIA c
USS R
NORWAY b
C
CHINA

SRI 5,519,000tona BRAZIL


LANKA CANADA a,b

CHINA a

0. Slag recalculated to ilmenite


b. Hard rock deposits
C. Hard rock and detrital deposits

U S.A b
Figure 3.4. World ilmenite production — 1986 (estimated)
AUSTRALIA

2. Zircon (figures 3.3 and 3.5)


41,850tons
MALAYSIA
Estimated world production of zircon in 1986 was INDIA
770,000 tons of which Australia produced 419,000 tons or
54 per cent. The Only other significant producers were SRI LANKA
THAILAND
South Africa with 140,000 tons (18 per cent), the Soviet
Union with 86,000 tons (11.1 per cent) and the United a. 95% of production from hard rock bastnaesite-monazite deposit
b. 97% of production from hard rock bastnaesite deposit
States with an estimated 67,000 tons (9 per cent) (USBM,
C. 67% of production from hard rock apatite deposit
1987; and BMR estimates). Total production from the
ESCAP region for 1986 was approximately 476,000 tons or Figure 3.6. World rare earth oxide production -
61 per cent of world production. 1986 (estimated)
19

Australia was the largest producer with 6,350 tons, derived On a global scale, most of the production of rutile
from 10,583 tons of monazite concentrate (15.2 per cent and 72 per cent of detrital ilmenite production is exported
of the world total, 37.7 per cent of detrital production). by the producer countries.
Brazil and Malaysia produced an estimated 5,500 tons of
monazite each. ESCAP countries production of monazite 2. Zircon
concentrate in 1986 contained an estimated 22,600 tons of
rare earth oxides, 54.0 per cent of the world total. Of this, The world zircon export scene is dominated by
12,600 tons were produced from detrital monazite de­ Australia, nearly all Australian production being exported.
posits, constituting about 75 per cent of the total world The only other substantial exporter is South Africa. India,
detrital monazite production. Malaysia and Sri Lanka export some zircon, but on a much
smaller scale.

TRADE 3. Monazite

Currently all of the detrital monazite (and xenotime)


1. Titanium minerals (figure 3.7)
produced in Australia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand is exported.
A comparison of the production of detrital rutile Nearly all the production from the United States, India,
and ilmenite (fig. 3.3) for 1985, and their export (fig. 3.7) Brazil, China, and the Soviet Union, and most of the
shows that there is very little consumption of these com­ Malaysian production, is processed locally. Australia
modities in their country of origin. Australia is the major exported 18,000 tons of detrital monazite in 1985, and
producer and exporter of rutile. Only about 1 per cent of remains the largest exporter with an 87 per cent share of
production is consumed locally. The position is similar in this market. Countries of the ESCAP region, mainly
the case of ilmenite, although Australia did consume about Australia and Malaysia, accounted for 96.4 per cent of
19 per cent of the 1985 output of ilmenite in the domestic monazite exports in 1985; the United States exported
production of synthetic rutile, and the manufacture of the remainder.
TiO2 pigment. Production of rare earth oxides from hardrock
bastnaesite in China the United States and is largely con­
sumed internally. The United States exported about one
third of its production in 1984, mainly to Japan and
WORLD TOTAL

Europe. China is the world’s largest exporter of rare earth


compounds followed by the Soviet Union (British
Geological Survey, 1986).

CONSUMPTION

1. Titanium minerals (figure 3.8)

As indicated in figure 3.1, about 94 per cent of


AUSTRALIA

titanium mineral concentrates is used in the manufacture of


TiO2 pigment. Figure 3.8 shows the distribution and
capacity of the world’s pigment plants. The demand for
pigment was strong in 1986, and most plants operated at
near capacity. Figure 3.8 also shows that 73 per cent of
plant capacity (about 2 Mt) is located in six countries:
the United States with 30 per cent, the Federal Republic of
REST ESCAP

Monazite Germany (FRG), 12 per cent, the United Kingdom 9 per


cent, Japan 9 per cent, the Soviet Union 7 per cent, and
Zircon France 6 per cent. These countries arc the main markets
for titanium minerals but in general they arc not major
Rutile
producers.
Ilmenite
As shown in figure 3.1, 4 per cent of titanium
minerals is used in the production of titanium metal. Asis
indicated in figure 3.8, only five countries produce sponge
Figure 3.7. Export of heavy mineral concentrates 1985 and these operated at well below capacity in 1985: Japan at
20

TAIWAN (a province of the People's Republic of China)


Republic of Korea
63 per cent, the United States at 64 per cent and the
CHINA
YUGOSLAVIA
Soviet Union at 81 per cent. No details are available on
INDIA Chinese production, which is assumed to be close to capaci­
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
MEXICO ty. The lower demand for titanium metal relates to the
SOUTH AFRICA
NORWAY fluctuating use of the metal in the aerospace industry,
POLAND
NETHERLANDS the major consumer.
BRAZIL
SPAIN

ITALY 2. Zircon
BELGIUM
Western world consumption of zircon is about
AUSTRALIA
700,000 t/year. The major consumption of zircon has
CANADA traditionally been in foundry sands. However, in the
United States consumption in this outlet has fallen
FINLAND
dramatically, mainly because of the substitution of the
cheaper chromite for zircon, and the decline in the steel
FRANCE
industry. In 1986, the United States consumed an estimated
127,000 tons of zircon in the following end-uses:

USSR. Foundry sands 35 per cent (44 500 tons)


Refractories 30 per cent (38 100 tons)
Ceramics 13 per cent (16 500 tons)
JAPAN Abrasives 7 per cent ( 8 900 tons)
Chemicals, Metal
and Allosy 15 per cent (19 000 tons)
(Adams, W.T., 1987)
CHINA
U.K. U.K.
Japan has become the world’s largest consumer of
zircon, using an estimated 160,000 t/year for refractory
U.S.A.
use in lining steel ladles alone.
F.R.G. Zircon for ceramic use is extensively used in glazing
ceramic tiles; Italy is the world’s largest consumer of zircon
for this purpose (an estimated 45,000 tons in 1984).
CHINA
U.K.
In 1985 production of manufactured zirconia,
U.S.A. about 8,000 tons, consumed an estimated 12,000 tons of
JAPAN
zircon in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan,
France, the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy.

USBM estimated that in 1984 the western world


JAPAN
consumed about 4,500 tons of zirconium metal, represent­
U.S A ing about 9,000 t/year of zircon.

USSR 3. Monazite
USSR
The United States is the major consumer, as well as
producer, of rare earth products, with an apparent con­
sumption in 1986 of 14,200 tons of rare earth oxides
(USBM, 1987) or 34 per cent of world production. World
1986 1985 1985 monazite exports are directed mainly to the United States,
Pigment Sponge Metal Sponge Metal
Capacity Production Capacity Japan, and Western Europe. Australian monazite exports in
1985 were mainly to France (10,031 tons) and the United
Figure 3.8. World consumption pattern for titanium States (7,101 tons); small tonnages were directed to Malaysia
minerals (872 tons). Malaysia operates a rare earth processing plant
21

with Japanese interests, producing rare earth chlorides for


the Japanese and other markets.
OTHERS
U.S.S.R
Currently the United States exports all its monazite
HONG KONG concentrate to Europe (Griffiths, 1984).
CHINA
BRAZIL
TAIWAN ( o province of the People's Republic of China) The Governments of India and Brazil maintain
Republic of Korea embargoes on the export of monazite because of its
thorium content. After the thorium is removed, both
CANADA
countries market several intermediate rare earth compounds
including fluorides, chlorides and carbonates.
FRANCE

World production, export and comsumption


SPAIN
statistics for rare earth oxides are incomplete, and only
apparent consumption can be calculated. Apparent con­
sumption by the United States, Japan, China, France,
the Netherlands, Brazil, India, the Soviet Union, and the
U.S.A.
Federal Republic of Germany, can be derived from the
information published by the British Geological Survey
(1986), and Hedrick (1985).
U K

RESOURCES

F.R.G. a 1. Titanium minerals (figures 3.10 and 3.11)

World resources of titanium consist mainly of


the minerals rutile, anatase, ilmenite, leucoxene and
NETHERLANDS a
titanomagnetite (ilmenite-magnetite).

The demonstrated resources of rutile arc estimated


to be 28.8 Mt (fig. 3.10), of which approximately 21 per
cent is associated with the hardrock rutile deposits of
Italy (Towner and others, 1987). The demonstrated
ITALY resources of anatase arc estimated to be 96 Mt, all in
Brazil (Towner and others, 1987). Currently all the world’s
commercial production of rutile is from the mining of
detrital deposits in beach sands and rivers. Australia has

SRI
INDIA
LANKA

AUSTRALIA

JAPAN U.S.A.

SIERRA LEONE

CENTRALLY
0 Substantial tonnages
PLANNED
reexported to other
ECONOMIES
European destinations

SOUTH AFRICA ITALY


28,800,000tone

Figure 3.9. Imports of zircon concentrates by primary


destinations in 1985 Figure 3.10. World resources of rutile
22

OTHERS OTHER
U.S.A

CANADA a U.S.S.R.

CHINA 2

SOUTH AFRICA
SOUTH AFRICA
AUSTRALIA

INDIA
NORWAY a

U.S.A.

37,200,000tons
839,000,000 tons
U.S.S.R. b INDIA
AUSTRALIA
MALAYSIA
SRI LANKA
a. Hard rock resources CHINA
b. Hard rock and detrital resources
Figure 3.12. World resources of zircon
Figure 3.11. World resources of ilmenite
Countries of the ESCAP region Australia, India,
China, Sri Lanka and Malaysia account for about 59 per
the largest demonstrated resources of detrital rutile with
cent of total world zircon resources.
approximately 9 Mt, followed by South Africa with 5.1 Mt
and India with 4.2 Mt. ESCAP countries, mainly Australia
3. Rare earth oxides (figure 3.13)
and India, control approximtely 58 per cent of the detrital
rutile resources. The USBM estimates the reserve base for rare earth
oxide (REO) as 47.3 Mt of which 43.8 Mt is associated with
The demonstrated resources of ilmenite are 839 Mt
hardrock deposits, largely in the bastnaesite-monazite
(Towner and others, 1987) of which approximately 74 per
cent is associated with hardrock deposits in Norway
(ilmenite-norite), Canada (ilmenite-hematite), and China
(titaniferous-magnetite). China has the largest resources
with 216 Mt, the Soviet Union has 211 Mt, Norway 128 Mt,
South Africa 85 Mt, Canada 75 Mt, and India has 58 Mt.
Australia’s demonstrated resources of alluvial ilmenite are
about 27 Mt. ESCAP countries, mainly Australia, China
and India, and to a lesser extent Sri Lanka and Malaysia
possess about 29 per cent of the world estimated resources
of ilmenite.

2. Zircon (figure 3.14)


The reserve base1 of zircon is estimated by USBM
(Adams, 1987) to be 37.2 Mt, virtually all of which is
associated with detrital deposits. Australia with 13.0 Mt
has the largest demonstrated resources (estimated by
BMR), followed by the United States (5.4 Mt), South
Africa and the Soviet Union (both with an estimated 4.5
Mt), and India (3.6 Mt). a. Mainly hard rock resources (bastnaesite in U.S.A. and China;
xenotime in Canada)
b. Hard rock and detrital resources
1 The reserve base is the in-place demonstrated (measured
plus indicated) resource from which reserves are estimated Figure 3.13. World resources of rare earth oxides
23

deposits of China (36.0 Mt REO) and the bastnaesite Metallurgical uses are in iron, steel and non-ferrous
deposit in California, United States (3.6 Mt REO). Other alloys which enhance hardness and resistance to corrosion.
hardrock resources include monazite in Malawi and South The manufacture of stainless steel now consumes 61 per
Africa, bastnaesite in Kenya and Burundi, xenotime and cent of world chromium production. Advances in stainless-
gadolinite in Canada, and the loparite and apatite deposits steel-refining technology have made possible the use of
of the Soviet Union and Scandinavia (Hedrick, 1985). high-iron chromite for this end-use. Previously, high-iron
chromite was considered suitable only for chemical use.
The remaining 3.5 Mt REO is contained in detrital
monazite (including xenotime) equivalent to about 5.8 Mt Chromium chemicals are used widely as pigments,
monazite. India has the largest reserve base with 3.17 Mt in leather tanning and as catalysts. Chromite ore is treated
of monazite or 54.7 per cent, followed by Australia. BMR to produce a sodium dichromate solution from which
estimates that Australia’s demonstrated resources of mona­ several chemicals are derived, and it is also used for electro­
zite total 231,000 tons. lytic chrome plating.

ESCAP countries total reserve base of detrital Sodium dichromate when reacted with other
monazite (excluding small detrital deposits in China for metal salts is the basis of many pigments. It is also used in
which data are unavailable) is estimated at about 4 Mt, or leather tanning, textile dyeing, and timber preserving.
about 68 per cent of the world total. Other chromates have numerous uses, particularly as cor­
rosion inhibitors, as pigments, and on audio and video
magnetic recording tapes. Raw chromite flour is used in
OTHER DETRITAL MINERALS glass, ceramics, and face bricks.

Chromium Refractory chromite is used to produce the direct-


bonded magnesia-chrome brick which was extensively used
The word chromium is derived from the Greek word in open hearth steel-making furnaces. This type of furnace
for colour and refers to the brilliant and exotic colours of is rapidly being replaced by the basic oxygen furnace which
naturally-occurring chromium compounds that were used does not use chromite refractories, and by the electric arc
as pigments. furnace which has water-cooled wall panels using magnesia
or magnesia-carbon refractories. Argon-oxygen decarburisa­
Chromite, the only commercial ore of chromium, tion systems use “doloma” refractories instead of chromite.
has a theoretical formula FeCr2O4 containing 67.9 per cent
Thus, while a traditional use of chromite is diminishing,
Cr2O3. Naturally-occurring chromite has the general chromite is still in demand for secondary steel-making pro­
formula (Mg, Fe2+) (Cr, Al, Fe3+)2O4 in which the ratios
cesses and in non-ferrous metal smelting. Overall, the con­
of the elements vary widely, and Cr2O3 content may sumption of chromite refractories is declining.
range from 15 to 64 per cent. Ores are classed as being
either high-chromium, high-iron or high-aluminium as Chromite is being used increasingly as a foundry
below: sand because it has thermal conductivity and chilling pro­
perties superior to those of zircon. Chromite foundry sand
Grade % weight Principal Main source is often preferred to olivine sand, the other major substitute
application for zircon, for certain mouldings and alloy castings. The
Turkey, South
use of foundry sands has been adversely affected by the
High-Cr 46-55% Cr2O3 Metallurgical
Africa decrease in the production of large steel castings and the
reduced capacity of ferromanganese alloy plants.
High-Fe 40-46% Cr2O3 Metallurgical Finland, South
and chemical Africa The world production of chromite in 1986 was
High-Al 33-38% Cr2O3 Refractory Philippines, estimated by USBM to be approximately 10 Mt, mainly
Albania produced in South Africa and the USSR, with substantial
tonnages from Albania. Centrally planned economies
22-34% A12O3
currently control 44 per cent of world production. Most
Chemical grades generally contain more than 44 per of the world’s resources of about 32.7 billion tons are
cent Cr2O3 with less than 3.5 per cent silica. Refractory located in South Africa and Zimbabwe.
and foundry grades should contain over 60 per cent
In the ESCAP region, the Philippines is the world’s
A12O3 + Cr2O3 with very low silica.
main source of refractory-grade chromite, most of which
Chromium has three main applications: metal­ comes from hardrock, ultrabasic complexes. Both metal­
lurgical, chemical and refractory. lurgical-grade and refractory-grade chromite is produced
24

from a chromite sand deposit on Palawan Island. Other were the main minerals, the ilmenite being used to make
chromite sand deposits are known elsewhere in the Philip­ titanium slag.
pines. The Philippines is the only other country in the
The only other detrital deposit of any significance ESCAP region where iron sands have been mined extensive­
in the region is the unexploited metallurgical-grade ly. Philippine deposits contain 10 to 50 per cent magnetics
chromite placers at the Ramu River, Papua New Guinea. as magnetite and titanomagnetite (6 to 25 per cent Fe). All
Alluvial occurrences have been recorded on the Solomon such mining was suspended by the Government in 1976 for
Islands and New Caledonia. Metallurgical- and refractory­ environmental reasons. Formerly, output was exported to
grade chromite is mined from hardrock deposits on New Japanese steelmakers.
Caledonia.
PRICES
Iron sand
World production of mineral sands is confined to a
Iron sands are a minor source of iron ore and in few major producers. The bulk of the trade is maintained
some deposits, for example in New Zealand, may be a under long-term contracts which are subject to negotiations
future source of vanadium and titanium. between the producer and the consumer. Understandably,
contract prices are confidential and vary according to grade,
The detrital deposits occur on beaches, dunes or old
quality and scale, and type of contracts.
river terraces, the heavy minerals in most cases being
derived from Quaternary andesitic volcanics. The following Australia is the world’s leading producer and ex­
heavy minerals are important commercially: porter of these commodities, and export values f.o.b.
Australia can be considered to be a general guide to prices
Magnetite Fe3O4 and a good indicator of price trends in the industry.
Titanomagnetite (Fe, Ti)3O4 Australian export values are shown in figures 3.14 A, B, C
Ilmenite FeTiO3 and D.
Titanohematite (Fe,Ti)2O3 The current boom in the mineral sands industry
Hematite Fe2O3 began in 1984 when the Australian average export value of
rutile rose above $A 300/ton. In 1985, this value increased
Titanomagnetite often contains exsolved ilmenite to $A 394/ton, and again in 1986 to $A 466/ton. Ilmenite
and is currently the most important ore of this group. In unit export values have also improved, albeit at a slower
New Zealand it is used as a primary source of iron for rate, from $A 28.87/ton in 1984 to $A 34.50/ton in 1985
steel-making, whereas in Japan it is used as a low-cost to $A 46.86/ton in 1986.
iron ore, as well as an important additive to preserve blast
Zircon prices over the years have been most volatile
furnace linings.
and reflect the former role of zircon as a by-product of
The New Zealand iron sands contain 15 to 40 per titanium minerals. The improvement in demand for zircon
cent titanomagnetite (8 to 22 per cent Fe). The concentrate in recent years began in 1982, when the average export
is ground and pelletized with bentonite as feed for the value of zircon (including both the standard and premium
Stelco Lurgi process using non-coking coal to produce grades) increased to $A 106/ton from $A 83/ton in 1981,
sponge iron for direct conversion to steel in conventional and to $A 118/ton in 1983. After a brief pause in 1984,
electric-arc furnaces. The slag contains 30 per cent TiO2 the upward pressure commenced again in 1985 ($A 129/
and currently is discarded. ton) and continued through 1986 ($A 167/ton) as supply
tightened. In early 1987, the average export value of
Japan uses New Zealand iron sand in small quanti­
premium grade zircon was $A 219/ton, and for standard
ties with other iron ore feedstock to preserve refractory grade bulk zircon, $A 189/ton.
linings of blast furnaces. The titanomagnetite also aids in
the reduction and removal of nitrogen from pig iron. Export values for monazite have also increased
About one million tons of Japanese steel (about 1 percent sharply ($A 420/ton in 1984, $A 510/ton in 1985 and
of production) is derived from iron sands. All the require­ $A 657/ton in 1986).
ments in iron sand concentrate for this purpose are met by
Spot prices published by Industrial Minerals
New Zealand.
Magazine account for a relatively small amount of trade
Ironsands were mined in Japan until 1979 when and are determined by short-term changes in the supply/
economic resources were exhausted. The deposits original­ demand position. They are given in figure 3.15 and
ly contained up to 26 per cent Fe, reduced to 5 per cent by indicate the continuing upward pressure on the prices of
the time the operation ceased. Magnetite and ilmenite mineral sands commodities in general.
25

Export unit values


Rutile
Current $

Constant (1960) $

Figure 3.14A Rutile export unit values

Export unit values


Ilmenite

Current $

Constant (1960) $

Figure 3.14B Ilmenite export unit values


26

Export unit values


Zircon
Current $

Constant (1960) $

Figure 3.14C Zircon export unit values

Export unit values


Monazite

Current $

Constant (1960) $

Years

Figure 3.141) Monazite export unit values


27

Australian rutile price


1968 - 1986

Current $ price

Constant $ (1968) price

Source: MINPRI and IFS data bases

Figure 3.15A Australian rutile spot price

Australian ilmenite price


1968 - 1986

Current $ price
Constant $ (1968)

Source: MINPRI and IFS data bases

Figure 3.15B Australian ilmenite spot price


28

Australian zircon price


1968 - 1986

Current $ price

Constant $ (1968) price

Source: MINPRI and IFS data bases

Figure 3.15C Australian zircon spot price

Australian monazite price


1973 - 1986

Current $ price

Constant $ (1968) price

Source: MINPRI and IFS data bases

Figure 3.15D Australian monazite spot price


29

REFERENCES

Anon; 1979 - Rare earths industry profile and market Hedrick, J.B., 1985 — Rare earth elements and yttrium.
review. Industrial Minerals No. 139, p. 21-59. In Mineral facts and problems, 1985 edition.
United States Bureau of Mines Bulletion 675,
Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and Titanium dioxide. Finan­ p. 647-664.
cial Times Ltd., London. 244 p.
Hedrick, W.T., 1987 — Rare earth metals. In Mineral
Adams, W.T. 1987 - Zirconium. In Mineral commodity
commodity summaries, 1987, United States Bureau
summaries 1987. United States Bureau of Mines,
of Mines, p. 126-127.
p. 182-183.
British Geological Survey. 1986 — World Mineral Statistics Lynd, L.E., 1985 — Titanium. In Mineral facts and prob­
1980-1984 production; exports; imports (Key­ lems, 1985 edition. United States Bureau of Mines
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey). Bulletin, 675. p. 647-664.

Callow, D.M. 1985 — The prospect for titanium dioxide MacDonald, E.H., 1983 - Alluvial mining: the geology,
pigment. Industrial minerals, No. 209, p. 59-61. technology and economics of placer deposits.
Chapman and Hall, London, New York.
Clarke, G. 1987 — Zircon - In demand as availability
squeezed. Industrial minerals, No. 235, p. 35-45. MacPherson, M.H., 1983 — Zircon to the year 2000.
Industrial minerals, Refractories supplement, 1983.
Fantel, R.J., Buckingham, D.A. and Sullivan, D.E., 1986 — p. 83-88.
Titanium minerals availability - market economy
countries - a minerals availability appraisal. United Power, T., 1985 — Chromite: the non-metallurgical markets.
States Bureau of Mines information circular No. Industrial Minerals, No. 211, p. 17-51.
9061, p. 47. Towner, R.R., Gray J. and Porter L.M. 1987 - ISMI
Griffiths, J. 1984 - Rare earths - attracting increasing summary report — Titanium. United States
attention. Industrial minerals, No. 199, p. 19-31. Geological Survey Circular, 980-G.
4. COUNTRY REPORTS

4.1 AUSTRALIA

History district in order to exploit the larger, lower-grade coastal


deposits, including the high dunes. Since the early 1980s,
Although the occurrence of mineral deposits on the
grades as low as 0.2 per cent combined rutile and zircon
eastern coast was recorded as far back as 1870, it was not
have been worked.
until about 1925 that the high percentage of rutile in the
sand was appreciated. From 1895 to 1909, areas around Australia did not become a major force in world
Jerusalem Creek, including McAuley’s Lead, south of Evans ilmenite markets until the beach deposits of Western
Head, in New South Wales, were worked for gold, platinum, Australia were mined. Although mineral sands had been
and tin, the rutile-zircon content being discarded as gangue. known in Western Australia since the early 1940s, mining
Mining for rutile-zircon did not commence until 1934. did not commence until 1949 when the deposits on the
shore of Cheyne Bay on the south coast of the state were
In 1934, Zircon Rutile Ltd commenced operations opened up. This operation was short-lived, terminating in
with the production of a mixed concentrate of zircon­ 1950. The attention of prospectors was at that time
rutile-ilmenite. In the following year a flotation plant was redirected to the southern part of the Swan Coastal Plain.
installed, and a clean zircon product and mixed rutile­ The result was the discovery of deposits at Koombana Bay
ilmenite product were marketed. Other companies operat­ (in 1949), Capel South (in 1954), Yoganup (in 1954), and
ing in 1935 (Titanium Alloy Manufacturing (TAM) Co, and Wonnerup (in 1959). By 1960, mines at Koombana Bay,
Metal Recoveries Ltd) produced only mixed concentrates. Wonnerup Beach, Capel South, and Yoganup established
By 1937, TAM Co was extracting ilmenite magnetically and
Western Australia as a major supplier of ilmenite to the
exporting mixed rutile-zircon. world. Zircon, rutile, leucoxene, and xenotime also were
During the 1930s, domestic output of mineral sands recovered as by-products. In the period between 1960 and
was on a minor scale. With the outbreak of the Second 1970, many deposits were discovered on the Swan Coastal
World War, output of rutile was stepped up to meet Plain south of Perth, but only those at Capel North,
increased demand, and zircon production increased con­ Wonnerup, Prowse, Stratham South,and Yoganup Extended
comitantly. In 1943, in order to assure a maximum return have so far been brought into production.
to the domestic industry from the export of mineral sands In 1948, Tioxide Australia Pty Ltd built a titanium
products, the Commonwealth Government banned the dioxide pigment plant at Burnie, Tasmania, initially using
export of mixed concentrates except by producers already ilmenite imported from India, and subsequently, in late
in production or who would be in production by 1944. 1950, ilmenite from Western Australia. In 1964 Laporte
The prohibition of the export of mixed concentrates was Titanium (Australia) Ltd established a plant in the Bunbury
made absolute from 1 January 1950, although some parcels region to process ilmenite mined at Capel to produce tita­
which had passed through Customs in late 1949 and were nium dioxide pigment. In 1968 Western Titanium Limited
awaiting shipment when the complete ban became opera­ constructed a commercial beneficiation plant at Capel to
tive, were exported early in 1950. produce synthetic rutile; the first commercial plant of its
kind in the world. The process effectively increases the
In the early post-war years, Australia’s production
percentage of titanium dioxide (TiO2) in ilmenite from
of around 12,000 tons year of rutile was more than 50 per
54 per cent to 92 per cent (synthetic rutile), making it
cent of world production. The birth of the titanium metal
suitable for producing pigment by the chloride-route.
industry in the early 1950s resulted in rapid growth in
demand for rutile, and by 1956 there were 30 companies By 1972, the structure of the mineral sands industry
producing mineral sands in eastern Australia. A fall in was clearly defined: rutile and zircon were produced on the
demand for titanium metal in 1957-1958 caused a major east coast by seven companies, and saleable ilmenite
‘shake-out’ in the mineral sands industry, but rutile demand (together with small tonnages of zircon) was produced on
recovered with the introduction of chloride-route manu­ the west coast, by four separate companies.
facture ofTiO2 pigment.
However, during the 1970s a number of changes
During the 1960s, mining operations were extended occurred which significantly altered the structure of the
to areas both north and south of Cape Byron/Southport industry, they included the discovery by a syndicate in
31

1970, at Eneabba, 250 km north of Perth, of one of the beaches, fossil beaches, buried strandlines, and coastal
largest heavy mineral-sand deposits in the world. Subse­ dunes.
quent prospecting led to discoveries of deposits at Jurien,
Cataby and Gingin. These deposits, unlike those in the East coast
Capel-Yoganup area, contain important quantities of rutile East coast deposits occur along approximately
and zircon, as well as ilmenite. Mines were established at 1,700 km of the coastline, from Munmorah in New South
Eneabba by Jennings Mining Ltd, Allied Minerals NL and Wales, north to Rockhampton, in Queensland (fig.4.1.1).
Western Titanium Ltd, and WMC Mineral Sands Ltd under­ The individual deposits range in area from about 700 to
took pilot-plant studies at Jurien in 1975. The mine site 13,000 hectares, (ha), and are either wave-concentrated
was put on care-and-maintenance in 1977. Jenning Mining deposits or wind-blown deposits, or a combination of both.
Ltd ceased operations in December 1979, and both Allied
Minerals Ltd (later to become Allied Eneabba Ltd), and Mineralogically, the composition of the heavy
Western Titanium Ltd became wholly-owned subsidiaries of mineral suites varies geographically. Deposits in the New­
Associated Minerals Consolidated Ltd. The Eneabba castle region of New South Wales have a rutile plus zircon
deposits have made Western Australia an important world to ilmenite ratio (Z+R:I) of about 5.0 to 1.0. Further
source of ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and monazite. north in New South Wales the ratio decreases to about
3.0 to 1.0. In Queensland, the ratio is about 0.6 to 1.0.
Meanwhile, environmental considerations had This shift reflects an increasing ilmenite content rather than
restricted expansion of the mineral sands industry along the a decreasing rutile/zircon content in deposits from south to
east coast. A number of national parks were delineated in north.
the mid-1970s, effectively prohibiting companies from
mining beach sand deposits in these areas. There is also a geographical variation in the chemical
composition of the ilmenite. The ilmenite contains 1 to 4
Consequently, in terms of Australian production of
per cent Cr2O3 most of which occurs as discrete grains of
mineral sand concentrates, these changes resulted in a shift chromium spinels, and which makes the ilmenite unsuitable
of the industry from the east to the west coast. Australian in general for pigment manufacture. This chromium con­
ilmenite output increased from 900,000 tons in 1970 to tent decreases northwards; in the central coastal area of
1.3 Mt/year during the early 1980s. Natural rutile which Queensland, the ilmenite contains as little as 0.02 per cent
peaked at 390,000 tons in 1975, declined to 158,000 tons Cr2O3 (Connah, 1961). A low chromium/ilmenite fraction
in 198 3, and zircon production rose to a peak of 492,000 suitable for pigment manufacture via a synthetic rutile
tons in 1980, over 25 per cent of the production being process can be separated from the material by electromag­
derived from the Eneabba district. netic methods.
Reviews of the heavy mineral deposits in Western In Queensland, on North Stradbroke Island (fig.
Australia have been published by Lissiman and Oxenford 4.1.1), heavy mineral deposits occur as beach strandlines,
(1975), Welch and others (1975), and Baxter (1977). The wind-blown coastal dunes, and high transgressive dune
reader is invited to consult these works for more details on systems up to 100 m in elevation. The dunes are composed
individual deposits and occurrences, and their regional entirely of quartzose sand in which heavy minerals are dis­
geological setting. seminated in concentrations of about 0.5 to 1.0 per cent.
A historical account of the mineral sands industry The suite of heavy minerals in high dune concentrates
along the east coast has been published by Morley (1981). consists of 50.1 per cent ilmenite, rutile 15.8 per cent, 12.5
A brief synopsis of various companies’ mining operations, per cent zircon, and 0.2 per cent monazite (McKellar,
as well as their wet plant concentrations and dry separation 1975).
plant methods, was published in 1980 by the Australasian
Other areas where heavy minerals occur but arc not
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (Woodcock, 1980).
mined include Moreton Island, Cooloola, Fraser Island,
Agnes Waters, Gladstone Mainland, Curtis Island and By­
Geology of mineral sand deposits field (fig.4.1.1).

Heavy mineral sand concentrations are widely dis­ Moreton Island is a sand mass of some 18,960 ha,
tributed along the Australian coast, and fall geographically lying 40 km offshore from Brisbane. It consists of beach-
and mineralogically into three distinct categories the ridge deposits on the east grading into high wind-blown
rutile-zircon-ilmenite deposits of eastern Australia, the dunes up to 280 m in elevation. Heavy minerals are disse­
ilmenite deposits of south-west Western Australia, and minated throughout the dunes. The proportion of heavy
the ilmenite-zircon-rutile deposits of the Eneabba region minerals in the suite is 42.8 per cent ilmenite, 27 per cent
of Western Australia. The deposits occur in present-day rutile,and 17 percent zircon (McKellar, 1975).
32

The Cooloola deposit stretching along 20 km of


coastline consists of beach and dune sands containing
Byfield
mineral sands in the following proportions: rutile 14 to 20
per cent, zircon 14 to 17 per cent, ilmenite 59 per cent,
Curtis Island
Gladstone
and monazite 0.9 per cent. Since 1974, when the area
Gladstone Mainland
Coral Sea
became a national park, all mining has been prohibited.
Agnes Waters
Fraser Island, covering an area above mean high
water mark of about 163,000 ha, lies 26 km off the coast.
Bundaberga It is composed entirely of siliceous sands resting upon
Fraser Island
bedrock at least 30 m below sea level.
The deposits are predominantly high transgressive
dunes located along the eastern coastline. The heavy­
Cooloola
mineral content is estimated as about 793,000 tons of
QUEENSLAND rutile and 832,000 tons of zircon (Australian Government,
1976). The heavy-mineral suite consists of 60 per cent
ilmenite, and 16 per cent each of rutile and zircon. The
Moreton Island
average grade of the deposits is about 2 per cent heavy
BRISBANE
Nth Stradbroke Island minerals.
PACIFIC OCEAN
The Agnes Waters deposit located near Gladstone
comprises three generations of dune formation. The major
dune reaching a height of 70 m is roughly parallel to the
present shoreline. It is flanked to the west by an extensive
swamp, draining in a southerly direction. East of the dune,
Evans Head transgressive type dunes, reaching a height of 30 to 40 m,
merge into and in places cut across this large dune. Rela­
Yuraygir National Park
tively low frontal dunes, reaching a height of about 10 m
NEW SOUTH WALES occur adjacent to the beach. The grade of heavy minerals
in the deposits varies from 2 to 4 per cent; the heavy­
mineral suite comprises 60 per cent ilmenite, 10 per cent
rutile, and about 15 per cent zircon. The deposit is esti­
Hat Head National Park
mated to contain 1.7 3 Mt of ilmenite, 292,000 tons of
rutile, and 420,000 tons of zircon (Minerals Deposits Ltd,
1978).
Tasman Sea
The Gladstone Mainland deposit consists of a
number of small deposits located 15 to 60 km south-east of
Bridge Hill Ridge
Port Stephens
Gladstone. Heavy mineral concentrations occur in dunes
Tomago Sand Beds
parallel to the coast, and on the adjacent beaches. The
Newcastle
grade of heavy minerals ranges up to 4 per cent; the suite
Munmorah
comprises 60 to 65 per cent ilmenite, 16 per cent zircon,
4 per cent rutile, and 0.2 per cent monazite (Fantel and
others, 1986). Murphy ores Incorporated Pty Ltd, which
SYDNEY
undertook extensive reconnaissance drilling in the area, has
relinquished most of its leases back to the Queensland
Government.
Mineral sand deposit
The Curtis Island deposit occurs in part of the
north-west trending parabolic dune system. In 1967, scout
drilling over 2,700 ha of coastal dunes on the island indi­
cated a grade of heavy minerals of 2 per cent, comprising
63 to 78 per cent ilmenite, 4 to 6 per cent rutile, and 10 to
13 per cent zircon (Potter and Co., 1968). All of the leases
on Curtis Island have been surrendered to the Queensland
Figure 4.1.1 East coast mineral sand deposits Government for incorporation into a national park.
33

The Byfield deposit consists of very steep, wind­ 1949). Near Horsham, Tertiary fossil strandlines within the
blown sand dunes between 70 and 200 in high. The dunes Murray Basin containing fine-grained heavy minerals are
contain up to 2 per cent heavy minerals extending to depths currently being evaluated.
of 100 m. The heavy mineral suite is comprised of 50 to
60 per cent ilmenite, 10 to 14 per cent zircon, and 4 to 6 Offshore from (he productive beaches between
per cent rutile (Skulley, 1986). The chromium content of Newcastle and Southport, fossil strandlines were investi­
the ilmenite is about 0.2 per cent Cr2O3. This area is gated in the late 1960s and early 1970s by private compa­
currently under investigation by R Z Mines (Newcastle) Pty nies, as well as by BMR, and by the Sonne Cruise in 1980
Ltd, with mining planned for the 1990s. (Brown and MacCulloch, 1970; Brown, 1971; Jones and
Davies, 1979; Stackelberg, U. von, 1982). Low-grade heavy
In New South Wales, the main mining activity is minerals (less than 2.0 per cent) have been indicated by
centred on the Tomago Sand Beds, in the Williamstown drilling and sampling in water depth of 30 m.
area, and near Hawks Nest.
West Coast (fig. 4.1.2)
The Tomago Sand Beds are a concentration of
unconsolidated wind-blown sands deposited as dunes and Mineral sand deposits of Western Australia are
sand plains, containing between 1.5 and 2 per cent heavy located on the Swan Coastal Plain from Busselton north to
minerals and grading, on average, 0.5 per cent rutile and Eneabba (1,300 km), and on the Scott Coastal Plain, 160
0.7 per cent zircon. The sand beds have an average width km south of Busselton. The Swan Coastal Plain is a strip of
of 5 km, and are up to 18 m thick. They are separated low-relief terrain up to 30 km wide, which is bounded on
from the coast by a younger dune system. the east by a scries of scarps.
The Williamstown deposit is located within a series In the Bussclton-Bunbury area, four sub-parallel
of parabolic dunes covering about 1,000 ha. The heavy dune systems are preserved, each of which represent a still­
mineral content is about 2 per cent; the assemblage con­ stand of sea level during the build-up of the Swan Coastal
sisting of about 40 per cent rutile, 25 per cent zircon, and Plain. The dune systems are now separated by alluvial
30 per cent ilmenite. The recoverable mineral content flood plains associated with major rivers draining the hinter­
has been estimated as 43,000 tons of rutile and 17,000 land. Correlation of the shoreline sequences in the south
tons of zircon (Minerals Deposits Ltd, 1977). and north of the coastal plain is summarized in table 4.1.1
(from Baxter, 1979).
The Viney Creek deposit occurs in an area 4 to 14
km north of Tea Gardens. The mineralization occurs as a The Minninup shoreline lies at the seaward margin
number of parallel beach deposits (400 to 800 m wide and of the Swan Coastal Plain. Sediments of this shoreline are
up to 10 km long) which coincide with former shorelines. within the Quindalup Dune System and the Safety Bay
The average grade of mineralization is 0.8 per cent, mineral Sand (Baxter, 1977). The sediments, which consist of lime
composition averaging about 30 per cent rutile and 18 per sand, quartz sand, peat and silt disposed in lenticular bands,
cent zircon. lie within an arcuate, Holocene barrier system some 50 km
Other areas along the northern New South Wales in length, and were laid down in a nearshore-marine envi­
coast contain heavy mineral sands. Some of these were ronment (Collins and Hamilton, 1986). The heavy mineral
worked in the 1970s, but environmental legislation has content of the deposits, which arc 1.5 to 3 m thick, varies
from 30 to 50 per cent; and is conprised 75 to 85 percent
curtailed mining activity. These areas include the Bridge
Hill Ridge-Myall Lakes district which consists mainly of of ilmenite, and 6 percent of zircon. Two previously-
wind-blown dunes; and the Evans Head-Yuraygir National worked mines on this shoreline, at Koombana Bay (near
Park region which is mostly beach strandlines. Bunbury), and at Wonnerup Beach (near Busselton) pro­
duced a total of 422,243 tons of ilmenite before closing in
Elsewhere in eastern Australia heavy minerals occur 1966 and 1967 respectively (Baxter, 1977). Currently,
on King Island, where beach placers containing up to 60 Cable Sands Ltd is mining a 15 m high foredune containing
per cent heavy minerals are located along the central part about 20 per cent heavy minerals. The base of this deposit,
of the east coast from Naracoopa north to Cowper Bay. known as the Minninup deposit, is the Tamala limestone.
Rutile and zircon occur in equal proportions. In central­
west New South Wales, in an area known as Pilliga Scrub, All deposits on this shoreline, formed on beaches
low-grade, fine-grained heavy minerals arc known to be cut in the underlying rocks, are located between 3 m above
present within the alluvial sands. and 3 m below mean sea level. They represent an assort­
ment of beach and dune deposits associated with a prograd­
In Victoria, deposits of mineral sands have been ing beach. The progradation has caused concentrations of
recorded in the (ape Edward-Mallacoota area (Fisher, heavy minerals to be separated by up to 10 m of barren
34

sand. Heavy mineral analysis of the Minninup shoreline,


Eneabba
and chemical analysis of the ilmenite is given in Baxter
(1977).

The Capel shoreline occurs at elevations of 3 to 12


Junen Bay
m above mean sea level, and 7 km inland from the present­
day coast. Deposits are found in beach and dune sand and
are commonly associated with swamp, lacustrine, and
Cooljarloo
outwash sediments. The beach deposits occur on the
west side of this line and contain up to 90 per cent heavy
minerals. The Capel South mine operated by Associated
Minerals Consolidated Ltd is located in these beach deposits
which are described by Baxter (1977). The dune deposits,
containing 40 per cent heavy minerals, occur along the
Gingin length of this shoreline, and are mined at North Capel by
Westralian Sands Ltd. They are described by Welch and
others (1975), and Baxter (1977).

The Yoganup shoreline consists of multiple strand­


WESTERN lines at an elevation of 20 to 80 m above means sea level,
AUSTRALIA
and is located up to 18 km from the contemporary coast.
The individual strandlines disconformably overlie the
INDIAN OCEAN
Leederville Formation which consists of sandstone, silt­
stone, and basalt.

Mineralization occurs to a depth of 25 metres and


over a width of up to 1,200 metres. The greatest con­
Waroona
centration of heavy minerals is found at the base of the
Australind
deposit which can be clearly recognized as fossil beach
placers. Towards the surface the heavy minerals become
more disseminated and are of a lower grade than the base­
Yoganup
ment ore. In an average section of the deposit, the top
horizon (3 to 4 m thick) is yellow mineralized sand con­
taining pisolitic and boulder laterite. Below this is a
clayey, more mineralized zone of unconsolidated sands,
6 m thick. At the base of the deposit the natural heavy
mineral concentrates are often indurated and mixed with
Scott River
conglomerates and clayey sand. The conglomerates are
composed of boulders and cobbles which are ill-sorted and
sub-rounded. They predominantly consist of silicified
sandstone and metaquartzite. The average overall thick­
ness of the deposit is 10 to 12 m.

There are significant variations in the heavy mineral


composition of the orebody — more particularly across the
orebody and with depth, rather than along strike. It has
been found that the highest concentrates of zircon occur
Mineral-sand deposit at the base of the deposit and increase westwards. The
monazite content also follows this trend. While the
percentage of ilmenite plus leucoxene remains fairly
constant, there is a variation in the ratio of these two
products. This is due to post-depositional weathering of
the ilmenite and reflects earlier water-table levels. The
iron oxides which are a component of the mineral ilmenite
are leached out of the grains by circulating ground waters
Figure 4.1.2 West coast mineral sand deposits and are carried away. Grains which are sufficiently leached
35

Table 4.1.1 Correlation of shorelines on the Swan Coastal Plain


(with elevation in metres above sea level)

Swan Coastal Plain

North of Perth South of Perth

Youngest Minninup shoreline ( 3 to +3 m)

Intermediate Munbinea shoreline (45 m) Capel shoreline (3-12 m)

Oldest Eneabba shoreline (58-115 m) Waroona shoreline (20-60 m)

Coffee Line shoreline (60 m) Yoganup shoreline (26-76 m)

Catahy shoreline (80-90 m)

Gingin shoreline (76 m)

and enriched in titanium are known as leucoxene grains. benches between 75 m and 128 m above the present mean
Generally, the ilmenite in the top 3 to 5 metres of the sea level. Quartzose heavy-mineral-rich sands were depo­
deposit exhibits the greatest degree of leucoxenization. sited as beaches, overlain by lenticular beds of silt, sand,
and minor conglomerate as swale and estuarine deposits.
The average heavy mineral grade is 12 per cent to These sediments are overlain by dune quartz sand and
15 per cent. The typical mineral assemblage is ilmenite contain-heavy minerals where they arc in contact with the
75 per cent, leucoxene 10 per cent, zircon 10 per cent, beach sand units. The main heavy-mineral concentrates
rutile 1 per cent, monazite 0.5 per cent, and others 3.5 per occur in the basal beach sand unit. The zircon content
cent. decreases to the west.
Deposits on this line occur at Yoganup (or Yoganup
The Eneabba deposits of marine-estuarine, beach
Central mine) now completed, Yoganup Extended mine,
and dune environments were developed in a coastline envi­
and Yoganup North (or North Boyanup)due to commence
in 1987. All are operated by Westralian Sands Ltd. ronment similar to Geographe Bay (Lissiman and Oxenford,
1975) during a series of high sea levels, probably in Late
The Waroona shoreline occurs to the north of the Tertiary or Early Pleistocene times (Baxter and Hamilton,
Yoganup line and consists of sand, silt and clay deposited 1981). The environment was a northwards-facing bay fed
in fluviatile, aeolian and marine environments. The deposits by streams carrying the heavy minerals. The cast-dipping
consist in general of a basal conglomerate (overlying either Mesozoic sediments were the immediate source of heavy
Archean or Mesozoic sediments) overlain by up to 9 m of minerals which were introduced to the ancient ‘Eneabba
clayey sand, silt, and peat containing some 60 per cent Bay’ by rivers. Each strandline represents a ‘still-stand’ of
heavy minerals. This is overlain by yellow well-sorted dune sufficient duration during the regression of the sea for a
sand with an average grade of less than 15 per cent heavy well-developed platform to be cut into the Mesozoic
minerals. Only one prospect, the Waroona prospect, is sediments by wave action, and for the heavy minerals to he
currently being worked by Cable Sands Ltd, east of subsequently concentrated.
Waroona township. The average composition of the heavy-
mineral fraction from this prospect is 80 to 82 per cent The Munhinea shoreline on which the Jurien and
ilmenite, 1 to 3 per cent leucoxene, and 4 to 5 per cent Cooljarloo deposits arc located occurs to the south of the
zircon (Baxter, 1977). All the deposits on the Waroona line Eneabba shoreline. The Jurien deposits consist of a paralic
contain up to 20 per cent clays. sequence laid down in three distinct shorelines between 36
and 43 m above mean sea level. The heavy minerals occur
The only shoreline north of Perth which is currently as lenses in the clayey matrix conglomerate and the over­
being mined is the Eneabba shoreline, located some 50 km lying quartz sands. The grade of heavy minerals varies from
inland from the coast in the vicinity of Eneabba. Heavy- 6 to 9 per cent. The deposits are overlain in part by cal­
mineral sands have been deposited on a series of eroded carenite and lime sands.
36

The Cooljarloo deposits consist of three distinct Of the economic demonstrated resources of mineral
subparallel lines of mineralization occurring in paralic sands. sands located on the east coast, about 50 per cent are cur­
The deposits are lenticular and contain up to 20 per cent rently unavailable for mining because of environmental
heavy minerals. legislation.

The Gingin shoreline deposits located 70 to 80 m


above mean sea level consist of beach and dune sands lying Production
unconformably on Mesozoic rocks. The sediments consist The current production capacities of the various
of uniform quartz sands with 10 to 30 per cent clay, and up companies operating in Australia are given in table 4.1.3.
to 60 per cent heavy minerals. The total thickness of the
sequence varies from 2 to 20 m. Some 16 m of dune sand The production of heavy minerals in Australia over
containing less than 10 per cent heavy minerals overlies this the period 1982 to 1986 is shown in table 4.1.4.
sequence. No deposits on this line are being mined.
The total cumulative production of heavy minerals
The Scott Coastal Plain consists of four lines of sub­ since 1950 as recorded in the Australian mineral industry
dued sand dune ridges running subparallel to the coast, and annual reviews is as follows:
referred to as the Quindalup, Milyeaanup, Warren and
Donnelly shorelines. The Scott River deposits contain on Rutile 7.5 Mt
average 5 per cent heavy minerals and 20 per cent clay. Ilmenite 223 Mt
They are 6 to 30 m above mean sea level and are associated Zircon 9.8 Mt
with parallel dunes along the Warren shoreline. The
ilmenite content of the heavy mineral fraction averages Monazite 180,000 tons
about 60 per cent (Boxter, 1977). Figure 4.1.3. shows production levels for these minerals
since 1955.
Summary of the industry

Resources Domestic Consumption

BMR reassesses Australian mineral sand resources Domestic consumption of rutile is confined to small
every year. The data as at December 1986 are summarized amounts of rutile sand and flour used mainly as coatings on
in table 4.1.2. welding-rod electrodes. BMR estimates consumption in

Table 4.1.2 Australian identified resources of mineral sands,a


December 1986 (’000 Tons)

Demonstrated Inferred
Rutile Ilmenite Zircon Monazite Rutile Ilmenite Zircon Monazite

ECONOMIC
East Coast 6,059 10,607 5,824 52.8 237 523 247 2.26
Western Australia
Southwest 43 10,465 1,087 32.7 4 3,879 14
Midlands 2,857 22,231 6,030 145.2 4 28

Total 8,959 43,303 12,941 230.7 245 4,430 261 23

SUBECONOMIC
East Coast 26 100 46 0.3 1,261 5,925 1,529 11.9
Western Australia
Southwest 45 603 102 3.0 13 254 220 16.1
Midlands 367 2,327 984 31.0 Not available

Total 438 3,230 1,132 343 1,274 6,179 1,749 28.0

a The reader is referred to Appendix 1 which summarizes the terminology and classification of mineral resources adopted by BMR.
37

Rutile concentrate production

Tons (’000)

Year
Figure 4.1.3A Rutile production, Australia

Figure 4.1.3B Ilmenite production, Australia

Figure 4.1.3C Zircon production, Australia


38

Table 4.1.3 Australian mineral sands producers

Dry plant capacity (’000 tons/year)


Company
Rutile Ilmenite Leucoxene Zircon Monazite
Queensland
• Consolidated Rutile Ltd 97 175 88
• Currumbin Minerals 12 5 5
New South Wales
• Rutile & Zircon Mines P/L 54 10 45 0.5
• Mineral Deposits Ltd 35 15 45 0.5
Western Australia
• AMC Eneabba 96 450 250 12
• AMC Capel - 100 3 10 0.8
• Cable Sands Ltd - 180 4 18 1
• Westralian Sands Limited - 470 15 40 2

AMC - Associated Minerals Consolidated Ltd

Table 4.1.4 Production of mineral sands concentrates (tons)

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

RUTILE
Queensland 89,112 80,651 73,767 95,219 96,955
New South Wales 47,669 34,840 36,006 36,727 42,579
Western Australia 83,916 47,883 60,651 79,669 80,512
Total 220,697 163,374 170,424 211,615 220,046
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 57,295 50,204 (e) 53,354 85,202 nya
ILMENITE
Queensland 26,744 14,037 68,823 168,089 212,442
New South Wales 31,502 17,266 15,753 15,173 20,458
Western Australia 1,090,966 861,267 1,048,595 1,235,605 1,058,449
Total 1,149,212 892,570 1,133,171 1,418,867 1,291,349
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 35,196 22,396 55,650 64,678 nya
LEUCOXENE
Western Australia 19,739 13,358 32,110 13,809 16,266
Total 19,739 13,358 32,110 13,809 16,266
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 3,737 2,673 6,952 4,003 nya
ZIRCON
Queensland 72,731 66,525 64,018 80,017 90,746
New South Wales 66,017 56,899 56,631 49,669 48,199
Western Australia 323,728 258,581 336,950 371,754 280,345
Total 462,476 382,005 457,599 501,440 419,290
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 45,540 25,887 52,549 62,104 nya
MONAZITE
Queensland - 147 — —
New South Wales 198 365 668 980 99
Western Australia 9,364 14,629 15,592 17,755 10,484
Total 9,562 15,141 16,260 18,735 10,583
Value, ex-mine ($’000) 3,888 6,210 7,017 9,523 nya
TOTAL VALUE, EX-MINE ($’000) 145,656 107,370 n.a. n.a. nya

Source: ABS.
nya - not yet available
e - estimated
39

recent years at about 2,000 to 3,000 tons/year about Processing


one per cent or less of production.
1. Synthetic rutile product ion
About 140,000 tons/year of ilmenite, all from
Western Australia, is consumed by Australia’s two titanium Two synthetic rutile plants, one of 15,000 tons/
dioxide (TiO2) pigment producers Tioxide Australia Pty year capacity which commenced in 1968, and another of
Ltd at Burnie, Tasmania, and SCM Chemicals Ltd, at Bun­ 45,000 tons/year capacity which started up in 19 74, are
bury, Western Australia. Both producers use the sulphate located at Capel in Western Australia, 200 km south of
process to produce rutile and/or anatase-type pigments. Perth.
Total plant capacity is about 70,000 tons/year of pigment;
The production of synthetic rutile is essentially a
output in 1986 was estimated as 65,000 tons.
two-stage process pyrometallurgy followed by hydro­
High TiO2 ilmenite from Eneabba, together with metallurgy. The iron content of ilmenite is metallized by
some secondary ilmenite from Capel, is beneficiated by reduction in a high-temperature rotating kiln system. The
Associated Minerals Consolidated Ltd (AMC) to produce reduced ilmenite is then subjected to a corrosive process in
synthetic rutile (upgraded ilmenite) at Capel. In 1986, which the metallized iron is removed (Reaveley, 1980;
AMC produced about 55,000 tons of synthetic rutile from Bracanin and others, 1980).
its two plants (total capacity 60,000 tons/year); about
110,000 tons/year of ilmenite are processed into this Ilmenite from Capel and Eneabba is used as feed­
product. stock for the process, and Collie coal as the reductant.
Typical analysis of the ilmenite feedstocks is given in table
Both zircon sand and flour are used locally in 4.1.7, and of the final product in table 4.1.8.
foundries, refractory products, and ceramics. Some micro-
nized zircon is used in high-quality ceramic ware. Overall
local consumption in recent years is estimated by BMR to Table 4.1.7 Available ilmenite feedstocks
be in the range 15,000 to 20,000 tons/year. typical analysis
Currently no monazite is consumed in Australia.
Capel Capel Eneabba
Primary Secondary Secondary
Trade
% % %
While Australia is a major world producer of mineral TiO2 54.8 59.3 59.9
sands, it is only a minor consumer. Apart from the export Fe2o3 16.5 15.0 29.0
of some TiO2 pigment to South-East Asia and New Zealand,
FeO 24.0 18.0 5.4
and synthetic rutile to the United States, Japan, and the
MnO 1.3 1.2 1.1
United Kingdom, the bulk of production is exported in the
A12O3 0.75 1.2 0.6
form of raw concentrates. Exports of mineral sand con­
SiO2 1.1 1.2 1.2
centrates in recent years are detailed in table 4.1.5, and
Free Silica 0.08 0.1 0.01
shown in figure 4.1.4 since 1955.
Zr()2 0.2 0.4 0.8
Australia imports small quantities of special grades V2O5 0.12 0.12 0.16
ofTiO2 pigments, as shown in table 4.1.6 below, principally Nb2O5 0.15 0.22 0.17
from the United States and the Federal Republic of Ger­ Cr2O3 0.03 0.08 0.16
many. P2O5 0.05 0.20 0.06
CaO 0.01 0.01 0.01
Table 4.1.6 Imports of TiO2 pigment Mg() 0.18 0.18 0.26
S 0.02 0.02 0.03
1983 1984 1985 1986 Moisture 0.2 0.2 02
Rutile-type (tons) 722 1,149 1,092 946
Value ($’000) 1,153 1,153 1,937 1,981 Source: Bracanin and others, 1980.

Anatase-type (tons) 43.6 77.8 19.7 54.7


Value ($’000) 66 116 47 91 In early 1987, two companies in Western Australia
Titanium-white (tons)a 86 339 90.3 212.3 commissioned new synthetic rutile plants Westralian
Value ($’000) 94 522 194 691 Sands Ltd at Capel (capacity 100,000 tons/year of synthetic
rutile) and AMC at Narngulu, near Geraldton (capacity
Total Value ($’000) 1,313 1,791 2,178 2,763
112,500 tons/year). When both plants arc in full operation
a includes rutile and anatase, coated, and other mixtures having Australia’s total capacity of synthetic rutile will increase
TiO2 content of less than 75 per cent. to 272,500 tons/year.
40

Rutile concentrate exports

400

300

Year
41

Table 4.1.5 Exports of mineral sand concentrates (tons)

Destinations 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

RUTILE
Japan 29,083 26,795 19,037 34,241 25,853
United Kingdom 59,441 55,653 38,090 47,542 69,026
United States 71,200 85,059 83,370 88,169 78,614
Others 39,572 50,155 51,010 41,735 56,172
Total3 199,296 217,662 191,507 211,687 229,665
Value 50,876 53,955 58,018 83,473 116,412

ILMENITE
Japan 61,398 65,049 213,812 240,342 152,355
Spain 80,466 88,651 105,941 96,491 79,291
United Kingdom 161,524 93,287 144,945 127,539 165,466
United States 329,379 283,776 425,330 488,891 452,837
USSR 79,627 104,044 103,059 62,723 -
Others 166,923 182,126 179,899 135,935 184,260
Totala 879,317 816,933 1,172,986 1,151,921 1,034,209
Value 22,284 23,005 33,859 39,746 48,454

LEUCOXENE
Japan 4,101 4,066 5,724 4,727 1,500
United States 9,642 4,958 22,731 7,254 5,123
Others 273 252 2,504 4,798 6,851
Totala 14,016 9,276 30,959 16,779 13,474
Value 2,904 1,706 7,062 4,510 5,152

ZIRCON
Italy 59,291 44,420 57,946 60,465 67,061
Japan 160,878 163,033 168,586 196,731 160,022
United Kingdom 16,348 17,347 13,525 24,220 22,542
United States 60,793 20,109 46,461 29,522 34,857
Others 107,905 135,066 151,252 182,926 161,208
Total3 405,215 379,975 437,770 493,864 445,690
Value 43,064 44,745 51,819 63,881 74,495

MONAZITE
France 5,588 12,468 10,031 10,031 12,725
United States 6 594 4,706 6,883 7,101 743
Others 3,069 496 1,210 892 632
Totala 15,251 17,670 18,124 18,024 14,100
Value 6,161 7,202 7,629 9,219 9,182

TOTAL VALUE 125,289 130,613 158,387 200,829 253,695

Source: ABS
a F.o.b. ($’000)
42

Table 4.1.8 Analysis of AMC synthetic rutile Australia’s second TiO2 plant, together with its
and natural rutile associated sulphuric acid plant, was established in 1963 by
Laporte at Bunbury with an initial capacity of 12,000 tons/
AMC year. The wholly-owned operating company was Laporte
Synthetic rutile Rutile Titanium (Australia) Ltd, which changed its name to
% by wt. % by wt.
Laporte Australia Ltd in 1970. After a series of expansions,
TiO2 92.5 95.2 the company reached its current capacity level of 36,000
tons/year in 1976. Ilmenite for the plant is drawn from the
Fe(t) 2.4 0.60
Associated Minerals Consolidated Ltd mine at Capel. Sul­
MnO 1.1 0.05 phuric acid requirements are met from its own plant,
Al2O3 1.1 0.6 supplemented by deliveries from other acid plants in the
SiO2 0.9 0.7 region. Plant wastes are disposed of in special ponds
ZrO2 0.2 0.9 located nearby, where the base of natural limestone beds
V2O5 0.22 0.6 provides neutralization of the acid content.
Cr2O3 0.10 0.15 In 1984 Laporte sold its Bunbury plant to SCM
Nb2O3 0.25 0.5 Corp (United States).
MgO 0.30 0.01 Australia is a small but significant exporter of TiO2,
CaO 0.03 0.01 mainly to the Asian and United States markets; the exact
p2o5 0.03 0.03 quantities exported are confidential but are in the region
S 0.2 0.02 of 2 5,000 to 30,000 tons/year.

Source: Cassidy and others, 1986. Recent Developments

SCM Chemicals Ltd is converting its Bunbury plant


2. Titanium dioxide production
from the sulphate-route process to the chloride-route
Australian TiO2 production capacity totals 68,000 process, and Tioxide Australia Ltd is expanding its sulphate-
tons/year, details of which are provided below: route capacity to 55,000 tons/year.

In 1985, a new company — Z-tech Pty Ltd, a joint


Company Capacity Site Location venture between CSIRO and ICI Australia Ltd — was estab­
lished to market high-purity zirconia and zirconium chemi­
Tioxide 32,000 Burnie, On the north cals. In late 1986, ICI Australia Ltd announced that it
Tasmania coast of Tas­ would build a zirconia plant at Rockingham, Western
mania Australia with a capacity of 450 tons/year of high-purity
SCM Chemi­ 36,000 Bunbury, On the south­ zirconia powders, and 250 tons a year of zirconium chemi­
cal Ltd Western west coast, 180 cals) to be in operation in late 1988. The company is
Australia km south of already producing crude zirconia from zircon at a small
Perth. pilot plant at Laverton, Victoria. Part of the zirconia
output will be used to produce the new industrial ceramic,
Australia’s first TiO2 plant came on stream in 1949, partially-stabilized zirconia (PSZ). PSZ is formed by
with an initial capacity of 1,800 tons/year. The plant was doping zirconia with small amounts of selected compounds;
originally operated by Australian Titan Products Pty Ltd, it is to be developed, manufactured, and marketed by
which changed its name to Tioxide Australia Ltd in 1975; Nilcra Ceramics, a joint venture between Nilsen Sintered
the company has always been a 100 per cent subsidiary Products and CRA Ltd.
within the Tioxide Group. Over time it has increased its
output, which reached 25,000 tons in 1967, 30,000 tons In late 1984, Allied Eneabba Ltd and Asahi Chemi­
in 1972, and its current level of 32,000 tons in 1977. cal Industries Ltd conducted a feasibility study into the
processing of monazite to high-purity rare earth oxides,
Ilmenite was imported from India until the mid possibly at Narngulu, near Allied’s existing mineral sand
1950s. Since then it has been supplied by Western Mineral facilities. Following the acquisition of Allied Eneabba Ltd
Sands Ltd, from south-west Western Australia. Sulphuric by Renison Goldfields Consolidated Limited, the project
acid for the plant is shipped in from the 300,000 tons/year was abandoned.
acid facility operated by EZ Industries at Risdon. The
waste from the TiO2 plant is discharged into the sea via a In 1987, Rhone-Poulenc, one of the world’s leading
pipeline. chemical manufacturers, announced a proposal to build a
43

monazite-processing plant near Pinjarra in Western Austra­ will be constructed two to three years after stage one.
lia. This plant is to be developed in two stages. Stage one,
to be operational in 1989, is to build a plant to crack Currumbin Minerals on the east coast is planning
12,000 to 15,000 tons of monazite a year, and separate to produce rare-earth oxides from a small plant (capacity
out some of the individual light rare earths. Stage two will 5 00 to 2,000 tons a year) in late 1987.
involve processing the heavy rare earth fraction; this stage

REFERENCES

Australian Government, 1976 — Fraser Island Environ­ Collins, L.B., and Hamilton, T.M., 1986 — Stratigraphic
mental Inquiry: Final report Australian Govern­ evolution and heavy mineral accumulation in the
ment Publishing Service, Canberra. 268 p. Minninup shoreline, southwest Australia. In Austra­
lia: a world source of ilmenite, rutile, monazite and
Baxter, J.L., 1977 — Heavy mineral sand deposits of zircon. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metal­
Western Australia. Geological Survey of Western lurgy, Symposia series, 46, pp. 17-21.
Australia, Mineral Resources Bulletin: 10, 148 p.
Collins, L.B. and Baxter, J.L., 1984 — Heavy mineral­
Baxter, J.L., 1979 — Mineral sands. In Prider, R.T. (ed.) —
bearing strandline deposits associated with high
Mining in Western Australia. University of Western
energy beach environments, southern Perth Basin,
Australia Press (Perth), 304 p.
Western Australia. Australian journal of earth
Baxter, J.L. and Hamilton, 1981 — The Yoganup formation sciences, 31. p. 287-292.
and Ascot beds as possible facies equivalents.
Western Australia Geological Survey annual report, Collins, L.B., Hochwimmer, B. and Baxter, J.L., 1986 —
for 1980. p. 42 and 43. Depositional facies and heavy mineral deposits of
the Yoganup shoreline, southern Perth Basin. In
Bracanin, B.F., Clements, R.J. and Davey, J.M., 1980 — Australia: a world source of ilmenite, rutile,
Direct reduction technology — the Western titanium
monazite and zircon. Australasian Institute of
process for the production of synthetic rutile, Mining and Metallurgy, Symposia series 46. p. 9-15.
ferutil and sponge iron. Proceedings of Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy No. 275, p. 33-42. Fantel, RJ., Buckingham, D.A., and Sullivan, D.E., 1986 —
Brown, G.A., 1971 - Offshore mineral exploration in Titanium minerals availability - market economy
Australia. Underwater journal and information countries — a minerals availability appraisal. In­
bulletin, 3(4). p. 166-176. formation circular, United States Bureau of Mines,
No. 9061,48 p.
Brown, G.A. and MacCulloch, I.R.F., 1970 - Investigations
for heavy minerals off the East Coast of Australia. Fisher, N.H., 1949 — Cape Everard heavy mineral deposits.
Transactions of sixth annual Marine Technology Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophy­
Society conference and exhibition, Washington D.C. sics, Australia, Record 1949/30 (unpublished).
p.983-1001.
Gardiner, J.E., 1975 — Heavy-mineral beach sands along
Cassidy, P.W., Clements, RJ., Ellis, B.A. and Rolfe, P.R.,
the east coast of Australia. Bureau of Mineral
1986 - The AMC Narngulu synthetic rutile plant.
Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia,
In Australia: a world source of ilmenite, rutile,
Record 1975/92 (unpublished).
monazite and zircon. Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Symposia series 46, p. 123- Gardiner, J.E, 1975 — Heavy-mineral deposits along the
128. coast of Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia,
Connah, T.H., 1948. Reconnaissance survey of black Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geo­
sand deposits, Southeastern Queensland. Queens­ physics, Australia, Record 1975/42 (unpublished).
land government mining journal, 49. p. 561.
Gardiner, J.E, 1975 Heavy-mineral sands deposits along
Connah, T.H., 1961 Beach sand heavy mineral deposits the coast of Western Australia, Bureau of Mineral
of Queensland. Geological survey of Queensland Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia,
publication 302. 31 p. Record 1977/34 (unpublished).
44

Gardiner, J.E., 1955 - Beach-sand heavy-minerals deposits of Queensland Press, Brisbane).


of eastern Australia. Bureau of Mineral Resources,
Geology and Geophysics, Australia, Bulletin 28. Potter, I. and Co., 1968 - Report on ore reserves in 15
103 p. mining tenements held by Murphyores Inc. Pty Ltd
in Queensland. 18 p.
Jones, H., and Davies. P., 1979 — Preliminary studies of
Reaveley, B.J., 1980 - Synthetic rutile production at
offshore placer deposits, eastern Australia. Marine
Associated Minerals Consolidated Ltd, Capel, WA.
Geology, 30. p. 243-268.
In Woodcock, J.T. (ed.) - Mining and metallurgical
Lissiman, J.C. and Oxenford RJ., 1975 — Eneabba rutile­ practices in Australasia (The Sir Maurice Mawby
zircon-ilmenite sand deposit, WA. In Knight, C.L., memorial volume). Australasian Institute of Mining
(ed.) — Economic Geology of Australia and Papua and Metallurgy, Monograph 10. p. 782-784.
New Guinea: 1, Metals. Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Monograph 5, p. 1062-1070. Skulley, M., 1986 — Mineral sands. In Louthean, R. (ed.) —
Register of Australian mining 85/86. p. 103-117.
MacKay, N.J., 1956 — Occurrence of black sands on the Australian Business, (Perth).
north coast of Melville Island, Northern Territory.
Bureau of Mineral Resources Geology and Geophy­ Stackelberg, U. Von (Compiler), 1982 - Heavy mineral
sics, Australia, Record 1956/21 (unpublished). exploration of the east Australian shelf. Geolo-
gisches Jahrbuch Reihe D, Heft 56. 215 p.
McKellar, J.B., 1975 — The eastern Australian rutile pro­
vince. In Knight, C.L. (ed.) - Economic geology of Ward, J. 1957 — Occurrence of heavy mineral beach sands
Australia and Papua New Guinea: 1, Metals. Aus­ in the vicinity of Point Blaze, Northern Territory.
tralasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Mono­ Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophy­
graph series 5. p. 1055-1062. sics, Australia, Record 1957/88 (unpublished).

Mineral Deposits Ltd., 1977 — Environmental impact study Welch, B.K., Sofoulis, J. and Fitzgerald, A.C.F., 1975 —
report for proposed heavy mineral sand mining Mineral sand deposits of the Capel area, W.A. In
operations in the Newcastle Bight dunes, north of Knight. C.L. (ed.) — Economic geology of Australia
Stockton. and Papua New Guinea: 1, Metals. Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Monograph 5.
Mineral Deposits Ltd., 1978 — Environmental impact study p. 1070-1088.
report for proposed heavy mineral sand mining
operations in mining leases 165, 164 and 152, Woodcock, J.T. (ed.), 1980 - Mining and metallurgical
Bundaberg Rock Point area, south of Agnes Waters. practices in Australasia (the Sir Maurice Mawby
memorial volume), Monograph series No. 10.
Morley, I.W., 1981 - Black sands; a history of the mineral Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
sand mining industry in eastern Australia (University Chapter 20 — Mineral sands, p. 733-389.
4.2 BANGLADESH

History (1977). The annual technical reports of BAEC over the


last 15 years also contain detailed information on these
Beach sands containing heavy minerals were dis­ deposits.
covered in the Cox’s Bazar area of south-east Bangladesh in
1961 during a radioactive mineral survey conducted by the As shown in table 4.2.1, the mean value of the
Geological Survey of Pakistan. Preliminary work in 1967, heavy mineral content in all deposits is 21.9 per cent. Over
followed by exploration drilling in 1968, was carried out by 40 per cent of the heavy mineral fraction is composed of
the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission with the assistance minerals of commercial value, ilmenite being the dominant
of experts sponsored by the Australian Government. The component; others, in order of abundance, are garnet,
encouraging results of this work led to a systematic drilling zircon, leucoxene, rutile, magnetite, kyanite, and monazite.
programme in the region, which was continued by the The composition of the heavy mineral fraction at the 16
Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC) following major deposits in the Cox’s Bazar area is given in table 42.1.
independence in 1971. This work has resulted in the
delineation of 16 heavy mineral deposits in the Cox’s Bazar Little information is available on the precise chemi­
region. Other deposits have also been outlined in the Ganga cal composition of the individual heavy minerals. Analyses
delta area. of ilmenite, rutile and zircon from Moheshkhali Island as
determined by the Australian Mineral Development Labora­
In 1973 the Australian Government agreed to build tories (AMDEL) (in Howarth and others, 1977) are given in
a pilot plant at Cox’s Bazar to determine the viability of a table 42.2. The TiO2 content of the ilmenite is very low
future commercial-scale operation. This plant commenced (40 to 43 per cent), and represents grades at present unsale­
operations in 1975, and has produced as much as 300 tons/ able for pigment manufacture on the world market. The
year of heavy minerals, but generally it produces only a few rutile analyses also indicate a low TiO2 content (78 to 89
tons/year (Baribiswas, 1983). Bangladesh is now seeking per cent TiO2). The zircon, however, appears to be of
nonGovernment overseas assistance to develop a commer­ export grade, containing 64 to 66 per cent ZrO2. It is not
cial scale operation at Cox’s Bazar. known how accurate, or how representative of all deposits,
these analyses are. The US dollar value assigned to the
Geology and Resources heavy minerals by BAEC (in Baribiwas, 1983) indicates that
they are all of a commercial grade, including the ilmenite.
The 16 major deposits delineated in the Cox’s Bazar
region extend from Kutubdia Island in the north to Teknaf Resources
Bazar in the south, a distance of over 150 km (figure 42.1).
Of these, six occur along the main coast, three on small The heavy mineral resources contained in the 16
offshore islands, and seven on Moheshkhali Island (also major deposits are presented in table 4.2.3. A total of 17.6
spelt Moiskal, Maiskhal). million tons of mineralized sand containing some 3.5 Mt of
heavy minerals is known. Of this, 0.95 Mt is ilmenite.
Most of the deposits occur in back-dunes, forming Further testing and investigation of the deposits could
low linear ridges about 1 to 3 km inland from, or as fore­ expand these figures (Baribiswas, 1983).
dunes adjacent to, the present coastline. The dunes general­
ly are 3 to 5 m above sea level, fixed and stable, and sparsely Additional heavy mineral resources are known in
vegetated. The back-dunes are densely inhabited, the fore­ Bangladesh but none are of immediate economic interest.
dunes virtually uninhabited. The deposits vary from 200 m The Kuakata beach area in the Patuakhali district, and
to 3 km in length, 20 to 300 m in width, and are 1 to 5 m Monpura island in the Barisal district, both in the Ganga
thick, with overburden up to 4 m thick. The deposits are delta area together contain over 32,000 tons of ilmenite,
composed mainly of unconsolidated grey to light brown, 17,000 tons of garnet, and 5,000 tons of zircon (BAEC,
medium to fine-grained sands. The grain size of the heavy 1986).
minerals varies from 0.075 to 0.25 mm (Baribiswas, 1983;
Howarth and others, 1977). Production

A detailed description of the Moheshkhali Island Production in Bangladesh has been from a pilot
deposits, and brief descriptions of the Cox’s Bazar, Teknaf plant located at Cox’s Bazar and which began operation in
and Badarmokam deposits are given in Howarth and others 1975. Production levels have fluctuated widely since then,
46

Figure 42.1 Location of heavy mineral sand deposits, Bangladesh


47

Table 4.2.1 Mineralogical composition (percentage, by weight) of the total heavy fraction
from the deposits of the south-eastern coast of Bangladesh

Total %
Sl. Deposit heavy Zircon Rutile Ilmenite Leucoxene Monazite Magnetite
No. minerals
Main coast:
1. Badarmokam 23.3 12 0.80 23.0 4.38 1.20 250
2. Subrang 19.7 6.1 2.00 28.6 5.06 0.30 1.46
3. Teknaf 22.8 6.4 3.00 37.0 4.55 0.70 1.63
4. Shilkhali 17.8 6.8 220 35.4 224 0.80 0.63
5. Inani 24.1 6.2 2.30 30.3 0.25 055 3.16
6. Cox’s Bazar 18.0 25 0.75 175 1.14 0.22 3.61
Moheshkhali Island
7. Foreshore beach 42.2 5.98 3.17 46.02 2.42 0.11 0.69
8. Kutubjum 20.8 4.30 1.98 34.31 1.09 0.19 1.10
9. Fakiraghona 235 221 2.13 23.02 1.39 0.08 0.42
10. Fakirahata 21.8 5.70 4.00 22.90 3.80 0.20 0.10
11. Baraghoriapara 192 331 3.71 28.73 353 0.51 0.68
12. Panir chara 12.8 5.96 3.17 29.35 2.70 026 1.89
13. Hoanak (Nalbila) 7.3 1.41 2.15 19.66 0.97 0.05 1.78
14. Matarbari Island 22.4 522 1.94 32.61 2.46 0.13 3.78
15. Nijhum Dwip 25.0 2.13 0.44 13.47 0.08 0.02 455
16. Kutubdia Island 29.0 325 1.59 19.83 2.03 0.08 2.82

Mean value 21.9 4.29 221 27.61 2.38 0.34 1.93

Source: Baribiswas, 1983

Table 42.2 Chemical analyses of ilmenite, rutile at levels sufficient to test the material derived from the
and zircon, Moheshkhali Island, Bangladesh various deposits unless specific supply contracts are received
from local buyers (Baribiswas, 1983; BAEC, 1986).
Ilmenite Rutile Zircon
I II I II I II Future Developments

TiO2 40.3 42.8 88.9 78.1 1.23 1.37 The BAEC is now seeking foreign participation in
the development of a commercial-scale operation but is
Fe2O3 59.4 56.4 1.0 6.1 0.2 0.26
stipulating that there be no involvement of a foreign
Cr2O3 0.37 0.29 0.1 0.085 - -
Government, that is, only private corporations will be
ZrO2 - - - - 65.8 63.8 accepted. Apparently this requirement has recently pre­
SiO2 1.02 1.03 4.9 4.8 32.0 32.0 cluded involvement by some Japanese companies with
MnO 121 1.28 - - - - Government interest (BAEC, personal communication,
S - — — 6.0 - - 1986).

Source: Howarth and others, 1977 Baribiswas (1983) of BAEC has outlined in some
detail a proposed small-scale operation to be located at
I Panir Chara
Cox’s Bazar. The projected financial returns of this pro­
II Fakirhata
posed operation are based on heavy mineral commodity
prices that appear unrealistically high compared with the
ranging from zero output between 1978 and 1980, to over prevailing prices. Careful market research on the various
300 tons/year of combined valuable heavy minerals in commodities will be required to determine the economic
1983. In the 1985-1986 financial year, the production was viability of any proposed operation.
magnetite 1.5 tons (99 per cent purity), ilmenite 0.25 tons
(99 per cent purity), and zircon 0.35 tons (90 per cent There are no reports of heavy mineral concentrates
purity). The general policy of the BAEC is to operate only imported into Bangladesh (Chin and others, 1986).
48

Table 4.2.3 Summary of heavy mineral resources in the deposits along


the south-eastern coast of Bangladesh
(tons)

Heavy
Sand
Deposit mineral Zircon Rutile Ilmenite Leucoxene Monazite Magnetite
tonnage
tonnage

Main Coast
1. Badarmokam 1,765,000 411,000 4,932 3,288 94,530 18,002 4,932 10,275
2. Subrang 347,558 68,582 4,184 1,372 19,614 3,470 206 1,001
3. Teknaf 1,939,580 442,291 28,306 13,230 163,170 20,124 3,045 7,209
4. Shilkhali 2,756,828 489,714 33,300 10,774 173,360 10,970 3,918 3,085
5. Inani 729,286 175,476 10,880 4,036 53,170 439 965 5,545
6. Cox’s Bazar 5,119,000 920,000 23,000 6,440 161,000 10,488 2,024 33,212
Moheshkhali Island:
7. Foreshore beach 276,560 119,480 7,145 3,788 54,961 2,891 131 824
8. Kutubjum 577,980 106,240 4,568 2,104 36,440 1,158 202 1,169
9. Fakiraghona 273,940 68,460 1,513 1,458 15,746 952 55 288
10. Fakirahata 409,120 96,750 5,515 3,870 22,157 3,677 194 97
11. Baraghoriapara 888,440 181,770 6,017 6,744 52,168 6,416 927 1,236
12. Panirchara 1,595,410 204,390 12,264 6,479 60,091 5,519 531 3,863
13. Hoanak (Nalbila) 92,780 7,120 100 153 1,400 69 4 127
14. Matarbari Island 69,030 15,215 794 295 4,962 374 20 575
15. Nijhum Dwip 379,337 96,348 2,052 424 12,978 77 19 4,384
16. Kutubdia Island 404,646 119,997 3,900 1,908 23,796 2,436 6 3,384
Total: 17,624,495 3,522,833 148,470 66,363 949,543 87,062 17,179 76,274

Source: Baribiswas, 1983

REFERENCES

Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, 1986 — Beach tional. United States Bureau of Mines, p. 1005-
Sand Exploitation Centre, Annual technical report, 1009.
July 1985-June 1986.
Howarth, W.J., and others, 1977 — Mineral sands study,
Baribiswas, M.A., 1983 — Evaluation of the scientific and Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. The Australian Mineral
technical activities of Beach Sand Exploitation Development Laboratories (AMDEL), Report No.
Centre, Cox’s Bazar. Bangladesh Atomic Energy 1168,81 p.
Commission, Report No. 1.
MacDonald, E.H., 1976 — Final project report, Cox’s Bazar
Chin, E., and others, 1986 — The mineral industry of other pilot plant project. Unpublished report for BAEC
areas of the Far East and South Asia. In Minerals and the Australian Development Assistance Agency.
yearbook, 1984, vol. III - Area reports: interna­
4.3 BURMA

The only reported production of detrital heavy such as ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and monazite may also be
minerals in Burma is from tin-tungsten operations. In associated with the tin. In Malaysia and Thailand these
recent years Burma has produced about 3,000 tons/year of heavy minerals are retrieved from the ‘amang' dumps (the
combined tin-tungsten concentrates. Most of this is appa­ waste dumps produced during the tin-concentrating pro­
rently derived from alluvial operations; an increasing cess). As far as is known, this is not being done in Burma.
amount is being won from offshore operations. Almost all No information is available on the possible heavy mineral
major deposits are located in the Tanasserim district in the resources, but tonnages are not likely to be very large.
far south of the country. Tin-mining operations in Burma
are owned and operated by a Government corporation, the There is no recorded imports of mineral sand
Mining Corporation No. 2. products (Kinney, 1986).

It is possible that minor quantities of heavy minerals

REFERENCE

Kinney, G.L., 1986 — The mineral industry of Burma. In international. United States Bureau of Mines,
Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III — Area reports: p. 157-162.
4.4 CHINA

History by the Japanese during the Second World War when there
was a great demand for iron. Small-scale mining occurred
The presence of heavy-mineral-bearing beach sands again between about 1960 and 1970, with production
in China has been known since ancient times. The first averaging about 1,000 tons/year, but there is no report of
mining of the sands, excluding that for gold and excluding any recent iron sand mining in Taiwan Province (Ho, 1953;
that in Taiwan Province, occurred in the late 1950s on United Nations, 1970).
Hainan Island (Guangdong Province). Farmers conducted
the mining by hand and processing was carried out at The Japanese started mining zircon in 1941 and
Sai-Lao (Shalao) and Wuzhaung (Wuchang). Initial capacity monazite in 1944 along the west coast of Taiwan Province.
at both plants was a few thousand tons/year of ilmenite but Mining ceased at the end of the Second World War, by
is now 20,000 tons/year of ilmenite. Over the years facili­ which time about 200 tons of zircon and 2 tons of monazite
ties to recover small quantities of zircon, monazite, and had been produced. In 1951 and 1952 investigations of the
rutile have been added and two additional smaller plants mineral sands along the west coast were carried out by the
have been established on the island. Taiwan Monazite Prospecting Bureau, and in later years by
the Atomic Energy Council of Taiwan (Ho, 1953).
Exploration of heavy-mineral sands on the mainland
of Guangdong Province also occurred in the late 1950s.
Mining started on the beaches in the early 1960s with dry Geology
processing plants being established at five localities: The important heavy mineral deposits occur in the
Haikang, Zhanjiang, Dianbai, Xitou and Yangjiang. The south of China, with most of the production of heavy
capacity of each plant was approximately 15,000 tons/year minerals, excluding gold and tin, coming from Guangdong
of ilmenite plus minor quantities of other heavy minerals. and Guangxi Provinces. Shandong and Liaoning Provinces
There has been no subsequent expansion at these plants. in the north are probably important producers. Substantial
Another important area of mineral sand mining was resources occur also in Taiwan Province.
developed in 1966 in the Beihai area of Guangxi Province
with a capacity of about 35,000 tons/year of ilmenite. In 1. Guangdong Province (figures 4.4.1 and 4.4.2)
addition, a 1,000 tons/year synthetic rutile plant was Extensive areas of heavy mineral sands occur on the
constructed in the mid 1970s. In total, there are now ten coastline of this province, both on the mainland and on
known heavy-mineral-processing plants in China, all located Hainan Island.
in Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, with additional
plants probably in operation in Shandong and Liaoning Hainan Island is about 300 km long and 180 km
Provinces in northern China. Several other areas, mainly wide and is some 25 km from the mainland. Mineral sands
in southern China, have recently been outlined as contain­ are distributed along 300 km of coastline on the east and
ing potential economic resources. Gold and tin placer south of the island where 31 separate mineralized zones
deposits are currently exploited elsewhere in China. have been recognised, of which 12 are reported as being
large, six medium, and the remainder small. The mineralized
China established a TiO2 pigment industry in the beaches are typically backed by a single major dune, up to
early 1960s, but total production capacity has been rela­ 20 m above sea level. Behind this dune the area is common­
tively small, about 15,000 to 20,000 tons/year. Production ly swampy. On some parts of the coastline mineralized
of titanium metal began in 1960 at three plants, with a total dunes may occur up to 3 km inland. (Australian Depart­
capacity of 2,000 to 2,500 tons/year (Adams, 1984). Rare ment of Trade and Resources, 1982.)
earth processing facilities have been in operation at several
localities for some years. Feedstock for all of these indus­ The dominant heavy mineral on Hainan Island is
tries is derived from hardrock deposits, as well as from ilmenite, with minor quantities of zircon, monazite, rutile,
mineral sand deposits. cassiterite, anatase, magnetite, chromite, and tourmaline
present.
The mining of mineral sands in Taiwan Province also
has a long history. Magnetite-bearing placers were first The deposits and processing facilities are owned by
exploited on the north coast of the island, but mining the Chinese Government, and operated by the Guangdong
lasted only a few years. Mining operations were renewed Metallurgical Industries Bureau. This Bureau is a relatively-
51

Important heavy mineral deposit

Mineralized beach sands

Figure 4.4.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, China

GUANGXI PROVINCE GUANGDONG PROVINCE

HONG KONG

Ma/or heavy mineral deposit


with processing plant

Major undeveloped heavy mineral deposit


HAINAN
Mineralized beach sands
ISLAND
Province boundary

Figure 4.4.2 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces
52

powerful automonous provincial organization ultimately Local commune farmers have been the major sup­
reporting to the National Ministry of Metallurgical Indus­ pliers of feedstock to the Wuzhaung plant in recent years.
tries. At the Wuzhaung operation the commune farmers pass the
Currently most production is from four areas, each sand over a simple wooden sluice to separate out a rough
with its own processing plant. These are: Wuzhaung, Sai- heavy mineral fraction which is sun-dried. A team of five
Lao, Xinglong, and Nanyang (see figure 4.4.1). The people can produce about 2 tons of rough concentrate a
Wuzhaung plant located about 12 km south of the city of day. This concentrate, which contains about 35 per cent
Wanning is based on the largest and richest concentrations TiO2, is bought by the local government at a fixed price
of heavy minerals, which occur in and below the frontal per kilogram and then transported by boat or truck to the
dune with some shallow mineralization occurring 500 or Wuzhaung processing plant, up to 50 km away. Tailings
600 m inland. The major deposit, which is mined by from the processing plant are disposed of in the ocean
mechanized equipment, is roughly 18 km in length, typical­ adjacent to the site. There are no environmental restric­
ly 2,400 to 2,800 m in width and 8 to 10 m deep, and tions and there is no objection by the local population to
possibly covers several roughly parallel strandlines. The this form of waste disposal.
mineralization may extend to a total depth of 30 m. The Wuzhaung ilmenite contains approximately
The concentration of heavy minerals in the 51 per cent TiO2 (table 4.4.2). The zircon averages 65 per
Wuzhaung area is reported as ilmenite 15.36 kg/m3; zircon cent ZrO2, the monazite 5 to 7 per cent ThO2 and 51 per
3.0 kg/m3 ; and monazite 1.03 kg/m3, converting to ilme­ cent rare earth oxides; and rutile contains 87 to 89 per cent
nite 1.0 per cent, zircon 0.2 per cent, and monazite 0.07 TiO2.
per cent. Rutile grade is approximately 0.05 per cent. Capacity at the Wuzhaung plant is quoted as:
The measured resources of the area in 1981, based ilmenite 20,000 tons, zircon 2,000 tons, monazite 200 tons,
on an early 1960s drilling programme with subsequent pro­ rutile 100 tons, cassiterite 1 ton, and gold 1 kg although in
duction substracted, are given as ilmenite 1.8 million tons recent years production has been at about half these levels.
(Mt), zircon 291,000 tons, monazite 9,300 tons, and rutile (Australian Department of Trade and Resources, 1982)
7,000 tons (see table 4.4.1). Indicated resources are esti­ The Sai-Lao operation (Qionghai county), located
mated as 325 Mt of heavy mineral sands, representing about about 60 km to the north of Wuzhaung, has the same plant
3.2 Mt of ilmenite (Australian Department of Trade and capacity and current operating levels as the Wuzhaung
Resources, 1982; United States Bureau of Mines (USBM), plant. The rough concentrate is supplied entirely by the
1982). farmers’ collectives from five mineralized zones in the area

Table 4.4.1 Hainan Island - reserves, grades and recent production

Ilmenite Zircon Monazite Recent production


Tons Grade Per cent Tons Tons
Grade Grade Average annual tonnage produced
Area of primary TiO2 in of kg/m3 of kg/m3
ore kg/m3 ilmenite zircon monazite
ilmenite ilmenite zircon monazite

Baoding (Wuzhaung) 1,777,000 15.36 51.15 291,106 3.0 9,253 1.03 10,000 500 100

Sai-Lao 740,000 29.7 51.48 67,000 2.52 2,539 n.d. 10,000 60

Nanyang 520,000 41.9 6,500 0.79 3,000 200 70

Xinglong 5,000 500 35

Puqian 400,000 553

Not
Changan 11,044,000 33.3 52.91 190,348 1.04
producing

Total Hainan 21,000,000 1,800,000 60,000 27,532a 1,221 a 276a

Note: There are also reserves of rutile, 20,000 tons and chromite, 27,000 tons.
Source: Australian Department of Trade and Resources, 1982
a 1980 production figures
53

Table 4.42 Hainan Island ilmenite concentrate Mt, zircon 1.8 Mt, monazite 60,000 tons, chromite 27,000
(percentages) tons, and rutile 20,000 tons (Australian Department of
Trade and Resources, 1982).
Wuzhaung Sai Lao
The coastline of mainland Guangdong Province also
has extensive areas of heavy-mincral-bcaring sands. There
TiO2 51.15 51.48
are five processing plants located at Kaikang, Zhanjiang,
FeO 34.88 33.99 Dianbai, Xitou and Yangjiang in a 300 km coastal stretch in
Fe2O3 9.14 the vicinity of Zhanjiang.
Cr2O3 0.047 - The deposits are all located along the relatively flat
V2O5 0.046
coastal plain, either on beaches or river Oats, and lie several
-
metres above sea level. They are 2 to 10 km in length, 200
MnO 0.38 1.46 to 800 m in width, 2 to 5 m thick and in many places
As 0.001 consist of several roughly parallel strandlines. Ilmenite is
SiO2 0.79
the dominant heavy mineral, with minor constitutents
including zircon, monazite, rutile, and others. Quartz is
A12O3 0.75 the major gangue mineral.
MgO 0.12
Total resources in the Zhanjiang district are esti­
CaO 0.31 mated as 3.0 Mt (measured) and 7.0 Mt (indicated), based
ZrO2 0.14 on drilling surveys carried out mainly during the 1960s.
The breakdown of resources into beach and river deposits,
Nb2O5 0.039
and into areas supplying each of the five processing plants
Ta2O5 0.0027 is not known (USBM, 1982).
P 0.018 The five processing plants began operation in the
late 1950s and early 1960s but precise details on the indi­
Source: Australian Department of Trade and Resources, 1982. vidual plants are not known. However, the largest plant
has a capacity of 20,000 tons/year of ilmenite, and a
which may extend up to 3 km inland. The zones are 1 to 5 typical plant has the following capacity: ilmenite 15,000
km long, 170 to 840 m wide and 1.5 to 6 m thick. The tons/year (52 per cent TiO2 ), zircon 600 tons/year (65 per
average heavy mineral content is 2 per cent ilmenite, 0.2 cent ZrO2), monazite 75 tons/year (62 per cent REO), and
per cent zircon, minor monazite and rutile. rutile 50 tons/year (90 per cent TiO2). In recent years
production from each plant has been considerably less than
Measured resources in the five mineralized zones as capacity, averaging about 7,000 tons/year ilmenite, possibly
shown in table 4.4.1 are: ilmenite 0.74 Mt, zircon 67,000 because of the low level of local demand (USBM, 1982).
tons, monazite 2,500 tons, and rutile about 1,700 tons.
Indicated resources for the whole area supplying the pro­ Rough mineral concentrate is supplied to the plant
cessing plant are estimated at 170 Mt containing about 3.4 by communal farmers from up to 50 km away.
Mt of ilmenite (Australian Department of Trade and
Resources, 1982; USBM, 1982). An analysis of the ilmenite 2. Guangxi Province (figure 4.4.2)
concentrate from Sai-Lao is given in table 4.4.2. Guangxi Province, located just west of Guangdong
Few details are available on the other two operations Province, is also well endowed with heavy minerals. There
on Hainan Island, at Xinglong (30 km inland from Wu- arc two areas of major interest, the Beihai area and the Xun
zhaung) and Nanyang (location unknown), where produc­ Jiang river area.
tion in recent years has been about 5,000 and 3,000 tons/ The deposits in the Beihai area arc located on the
year respectively. Large resources of ilmenite, estimated at coastal plain between the city of Beihai and the town of
over 10 Mt at approximately 2 per cent grade, occur at Qinzhou about 100 km to the north-west along the coast.
Changan (10 to 15 km inland from Wuzhaung), but have Sand mined by farmers' collectives from these deposits is
not been developed because much of the area is under transported to a processing plant located at Beihai. The
cultivation. The Puqian area on the north-cast coast has deposits occur as both beach and river sands with the latter
substantial resources of zircon ore, 400,000 tons at an
reportedly accounting for two thirds of the plant feedstock.
average grade of 0.4 per cent, but these arc not yet
developed. Total demonstrated resources of heavy minerals The river-sand ilmenite is mined from the low-lying
on Hainan Island (table 4.4.1) arc reported as: ilmenite 21 banks of three major rivers, the Lin Jiang, the Qin Jiang,
54

and the Lien Jiang, as well as their tributaries. These Table 4.4.4 Beihai processing plant -
deposits which contain 1 to 2 per cent heavy minerals can monazite concentrate Analysis
be several kilometres in length, up to a kilometre in width,
and 2 to 5 m thick. Overburden, where present, consists Percentage
of minimal amounts of soil with scattered growth of coastal
grass and plants. In addition to ilmenite, minor amounts REO* 61.86
of zircon, monazite and rutile are present but details of ThO2 6.31
precise concentrations are not available. The ilmenite V 0.012
contains 46 to 48 per cent TiO2.
P2O5 30.00

No accurate resource data are available for the SiO2 1.23


Beihai area. One beach sand deposit was reported to Al2O3 0.14
contain 60,000 tons of ilmenite, another 270,000 tons Fe2O3 0.62
of ilmenite. One river deposit reportedly contained over ZrO2 0.13
1 Mt of ilmenite (USBM, 1982).
CaO 0.16

Provincial officials have indicated that on the basis (Ta, Nb)2O5 0.009
of limited drilling the resources in the area could total y2o3 2.22
millions of tons of ilmenite. An estimate by the USBM
based on very limited information is approximately 4 Mt Source: USBM, 1982. *: Total rare earth oxides.

Table 4.4.3 Beihai processing plant — of ilmenite in beach sands and another 4 Mt of ilmenite
ilmenite concentrate analysis in river sands (USBM, 1982).
The Beihai processing plant, owned and operated
Ilmenite Ilmenite
(Beach sand) (River sand)
by the Chinese Government, started as a small facility in
(%) 1966. Its current capacity is approximately: ilmenite
35,000 tons/year, zircon 450 tons/year, monazite 7 0
TiO2 55.04 53.50 tons/year, and rutile 50 tons/year. Production levels in
Total Fe 29.17 32.89 recent years have been considerably lower than this, about
FeO 23.80 37.15 20,000 tons/year of ilmenite. Analyses of ilmenite con­
Fe2O3 15.25 5.75
centrates produced at Beihai from both beach and river
sands are given in table 4.4.3, and of monazite concen­
CaO 0.057 0.044
trate in table 4.4.4. In addition to these products the
MgO 0.10 0.10 plant also has the capacity for production of 1,000 tons/
Mn 1.55 150 year of synthetic rutile (88 to 90 per cent TiO2) from
A12O3 0.73 0.42 1,800 tons of ilmenite concentrate (USBM, 1982).
SiO2 1.44 0.71
An important undeveloped ilmenite deposit occurs
S 0.0027 0.0080 in the eastern part of Quangxi Province at 23°30' N:
P 0.070 0.032 110°50' E on the Xun Jiang River (Si River?), near the
ZrO2 0.43 0.20 town of Teng Xian, 275 km east of the provincial capital
V2O5 0.11 0.14 of Nanning. Although it reportedly covers an area of
8 sq km the exact dimensions of the deposit are not known.
Cr2O3 0.047 0.045
The average thickness of the heavy-mineral-bearing unit is
Nb2O5 0.18 0.16
about 5 m, and the heavy mineral content (mostly ilmenite)
Sn 0.01 0.01 is about 5 to 7 per cent. The TiO2 content of the ilmenite
As 0.0067 0.0025 is in the 44 to 46 per cent range. Measured reserves based
Pb 0.0095 0.0067 on a 1975 drilling programme are 4.0 Mt of ilmenite. There
Ni 0.0048 0.0044 are additional indicated reserves but their extent is un­
0.036 0.030 known (USBM, 1982).
Zn
Cu 0.017 0.0021 Guangxi provincial officials have indicated an
Cd 0.00064 0.0006 interest in developing the deposit, but this is dependent on
increased demand for ilmenite as existing Chinese ilmenite
Source: USBM, 1982 capacity is currently not fully utilized. It is assumed that
55

if mining does proceed it will be more mechanized and will the bars (Noakes, 1968). Data on the heavy-mineral-grade
have a larger processing plant than at existing operations sand resources in 11 of the major sand-bars are given in
(USBM, 1982). tables 4.4.5 and 4.4.6. Bars 5, 7 and 8 appear to offer the
best potential for mining as they have the highest grades
Ilmenite, monazite, and magnetite are also reported and are relatively close to the coast (Noakes, 1968). Al­
in economic amounts in the alluvial tin deposits in the though small-scale mining using manual labour has occurred
north east of Guangxi Province. in the past there has not been any significant production
from these deposits. A problem facing any future mining
3. Taiwan Province (figure 4.4.1) operations is the frequent occurrence of typhoons. These
Taiwan Province, a 350 km long island located are most frequent during the period July to November but
about 200 km off southern mainland China, has abundant they can also occur at any time during the year. Other
heavy-mineral-bearing sands. Magnetite has been mined factors militating against the mining of the sand-bars are the
since 1918, and monazite and zircon were both mined metallurgical problems connected with the treatment of
during the Second World War. However, there has been no the black monazite, the unusually low TiO2 content of the
reported mining since about 1970. ilmenite (about 30 per cent in analysed samples), and in­
clusions of magnetite in some of the zircon (Macdonald,
A major resource of heavy minerals is the offshore 1971).
sand-bars which occur over a distance of 50 km stretching
northwards off the south-west coast from the city of Substantial concentrations of monazite, zircon,
Taiwan. It has been estimated that 85 per cent of the total ilmenite, and rutile occur on the shores both north and
resources of heavy minerals in Taiwan Province is distri­ south of the area fringed by the offshore bars, but not
buted in these bars (Anon., 1968). The sands contain immediately behind them. The beaches of Kantoutso and
monazite (black and yellow varieties), zircon, rutile, magne­ Tunghsiao to the north of the bars and a beach at Hsinking
tite, ilmenite, and other heavy minerals, with quartz the to the south have economic potential but no resource
dominant gangue mineral. estimates are available (Noakes, 1968). Heavy minerals are
also present in river sands of south-west Taiwan Provinces
No information is available on the dimensions and but these concentrations are not considered to be economic
precise form of the sand-bars which extend from 1 to 10 (Ho, 1953).
km off the coast. It appears that the bars farthest from the
coast have the largest tonnages of heavy minerals but with In the north of Taiwan Province iron-bearing sands
marginal economic grades, whereas those closer to the coast occur. Known reserves amount to about 500,000 tons of
have smaller tonnages with higher economic grades. The heavy minerals, with an average grade of about 6.5 per
highest grades generally occur within the top one metre of cent heavy minerals with grades ranging between 5 and

Table 4.4.5 Summary data on heavy mineral deposits in offshore sand-bars of south-western Taiwan Province

Volume of Weight Weight % of heavy-mineral fraction


No. Name of bar deposits % heavy
Monazite Zircon Ilmenite Rutile
(cu. metres) minerals
Black Yellow

1. Haifengtao Not now exposed


2. Peitungshanchow 5,000,000 1.24 11.6 1.0 25.9 22.7 2.3
3. Tungshanchow 8,850,000 1.66 11.4 0.4 18.0 16.5 2.3
4. Waisantingchow 3,040,000 0.92 10.7 0.5 16.7 18.9 1.8
5. Putaichow 198,000 5.56 12.4 1.1 25.0 22.0 2.5
6. Haishanchow No information
7. Wangyehchow 960,000 2.60 11.1 1.0 24.4 23.1 5.0
8. Chingshankangchow 765,000 5.10 12.3 0.7 18.4 20.4 2.1
9. Wangtzeliaochow 550,000 1.43 10.2 0.7 22.8 21.4 3.1
10. Tingtouechow 18,000 2.00 8.9 0.7 20.9 19.5 52
11. Foulun 230,000 0.88 10.6 0.9 24.9 22.1 3.2

Source: Noakes, 1968.


56

Table 4.4.6 Recoverable heavy mineral concentrates from present known reserves in
offshore bars of south-western Taiwan Province

Recoverable mineral concentrates (tons)


No. Name of Rar Monazite
Black Yellow Zircon Ilmenite Rutile

1. Haifengtao
2. Peitungshanchow 5,650 500 13,650 11,900 1,215
3. Tungshanchow 13,700 500 21,700 19,850 2,770
4. Wai.santingchow 2,550 120 3,970 4,500
5. Pu taichow 1,160 105 2,430 2,060 234
6. Haishanchow
7. Wangyehchow 2,180 200 5,160 4,900 1,060
8. Chingshankangchow 4,100 200 6,080 6,740 694
9. Wangtzcliaochow 800 60 1,785 1,680 243
10. Tingtoucchow 38 3 89 83 22
11. Foulun 22 2 52 46 7

Total 30,200 1,690 54,916 51,759 6,245

Source Noakes, 1968

14 per cent; the main constituent is titanomagnetite which zircon production (approximately 15,000 tons/year in
assays between 3 and 7 per cent TiO2, and 58 to 60 per recent years) has come from this area.
cent Fe. The major deposits in the Tanshui area in the
very far north of the island occur at Kinshan, Chunchoutse, Titanium-bearing placer deposits are reported in the
Sanchih, and Hsinchuanke. The reserves, grades, and Pulandian area in the southern part of Liaoning Province
chemical analysis of these and other deposits in the area and in the Jin Xian area near Jinzhou. It is possible that
are given in Macdonald (1971). Production of about these deposits are being mined and are supplying rutile to
10,000 tons/year of titaniferous magnetite was under­ a small titanium sponge metal plant located at Fushun
taken during the Second World War, and again between (Furukawa, 1984; Adams, 1984).
about the late 1950s and the late 1960s. These operations
Sichuan (Szechwan) Province in inland China is rich
mined out most of the high-grade beaches. No recent
in rutile sands, and reportedly contains most of China’s
mining or any development plans in the area have been
rutile resources (Furukawa, 1980). In Jilin Province in
reported.
northern China titanium-bearing placer deposits are
reported in the Shangin-Gou area (Furukawa, 1984).
4. Other Provinces
Fujian Province in southern China has several zircon and
Heavy-mineral sand deposits occur in other provinces gold-bearing placer deposits along its coastline. There is
in China but these are mainly worked for gold, silver, tin, no information available on any of these deposits and it
tungsten or diamonds, which are not specifically included appears unlikely that any significant development has
in this report. yet occurred.

The Shandong Province on the central-east coast of


Production and Processing
China has rich placer deposits, several of which arc already
being mined or have economic potential. These deposits There are 10 known heavy mineral processing
occur chiefly on the coastal plain, usually on the beaches plants in China, excluding gold and tin plants. All of these
but also in the Quaternary alluvial terraces. The 350 km arc in the south of the country, nine in Guangdong Pro­
stretch of coastline between Rizhao and Rongchcng on the vince and one in Guangxi Province, and all began operation
south of Shandong Peninsula has several zircon and mag­ in the period between the late 1950s and the mid 1970s.
netite deposits. It is possible that the bulk of China’s The capacity of each plant is given in table 4.4.7. The
57

Table 4.4.7 Chinese heavy mineral processing plantsa capital of Guangxi Province, has been upgraded into
— production capacities titanium slag. The product contains over 80 per cent
(tons/year) TiO2 but details of the quantity produced are not available.
Some of the slag is used in the production of titanium
Deposit Ilmenite Zircon Rutile Monazite sponge metal, and some may be used in the production
of TiO2 pigment. Significant expansion of titanium slag
Zhanjiang
production is forecast if plans for a new TiO2 pigment
districtb 75,000 3,000 250 375
plant in the region go ahead (Adams, 1984).
Wuzhaung 16,000 750 70 100
Sai-Lao 15,000 600 50 75
Synthetic rutile is produced at two localities in
Xinglongc mainland China and at another locality in Taiwan Province.
8,000 800 - 50
c One plant located at Beihai in Guangxi Province, near to
Nanyang 5,000 300 100 the heavy-mineral processing plant, produces about 1,000
Beihai 30,000 400 40 70 tons/year of synthetic rutile with 88 to 90 per cent TiO2.
Totald 150,000 6,000 400 800 The process used is similar to that developed by Australia’s
Associated Mineral Consolidated Ltd. Another synthetic
rutile plant is located at Pingguo near Nanning. The pro­
Source: USBM. 1982; Australian Department of Trade and
Resources, 1982. duct here contains about 90 per cent TiO2, the quantity
a All deposits are in Guangdong Province, except Beihai,
produced is unknown but is estimated to be larger than at
which is in Guangxi Province. Beihai (Adams, 1984). In Taiwan Province, a Benilite-type
b Includes five processing plants located at Dianbai, Haikang, synthetic rutile plant was commissioned at Kaohsiung in
Xitou, Yangjiang and Zhanjiang. 1975 by the Taiwan Alkali Corp.. In recent years this
c Estimated.
plant has been operating at well below its capacity of
30,000 tons/year and may have closed down (Adams,
Figures may not add up to the total on account of rounding.
1984).
There is additional zircon and rutile production from unknown
plants, possibly in Shandong and Liaoning Provinces. China has been involved in the production of TiO2
pigment since the mid 1960s but little is known about the
largest plant is at Beihai (Guangxi Province) which has a industry. The plants are thought to be small-scale, general­
capacity of 30,000 tons/year of ilmenite, and minor quan­ ly in the order of a few thousand tons/year capacity, and
tities of other heavy minerals. In addition to these ten are believed to be distributed among the main Chinese cities
known plants, there are other zircon processing facilities of Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou (figure 4.4.1 and
at an unknown locality or localities in the country, possibly 4.4.2). The total output is believed to be about 15,000 to
in Shandong Province where significant resources of zircon 20,000 tons/year (Lynd and Hough, 1980; Adams, 1984).
are known. In addition one or more rutile plants may be There is no TiO2 processing plant in Taiwan Pro­
in operation in Liaoning Province. vince but a TiO2 pigment finishing plant is located at
Chinsahn near Kaohsiung. This plant, with a capacity of
Combined production capacity of all the known
12,000 tons/year, treats unprocessed TiO2 pigment sup­
plants is estimated as: ilmenite 150,000 tons/year, zircon
plied by Ishihara of Japan (Adams, 1984).
6,000 tons/year, monazite 800 tons/year, rutile 400 tons/
year, and minor quantities of other minerals, such as gold Production of titanium metal in China began in
and tin. Actual annual production in recent years has been 1960. There are now three sponge metal plants in opera­
only about 60 per cent of total capacity, with ilmenite tion at Fushun (Liaoning Province), Shanghai (Shanghai
production being about 90,000 tons/year. Total zircon Province), and Zunyi (Guizhou Province), with a combined
production from both the known and unreported plants capacity of 2,000 to 5,000 tons/year. The Zunyi plant uses
has been estimated at about 15,000 tons/year (Adams, titanium feedstock from the Panzhihau hardrock mine
1986). (Sichuan Province) and the other two plants use a rutile
feedstock derived from unknown sources, possibly beach
China also produces ilmenite from the Panzhihau sand deposits in Liaoning Province.
hardrock titanomagnetite deposit in Sichuan (Szechwan)
Province (USBM, 1982). Total Chinese ilmenite produc­ Most titanium sponge metal produced in China is
tion from both mineral sands and hardrock deposits in further processed into metal ingots and sold on the local
recent years as recorded by USBM and the British Geolo­ market. In 1980 and 1981 exports of sponge metal from
gical Survey has been 140,000 tons/year. China averaged 1,000 tons/year, mainly to the United
In recent years a growing proportion of China's States; no exports have been recorded since then (Adams,
ilmenite, probably from one plant located at Nanning, 1984; Furukawa, 1984; Chin, 1986).
58

China is a major world producer of rare earth Panzhihau hardrock titanomagnetite mine (Sichuan Pro­
products. Most of the raw material comes from the Baiyun vince) where the Chinese Government has announced
Obo mine, a hardrock iron/rare earth mine near Baotou in plans for a 300,000 tons/year TiO2 pigment plant.
Nei Mongol Province (figure 4.4.1). The deposit is the
There are plans to establish two large-scale sponge
largest rare earth deposit in the world and contains 90 per
cent of China’s resources. The major processing plants for plants in China. A 10,000 tons/year plant is to be estab­
rare earth products are located at Shanghai, Baotou, and lished near the Panzhihau hardrock mine (Sichuan Province)
Lanzhou (Gansu Province). The Lanzhou plant has a and a 5,000 tons/year plant is to be established in the
capacity of 9,000 tons/year of rare earth chloride. Minor Guangdong-Guangxi Province area using local mineral
production also occurs in Guangdong Province, probably sands as the feedstock.
the only Chinese plant to use monazite feedstock derived
from mineral sands. Rare earth-metal processing facilities Trade
are also located in Taiwan Province (Chin, 1986; Australian China has been a net importer of TiO2 pigment
Department of Science, 1986). since the mid 1950s. Imports reached a peak of nearly
China is ranked third in the world in total consump­ 9,000 tons in 1982 but have since declined. Japan, the
tion of rare earth products, although no precise figures are major supplier, had 80 per cent of the market in 1983;
available. Consumption is limited largely to electronics other suppliers are the United States, the Federal Republic
and metallurgical uses (Chin, 1986). China has been a of Germany and France. China also exports a minor
world pioneer of new applications of rare-earths and has quantity of TiO2 pigment, about 2,000 tons/year, mainly
undertaken particular studies on rare-earth additives in to Japan.
fertilizers.
Taiwan Province is a major importer of TiO2 pig­
No information is available on the processing of ment, importing 20,000 to 30,000 tons/year in recent
15,000 tons of zircon produced annually in China. No years, mainly from Japan and the Federal Republic of
exports of zircon are reported, which suggests that it is used Germany (British Geological Survey, 1986). A small
locally, probably in the refractory industry. quantity is re-exported from the province, mostly to the
United States. (Adams, 1984; British Geological Survey,
Future developments 1986).

A 50,000 tons/year synthetic rutile plant has been Some 2,500 tons of rare earth compounds were
proposed for Fuzhou, the capital of Fujian Province. The exported from China in 1984; details are not available.
source of ilmenite for the plant is not known but may be Rare earth metal exports in 1983 were about 120 tons,
existing mining operations in Guangdong Province or other mostly to the United States. Exports of rare earth metal
deposits in the area (Adams, 1984). from Taiwan Province have been about 1,000 tons/year,
mainly to Indonesia and Hong Kong. China imported
A 10,000 tons/year sulphate-route TiO2 pigment 1,500 tons of rare earth metal in 1983, all from Japan.
plant is expected to be established near Pakhoi (Guang­ Taiwan Province imported about 100 tons in 1983, all
dong Province) or Changkiang (Guangxi Province). An from France and Japan (Chin, 1986; British Geological
ambitious long-term plan is under consideration for the Survey, 1986).

REFERENCES

Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan­ Anon., 1984 — Advances in coastal and offshore surveys for
cial Times Information Ltd. London 244 p. placer deposits in China. In Proceedings of the
twenty-first session, of CCOP. United Nations
Adams, W.T., 1986, - Zirconium and hafnium. In Minerals
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Yearbook, 1984, vol. 1: Metals and minerals. Pacific.
United States Bureau of Mines, p. 991 -999.
Australian Department of Science, 1986 - Rare earths:
Anon., 1968 - Preliminary investigation on exploration for report on a visit to the People’s Republic of China
and mining of heavy minerals from sands in Taiwan. by an Australian delegation under the leadership of
In Report of the fourth session, of CCOP. United Mr. N. Jackson, 87 p. (unpublished).
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the
Far East. Australian Department of Trade and Resources, 1982 -
59

Report of the Australian mining and minerals survey Yearbook, 1978-1979, vol. 1: Metalsand minerals.
mission to Hainan Island, People’s Republic of United States Bureau of Mines, p. 933-947.
China. Australian Government Publishing Service,
Canberra, 1982. Macdonald, E.H., 1971 Detrital heavy minerals. United
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Ear
British Geological Survey, 1986 - World Mineral Statistics East, CCOP Technical bulletin, vol. 5, pp 32-47.
1980-1984: production: exports: imports (Key­
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey). Noakes, L.C., 1968 Reconnaissance of heavy mineral
deposits in beach sands of Taiwan, (a province of
Chin, E., 1986 The mineral industry of China. In the People’s Republic of China). In Fourth session
Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. 11 Area reports: of CCOP. United Nations Economic Commission
international. United States Bureau of Mines, for Asia and the Ear East.
p. 193-216.
Tan, Q. and others, 1984 Marine geology and quaternary
Furukawa, T., 1980 China sets titanium output at 1000- geology, vol. 4, No. 4. Institute of Marine Geology,
2000 tons/year. American Metal Market, 88, No. Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources.
101,5 p. People’s Republic of China.
Furukawa, T., 1984 - In China, the emphasis is on process­
United Nations, 1970 Survey of world iron ore resources.
ing and refining. American Metal Market. Titanium
Occurrence and appraisal. Report of a panel of
special issue, 16 p. exports appointed by the Secretary-General.
Ho, C.S., 1953 - Mineral Resources of Taiwan. In The Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United
geological survey of Taiwan. Taipei, Taiwan (a pro­ Nations, New York.
vince of the People’s Republic of China), p. 146-
United States Bureau of Mines, 1982 Deposit summaries,
150,203-211.
foreign titanium properties, minerals availability
Lynd, L.E. and Hough, R.A., 1985 - Titanium. In Minerals system. Reports prepared by Kaiser Engineers, Inc.
4.5 INDIA
reaching 200,000 tons/year and rutile 7,000 tons/year in
History
recent years.
Monazite was discovered in 1909 in the beach sands
at Manavalakurichi in the state of Travancore (now part of
Tamil Nadu state). The deposit was first worked in 1911; Geology (figure 4.5.1)
the monazite was exported in Germany where it was used
in the production of gas lamp mantles. In 1922 the extrac­ 1. Quilon deposit
tion of ilmenite from the sands commenced, following the This deposit occurs in the Quilon district of the
growth of the TiO2 pigment industry in the United King­
state of Kerala, in the south-west of India. It extends
dom and the United States. Ilmenite production expanded
over 23 km between the villages of Kayankulam, Chavara,
rapidly, and within a few years India had established itself
and Neendekara, a few kilometres north of the large town
as the world’s major producer. In 1931 India accounted for
of Quilon (8°53' N : 76°36' E) (see fig. 4.5.2). The deposit,
over 80 per cent of the world’s ilmenite production with an
which is a former barrier beach, that is, an elevated offshore
output of some 300,000 tons/year.
sand-bar, lies in front of the mouths of two large rivers, the
Pallikkal River and the Punalar River (also known as
The area around Quilon, Kerala state became im­
Kallada river). Where there was formerly deep water
portant for mineral sand production in about 1933. By this
between the bar and the original mainland there are now
time zircon was also being produced and in 1936 the
lagoons and low-lying flats which are flooded during the
production of rutile began (Viswanathan, 1957). India
rainy season (Gillson, 1959).
maintained its position as the world’s major ilmenite
supplier during the 1930s. In 1940 it produced some Black sands containing up to 80 per cent heavy
243,000 tons of ilmenite or about 7 0 per cent of world minerals are present on the modern-day beach, the enrich­
production. Ilmenite production reached a peak of 346,000 ment resulting from wave action. The black sands extend
tons in 1958. However, by then other countries, particular­ to 3 m below low tide mark. Behind the beach are grey-
ly the United States, had expanded production and India’s coloured dunes containing up to 40 to 50 per cent heavy
production in that year was only 20 per cent of the world minerals, and rising to 7 m above sea level. Buried under­
total. Indian production of rutile, zircon, and monazite in neath these dunes are old beach deposits as rich in heavy
this period was relatively minor. minerals as the modern-day beach deposits. The extent of
these buried deposits has not been fully determined (Lynd
In 1959 one of the major producing companies,
and Lefond, 1975). The average width of the deposit is
Hopkins and Williams (a subsidiary of Laporte) shut down
240 m; the average grade is quoted as 18 per cent heavy
its Chavara (Quilon) operations (Adams, 1984). In addi­
minerals (Clarke, 1983).
tion, production by the other two major producers, Tra­
vancore Minerals and F.X. Pereira, fell sharply, so that total The khondalite-migmatite complexes of late Pre­
ilmenite production decreased to a low of 13,000 tons in cambrian age which occupy a large part of the south of
1964. The reasons for this decline included a tightening of Kerala state have been suggested as the source of the
control on mineral exports by the Kerala state government, heavy minerals (Soman, 1985).
the development of new ilmenite sources in Australia and
Canada, and the undesirable properties of the Indian The average composition of the heavy mineral
ilmenite (high chromium and ferric iron content) (Stamper, suite is shown in table 4.5.1; the average composition of the
1964). ilmenite, rutile, and zircon is given in table 4.5.2. The
ilmenite has a relatively high chromium content (0.12 per
In 1965, the Indian Government-controlled com­ cent Cr2O3) and a high ferric iron content (24.18 per cent
pany, Indian Rare Earths (IRE), acquired control of Tra­ Fe2O3), both undesirable properties for pigment manufac­
vancore Minerals, and shortly after this F.X. Pereira ceased ture.
production completely. In the early 1970s a company
owned by the Kerala provincial government, Kerala Metals The Department of Atomic Energy has estimated
and Minerals Ltd (KMML) started operations in the Quilon the resources of the deposit as 17.53 Mt tons ilmenite, 1.27
area (Adams, 1984). Production of mineral sands in India Mt rutile, 1.29 Mt zircon, and 0.12 Mt monazite (Roy
has increased over the past decade with ilmenite output 1973).
61

The boundaries and names shown on


this map do not imply official acceptance
or endorsement by the United Notions

Figure 4.5.1. Location of heavy mineral sand deposits, India

Figure 4.5.2. Location of the Quilon deposit, Kerala state


62

Table 4.5.1. Composition of heavy-mineral suites in Table 4.5.2. Chemical analyses of Indian heavy minerals
major Indian deposits
(percentages) Quilon “MK” Chatrapur Ratnagiri

Quilon1 Chatrapur3 4 Ilmenite


Mineral “MK"2 Ratnagiri
60.60a 54.20a 42.57d
TiO2
Ilmenite 68 70 66 major
Fe2O3 24.18 14.20
Leucoxene 2 - - minor 9.25 26.60
FeO
Rutile 7 5 3 minor A12O3 0.96 1.25
Zircon 6 9 3 minor MnO 0.39 0.40
Monazite 1 5 4 minor Cr2O3 0.12 0.07
v2o5 0.15 0.16 up to 0.5
Sillimanite 14 2 23 —
MgO 0.89 1.03
Garnet - 9 - -
p2o5 0.21 0.12
Magnetite - - - major ZrO2 0.90 0.80
SiO2 0.40 0.68
1 - Clarke, 1983
REE Trace 0.12
2 - Upadhyaya, 1973 h2o 2.00 0.34
3— USBM, 1982
4- Siddiquie and others, 1984 Rutile

TiO2 93.04b 96.2C


Two companies are mining the deposit: Indian Fe2O3 3.36
Rare Earths (IRE), a company controlled by the Federal SiO2 0.58
Government, and Kerala Metals and Minerals Ltd (KMML), ZrO2 0.64
a company wholly-owned by the Kerala state government. A12O3 0.65
Both companies have their processing plants at Chavara.
IRE is the larger of the two producers with 130,000 tons/ Zircon
year ilmenite capacity compared to 27,000 tons/year 65.0b 65.6C
ZrO2
ilmenite for KMML (see table 4.5.5 in Summary of Indus-
SiO2 30.3
try).
Fe2O3 0.86
2. ManavalakurichiDeposit (figure 4.5.1) TiO2 0.7
A12O3 2.51
This deposit is located around the village of Mana­
valakurichi (8°09' N : 77°19' E) in the Kanyakumari dis­
a Upadhyaya, 1973.
trict of Tamil Nadu state in the south-west of India. It is
b Clarke, 1983.
near the large town of Colachel, approximately 100 km
south the Quilon deposit (fig. 4.5.1). It was the first C USBM, 1982.
mineral sand deposit to be mined in India, with production d Siddiquie and others, 1984.
of monazite in 1911.
which lies at about the 70 m contour level (Gillson, 1959).
The deposit is situated in a cove with cliffs over The ultimate sources are the Precambrian basic gneisses
15 m high, between the headlands at Multam and Colachel. further inland.
It is approximately 8 km long, and consists of buried seams
of rich black sand at or just above the present sea level The grade of the older beach deposits varies from
(Lynd and Lefond, 1975). Mining also occurs on the beach 17 per cent to 23 per cent heavy minerals, the composition
surface which is replenished annually \vith 50,000 tons of of the suite is shown in table 4.5.1. Chemical analysis of
black sand by monsoonal storms (Anon., 1985). The grade the ilmenite (table 4.5.2) shows that it has a lower TiO2
of this material is 75 to 80 per cent heavy minerals. Dunes content and a lower chromium content than the Quilon
which also contain heavy mineral concentrations occur ilmenite (Upadhyaya, 1973). Manavalakurichi rutile has
behind the beach and rise to a height of over 10 m. an average 93 per cent TiO2 content (Adams, 1984).
The ilmenite and other heavy minerals are derived IRE estimates that the deposits contain some 4.7
from an intermediate source — an eroded laterite terrace Mt of ilmenite, and 0.08 Mt of rutile (Indian Bureau of
63

Mines, 1985). More extensive resources are present nearby, 4. Ratnagiri district (figure 4.5.1)
for example in the area between Lipuram (8°07' N :
77°33' E) and Vattokotta (8°08' N : 77° 19' E). The Ratnagiri district is part of the Konkan coast in
Maharashtra state on the central-west coast of India. It
IRE, the only company mining the deposit, has a contains extensive resources of heavy minerals in both
dry separation plant near Manavalakurichi with a capacity onshore and offshore deposits. The beach deposits were
of 65,000 tons/year ilmenite, 1,500 tons/year rutile, 5,000 discovered in 1935 and several organizations have since
tons/year zircon, 3,500 tons/year monazite, and 4,500 undertaken investigations to evaluate them and the off­
tons/year garnet (Adams, 1984). shore deposits. The district has considerable economic
potential but to date there has been no development
apart from minor local production.
3. Chatrapur deposit (figure 4.5.1) The onshore beach deposits extend over a 40 km
This deposit is located at the small village of Gopal- coastline extending from Rill in the north to Gaokandi in
pur (19° 18' N : 84°57' E), 22 km east of the large town of the south (latitudes 17° 14' N to 16°48' N). The black
Berhampur, in the Ganjam district of Orissa state. It con­ ilmenite-rich beach sands occur in three different forms
sists of Quaternary aeolian sand dunes which form a belt of within the white sands: thin laminae seams 10 to 20 cm
fixed dunes 1,500 m wide and 19 km long; the maximum thick alternating with white sand, and massive beds up to
elevation of the dunes is 17 m above sea level. There are 1.5 m thick. Currently only the massive beds arc of eco­
two main transverse dunes, a coastal dune and an inland nomic significance. Heavy mineral scams are usually covered
dune, separated by lower internal dunes. by a thin layer of barren white sand (Raju and Rao, 1978).
In addition low-grade deposits occur in dunes behind many
The high-grade heavy mineral sands are generally of the beaches.
above the water table which is approximately at sea level. Ilmenite, magnetite, and titaniferous magnetite
Below this level, lower-grade sands occur but are not mined. are the dominant constituents, with minor amounts of
The average grade of heavy minerals in the sand is 14 per rutile, leucoxene, hematite, and zircon. The minerals
cent, lower than the south-west Indian deposits, and con­ are generally medium- to fine-grained and sub- to well-
sists of ilmenite 9.5 per cent, rutile 0.5 per cent, zircon rounded, with many of the ilmenite grains coated with a
0.4 per cent, monazite 0.64 per cent, and sillimanite thin film of iron oxide. The ilmenite content of the sand
3.3 per cent. The composition of the heavy mineral suite is varies from 17 to 74 per cent (Siddiquic and others, 1984).
given in table 4.5.1. The major gangue minerals are quartz The white sand is primarily composed of calcareous shell
(approximately 80 per cent), garnet (not recovered), and fragments and quartz.
minor amphiboles. The ilmenite assays 50.8 per cent TiO2,
the rutile 96.2 per cent TiO2, and the zircon 65.6 percent The most important beach deposits arc Rill,
ZrO2 (USBM, 1982). Malgund, Nevra, Rewadi, and Kalbadevi (Anon., 1973a).
Total onshore resources of the Ratnagiri area have been
Proven resources of the Chatrapur deposit over an estimated as 4 Mt of ilmenite (Siddiquie and others, 1984).
area of 2,850 ha total 240 Mt of ore containing approxi­ During the period from 1975 to 1980, the National
mately 23 Mt ilmenite, 1.2 Mt rutile, 1.0 Mt zircon, 1.5 Mt Institute of Oceanography conducted a detailed offshore
monazite, and 7.9 Mt sillimanite. An additional 4,000 ha survey of a 130 km stretch in the area. Ilmenite-rich
of mineralized dune sand has been identified and, assuming heavy-mineral sands were located in water depths of 10
similar grades as in the proven area, a further 350 Mt of to 15 m, covered by a clay unit up to 3 m thick; they
inferred recoverable resources are available (USBM, 1982).
extended out to approximately the 20 m water-depth
contour. The heavy-mineral sand unit is about 6 m thick,
The deposit is owned by IRE. Construction of the
varying from 2 to 10 m; thicker units arc associated with
mining and processing plant started in 1979 but because of
buried ancient river channels and local sand lenses. The
various delays, particularly in the supply of equipment,
sands arc often underlain by a barren pebbly sand unit
production did not commence until late 1986. The planned
which overlies the basalts of the Deccan Trap (Siddiquie
production capacity of the plant is 220,000 tons/year il­
and others, 1984).
menite, 10,000 tons/year rutile, 2,000 tons/year zircon,
4,000 tons/year monazite, and 30,000 tons/year sillimanite. The offshore sands contain up to 90 per cent
A plant to produce 100,000 tons/year synthetic rutile heavy-minerals, ilmenite exceeding 60 per cent (table
using the total ilmenite output, as well as an acid regenera­ 4.5.3). Magnetite which may be titanomagnetite or con­
tion plant to produce up to 80,000 tons/year of micron-size tain fine growths of ilmenite is the other major component
iron oxide, has been constructed in the area. of the heavy-mineral assemblage. Also present arc minor
64

Table 4.5.3. The range (in percentages) of heavy minerals, in India. The more important of these are listed below
magnetite and nonmagnetic fractions and ilmenite by state and district.
in the offshore placers of the Konkan coast,
Maharashtra, India Tamil Nadu state

Thanjavur district : Coleroon river mouth to Sirkazhi


Hay Heavy Magnetite Non­ Ilmenite
(11°15' N : 79°45' E); a distance
minerals magnetic
fractions of 12 to 14km ilmenite, monazite,
zircon, garnet.
Jaigad
17 17' N:73°14'E 20-70 10-40 1-10 1-30 : Karikal coast, particularly near
Ambwah 5-40 1-71 3-15 3-30
Tranquebar(11°21'N :79°51'E),
ilmenite, magnetite, garnet.
Varvade 15-82 1-10 1-8 10-64
Kalbadevi 7-91 1-38 5-60 3-52 Tiruneveli district : Several localities from the mouth
of the Vaippar river (9°02' N :
Mirya 5-72 3-48 1-51 1-35
78°15' E) to Vijayapati (8°
Ratnagiri 1-78 1-59 1-50 1-22 11' N : 77°44' E) a distance of
Pawas 1-25 1-3 7-80 1-20 100 km; includes localities at
Purnagad 1-91 1-23 1-10 1-58 Arsada, Taruvaikkulam, Ambasa-
mudram, Nanguneri, Veppaladai,
Vijaydurg
16°32'N:73°21'E 140 1-07 1-9 1-21
Nambiyar and Tambraparni river
mouths, Kallar river mouth and
Source: Siddiquie and others, 1984. Kurtankuli; mainly ilmenite,
magnetite, garnet.

Minor deposits are also located in the following districts:


quantities of rutile, zircon, kyanite, hematite, anatase, Ramanathapuram, ilmenite; North
leucoxene, augite, epidote, zoisite, apatite, tourmaline, Arcot, ilmenite; South Arcot,
topaz, hornblende, chromite, and limonite. The TiO2
ilmenite; Tiruchirapalli, ilmenite,
content of the ilmenite varies from 42 to 57 per cent.
rutile; Kanyakumari, rutile, zir­
Leaching tests indicate that the ilmenite is suitable for
con, monazite; Coimbatore, zir­
synthetic rutile production (Siddiquie and others, 1984).
con; Palk strait, ilmenited.
The heavy mineral sands on the sea floor cover Kerala state
an area of 96 sq km. Assuming an average ilmenite con­
centration of 10 per cent, and a minimum thickness of Quilon district : Pamba river bed near Edanadu
1 m, the resources of ilmenite arc estimated to be 12.5 Mt. (9°20' N : 76°36' E), ilmenite,
Sands present under the clays extend over a much larger magnetite.
area and increase the total area to 436 km2. The total Cannanore district : Valarpattanam river mouth (11°
resources of ilmenite could therefore be extensive 55'N : 75°18'E), ilmenite
(Siddiquie and others, 1984).
: Alikkod (11°55' N : 75°20' E),
The extensive resources both onshore and offshore ilmenite.
in the district have high economic potential, and offer Kozhikode district : Beypore river mouth, ilmenite.
good possibilities for development. Maharashtra Minerals
Ltd had considered working part of the onshore deposits Trichur district : Choughat coast near Blandgad
in the 1970s but development plans were shelved following (10°33' N : 76°02' E) and Veli-
the announcement of expansion plans by IRE and KMML yangod (10°43' N : 75°56' E),
in other parts of the country. No other development plans ilmenite.
for these deposits have been announced. Others : Palghat district, zircon, monazite;
Trivandrum, monazite.
5. Other deposits Orissa state

In addition to the four major areas described, Puri district : Puri (19°45' N : 85°25' E),
many other occurrences of heavy mineral sands arc known ilmenite, monazite.
65

Chilka lake, landward shore, il­ Rajasthan : Ajmer, Kishengarh, Nagaur, Pali,
menite, monazite. Sikar, all ilmenite; Alwar, rutile;
Degana, tungsten.
Gundelba (19°56' N : 86° 17' E),
ilmenite, monazite. Uttar Pradesh Mirzapur, ilmenite.

- Cuttack district Wheeler lslands(?) (20°44' N : West Bengal Bankura, ilmenite; Purulia,
87°03' E), ilmenite, magnetite, ilmenite, rutile.
garnet.
Laccadive Islands ilmenite.
- Mayurbhanj district: unlisted locality, ilmenite, rutile.

— Koraput unlisted locality, monazite, zircon. Summary of resources

There are other unlisted heavy mineral sand occur­ Available information on the identified resources
rences in the following districts: of heavy minerals in India’s major deposits is given in
table 4.5.4.
Andra Pradesh : Nellore, ilmenite; Srikakulam, il­
menite; Visakhapatnam, ilmenite, Resource figures quoted for the whole country
monazite, zircon; Kham man, zir­ vary widely depending on the source. The USBM Mineral
con. Commodity Summaries (1986) quote total Indian de­
monstrated resources of heavy minerals as 63 Mt ilmenite,
Bihar Bhagalpur, ilmenite; Singhbhum,
5 Mt rutile, 3 Mt zircon, and the equivalent of approxi­
ilmenite, rutile.
mately 6 Mt monazite. However, demonstrated resources
Gaya, monazite; Hazaribagh, quoted by the United Nations Economic Commission for
monazite, zircon. Africa (1981) are much larger at 104 Mt ilmenite and 7.6
Mt rutile (4.35 Mt contained Ti). Inferred resources
Gujarat Surat, ilmenite; Sabarkantha,
quoted by this source are 267 Mt ilmenite and 19 Mt rutile.
monazite.
No total Indian resource figures are available for garnet or
Jammu and Kashmir : Jhelum Valley, ilmenite. sillimanite, detrital magnetite, and chromium.

Madhya Pradesh Bastar, monazite; Sidhi rutile.


Production
Mysore Raichur, ilmenite; Bangalore, mo­
nazite. The current and the planned production capacities
at the Quilon, Manavalakurichi, and Chatrapur deposits are
Punjab Narnaul, rutile. given in table 4.5.5.

Table 4.5.4. Identified resources of major Indian deposits


(million tons)

Ilmenite Rutile Zircon Monazite Sillimanite

Quilon (demonstrated) 17.53 1.27 1.29 0.12 NA


Manavalakurichi (MK) 4.7 0.8 0.15 NA

Chatrapur (demonstrated) 22.8 1.2 1.0 1.5 7.9


(inferred) 33.2 1.8 1.4 2.2 11.6
Ratnagiri (inferred)

onshore 4.0 NA NA - -
offshore 12.5 NA NA — —

Total 94.7 5.1 3.8 3.8 19.5

Sources: Roy, 197 3; USBM, 1982; Siddiquie and others, 1984; Indian Bureau of Mines, 1985

NA: Not available.


66

Table 4.5.5. Current and planned production capacity


('000 tons/year)

Ilmenite Rutile Zircon Monazite Sillimanite Garnet

Current Capacity:
Quilon IRE 130.0 6.0 9.0 0.4 3.0

KMML 27.0 2.4 1.8 minor -

MK IRE 65.0 1.5 5.6 3.5 — 4.5

Total 222.0 9.9 16.4 4.0 3.0 4.5

Additional Planned Capacity:


Chatrapur IRE 220.0 10.0 2.0 4.0 30.0 —

Quilon KMML 75.0 7.5 5.0

Total 295.0 17.5 7.0 4.0 30.0

Total Indian capacity: 517.0 27.4 23.4 8.0 33.0 4.5

Source: Adams, 1984; USBM, 1982.

The production of heavy minerals in India over the are given in table 4.5.7.
period 1981 to 1984 is shown in table 4.5.6.

Table 4.5.6. Heavy mineral production 1981-1984 Production of ilmenite and rutile over the past few
(tons) years has been approximately 60 per cent of the total
installed capacity, and zircon and monazite production
1981 1982 1983 1984
close to full capacity. Production levels are expected to
increase substantially when the IRE Chatrapur operation
Ilmenite 162,514 152,938 134,476 140,000 and the KMML expanded Chavara (Quilon) operation
Rutile 6,710 5,782 5,500 6,000 achieve full production.
Zircon 12,400 10,483 11,395 12,000
Total cumulative production (in tons) of heavy
Monazite 3,704 4,000 4,000 4,000
minerals in India as recorded in USBM Mineral Yearbooks
Garnet 1,539 2,249 735 2,000
is as follows:

Source: Kinney, 1986 Ilmenite 8,316,000 1925-1982


Production data of ilmenite and rutile by states and Rutile 106,000 1943-1984
districts, compiled by the Indian Bureau of Mines (1985), Zircon 192,400 1933-1985

Table 4.5.7. Production of ilmenite and rutile, 1978 to 1982


(tons, by states and districts)

State 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

Ilmenite
Kerala/Quilon 118,873 112,403 123,876 115,941 107,535
Tamil Nadu/Kanyakumari 53,668 50,506 60,680 72,887 69 518
Rutile
Kerala/Quilon 5,734 5,209 5,450 7,256 6,454
Tamil Nadu/Kanyakumari 1,373 1,433 1,741 1,496 1,412

Source: Indian Bureau of Mines, 1985.


67

Processing of trisodium phosphate is produced as a by-product. The


company’s Thorium Division at Trombay produces 110
India primarily produces mineral sand concentrates,
tons/year thorium nitrate plus minor amounts of thorium
with relatively little additional processing. The current
oxide and thorium pellets (Clarke, 1983; Griffiths, 1984).
extent of and future plans for the production of upgraded
products by each of the major companies involved is IRE plans further processing of mineral sand pro­
summarized below. ducts from its Chatrapur operation in Orissa state.
A 100,000 tons/year synthetic rutile plant is completed
Dhrangadhra Chemical Works Ltd but not fully operational. The plant, using the Benilite
process, is expected to upgrade the operation’s entire
This company has a 25,000 tons/year synthetic ilmenite production (220,000 tons/year). A chloride-
rutile plant at Sahupuram, near Tiruneleveli, 120 km east route TiO2 pigment plant is planned, depending on the
of Quilon in Tamil Nadu state. The plant, which was successful operation of the synthetic rutile plant; its capaci­
commissioned in 1970, was the first in the world to pro­ ty will be approximately 30,000 tons/year. A rare earth
duce synthetic rutile. The Benilite process used by the chloride plant and a 3,000 tons/year titanium sponge metal
company treats ilmenite from the IRE Quilon deposit with plant either in Orissa or Tamil Nadu state are under con­
hydrochloric acid derived as a by-product in the company’s sideration (USBM, 1982).
local caustic soda plant (Coope, 1982). The synthetic
rutile produced contains 90 per cent TiO2 . A total analysis Mishra dhatu Ngam
is given in Industrial Minerals (Anon., 1973b). In recent
years the plant has been operating at below 50 per cent This company, which is part of Midhani Industries,
capacity (Adams, 1984). owns a 900 tons/year titanium metal ingot plant at
Hyderabad in the state of Andhra Pradesh. The plant
Travancore Titanium Products started operating in 1982 and uses sponge metal feedstock
imported from Japan, China, and the Soviet Union (Adams,
The company, owned by the Kerala state govern­ 1984).
ment, has a sulphate-route TiO2 pigment plant at Tri­
vandrum. The plant, which came onstream in November Local consumption and trade
1950 with an initial capacity of 1,800 tons/year has been
expanded to its present capacity of 30,000 tons/year. Cur­ India was a major exporter of mineral sands in the
rently, the company uses the entire ilmenite output of first half of the century the world’s major exporter of
KMML. Sulphuric acid is derived from a wholly-owned monazite in the 1910s and 1920s, and of ilmenite from the
1920s to the 1940s. Since then, its importance as a mineral
on-site plant. Wastes from the operations are discharged
sand exporter has declined, with only relatively minor
by pipeline into the Arabian Sea.
amounts of synthetic rutile, zircon, and garnet exported.
However, recent expansion programmes by the major
Kerala Minerals and Metals Ltd (KMML)
companies could result in India once again becoming an
Previously KMML carried out no further processing important exporter of various mineral sand products.
of the mineral sand products derived from its Chavara Since 1981, when exports of approximately 10,000
(Quilon) operations. However, in the 1980s the company tons of ilmenite were recorded, no exports have been re­
constructed a 30,000 tons/year Benilite-type synthetic corded in the USBM Minerals Yearbooks, or in the British
rutile plant at Chavara, which is expected to use 50,000 Geological Survey statistical summary. Possibly ilmenite is
tons/year of ilmenite from its own expanded mining and being stockpiled in readiness for the commissioning of
processing facilities. The company has also built a 22,000 synthetic rutile plants in Kerala and Orissa states. The
tons/year chloride-route TiO2 pigment plant, which will entire ilmenite production of KMML has been consumed
use much of the company’s planned natural and synthetic in the Trivandrum TiO2 pigment plant. IRE formerly
rutile production. In addition, KMML is also considering exported all but 30,000 to 40,000 tons of its total 130,000
building a sponge metal plant (Adams, 1984). tons/year ilmenite production, mainly to Japan, and
Western Europe, with minor amounts to the Republic of
Indian Rare Earths (IRE) Korea. Local consumption of its ilmenite was by
IRE has a rare earth recovery plant at Udyogamadal Dhrangadhra (’hemical Works Ltd for use in its synthetic
in Kerala state. The plant processes a maximum of 4,000 rutile plant, and by Travancore Titanium Products for its
to 5,000 tons/year monazite to produce up to 4,600 tons/ TiO2 pigment plant (Clarke, 1983).
year rare earth chloride, 78 tons/year rare earth fluoride, India, a former importer of natural rutile, became
and 60 tons/year rare earth oxide. About 5,000 tons/year self-sufficient in the late 1960s. At present, the entire
68

Indian output of rutile is consumed locally by welding-rod metal ingot plant owned by Mishra dhatu Ngam at
manufacturers (Adams, 1984). The synthetic rutile pro­ Hyderabad (Adams, 1984).
duced by Dhrangadhra Chemical Works Ltd has traditional­
Zircon is exported, primarily to Japan, by IRE on
ly been exported to the United States. Most of the planned
synthetic rutile production (130,000 tons/year total) of a sport market basis. KMML zircon is taken up by a num­
IRE and KMML is initially planned for export, but some ber of local manufacturers for use in ceramics, foundries
may later be taken up by the TiO2 pigment plants planned and refractories (Clarke, 1983). In 1978, India imported
by each company. 56 tons of zirconium metal but, according to the USBM
Minerals Yearbooks for 1979 to 1984, no metal has been
Traditionally, India has imported much of its imported.
requirements for TiO2 pigment, mainly from the United
Kingdom, and also from the United States, Australia, and India is not recorded as an exporter of monazite or
Japan. Most recent statistics are for 1981 and show TiO2 rare earth elements in USBM or BGR statistical summaries.
pigment imports of both rutile and anatase types as 9,400 In 1981 it imported over 1,118 kilograms of rare earth
tons (Kinney, 1986). If the proposed development plans metal (including alloys), mainly from Japan.
of IRE and KMML proceed, India should become a net
The current small IRE output of sillimanite is
exporter of TiO2 pigment by the late 1980s.
consumed locally. Approximately 3,000 tons/year of
India imports titanium sponge metal from Japan, garnet is exported to Japan, with smaller amounts to the
China, and the Soviet Union for use at the 900 tons/year Republic of Korea and Europe (Clarke, 1983).

REFERENCES

Adams, R., 1984 — Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan­ Kinney, G.L., 1986 — The mineral industry of India. In
cial Times Information Ltd., London. 244 p. Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III: Area reports —
international. United States Bureau of Mines,
Anon., 1973a — Geology and mineral resources of Ratnagiri p. 383-404.
district (Maharashtra). Mineral Research. Director­
ate of Geology and Mining. Government of Maha­ Lynd, L.E., and Leford, SJ., 1975 - In Lefond, S.J.
rashtra, Nagpur. (ed.) Industrial minerals and rocks (Nonmetallics
other than fuels), p. 1149-1204. American In­
Anon., 1973b — Dhrangadhra set to expand beneficiated
stitute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum
ilmenite capacity. Industrial minerals, No. 71,
Engineers Inc. 4th edition. Mudd series.
35 p.
Raju, M.S. and Rao, B.R., 1978 — Some aspects of beach
Anon., 1985 - Industry in action. Indian mineral sands
and offshore placers of Ratnagiri area, west coast of
find. Mining Journal, February 8, 98 p.
India. Indian minerals, vol. 32(1), p. 59-62.
British Geological Survey, 1986 — World mineral statistics
Roy, B.C., 1973 - Indian mineral resources, industries and
1980-1984: production: exports: imports (Key­
economics. p. 99-96, 110, 124-125. Editions
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey).
Indian. Calcutta.
Clarke, G.M., 1983 — The industrial minerals of India.
Siddiquie, H.N. and others, 1984 — Superficial mineral
Industrial minerals, No. 191, p. 35-36.
resources of the Indian Ocean. Deep-sea Research.
Coope, B., 1982 — Titanium minerals — focus on produc­ Part A. Oceanographic research papers. Vol. 31
tion. Industrial minerals, No. 178, p. 32-33. (6-8A). Marine science of the north-west Indian
Ocean and adjacent waters, p. 763-812. Pergamon
Gillson, J.L., 1959 - Sand deposits of titanium minerals. Press. Oxford.
A world survey of processes as illustrated by Indian
deposits. Mining engineering, April 1959, p. 421- Soman, K., 1985 — Origin and geologic significance of the
429. Chavara placer deposit, Kerala. Current science,
Vol. 54(6), p. 280-281.
Griffiths, J., 1984 - Rare earths - attracting increasing
attention. Industrial minerals, No. 199, p. 22-23. Stamper, J.W., 1964 — Titanium. In Minerals yearbook,
1963, vol. 1: Metals and minerals (except fuels).
Indian Bureau of Mines, 1985 - Indian yearbook, 1982. United States Bureau of Mines, p. 1133-1154.
69

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 1981 United States Bureau of Mines, 1982 Minerals availability
p. 267-269. United Nations, New York. system deposit report. Orissa Chatrapur deposit
India, 10 p.
Upadhyaya, G.S., 1973 — Prospect of sponge titanium
production in India - a technological study. Journal Viswanathan, P., 1957 Beach sands in Travancore. The
of mines, metalsand fuels, August, 1973. p. 237-238. mining magazine, November 1957, p. 313-315.
4.6 INDONESIA

History 20 km. The deposits vary greatly in width, from a few


metres to several hundred metres. The thickness of the
Alluvial gold has been known and worked by the deposits is more uniform, generally about 2 to 4 m.
native peoples for centuries, primarily in Java and Kaliman­
tan. Alluvial tin mining is probably the next oldest mining Titanomagnetite is the major mineral in all these
activity in the country, dating back to the beginning of the deposits. The titanium may be contained in the crystal
18th century on Bangka Island; mining on Belitung Island lattice or may occur as fine ilmenite grains and lamellae
started in 1851. During the period 1936-1938 monazite within the magnetite. Hematite is also often associated
was produced as a by-product of tin mining and the country with the titanomagnetite. Pyroxene and quartz are the
ranked second in the world after India in monazite produc­ two most common gangue minerals with plagioclase and
tion. amphiboles common in some deposits. The source of the
heavy minerals is the Tertiary and Quaternary andesitic and
Although several other heavy-mineral deposits were basaltic volcanics in the mountains of southern Java.
reported in Indonesia, little attention was given to them.
Since the late 1960s some reconnaissance investigations of Most of the deposits contain about 20 per cent
these deposits have been carried out by the Geological magnetic fraction; some deposits, such as the Cilacap and
Survey of Indonesia followed by more detailed surveys in Jampang Kulon deposits, range up to 50 per cent magnetic
the more promising areas. Heavy-mineral-bearing sands fraction. The final concentrates from these sands generally
were found in all the major islands, but the area of greatest contain 57 to 60 per cent Fe and 11 to 13 per cent TiO2 .
interest was the south coast of Java. Iron-bearing sands Only limited resource data for the deposits are
around Cilacap were in fact first investigated in 1939 by the available. Estimates given in table 4.6.1 range from about
Geological Survey, and later investigations were undertaken 4 million tons (Mt) of concentrate for the smaller deposits,
with the help of organizations in the Federal Republic of to over 20 Mt of concentrate for the largest deposits. A
Germany and Japan. resource figure of 6 Mt at cut-off grade 37 per cent Fe is
given by Macdonald (1971). Total iron sand resources for
Mining was started at Cilacap in 1971 by the State
the whole of the south Javan iron sand province are pro­
mining company P.T. Aneka Tambang. Current output is
bably about 100 Mt of concentrate.
about 100,000 tons/year of titanomagnetite concentrate.
The company also established another operation at Although heavy-mineral-bearing sands are reported
Pelabuanratu in the west of southern Java in the mid 1970s from other major Indonesian islands, few are of economic
but the deposit was worked out by 1982. interest and none have been developed. Table 4.6.1 sum­
marizes the available information on them.
Geology In Sumatra, titaniferous iron sands are reported at
Only on the south coast of Java have substantial several localities, Sondan, Banda Aceh, Pasar Ngalam, and
heavy-mineral deposits, excluding gold and tin deposits, others, but none are of great significance. Monazite is
been located. Besides the Cilacap and Pelabuanratu mines, reported to be abundant at some unlisted localities in the
important iron sand deposits occur at or near Jogjakarta, north and west of the island.
Jampang Kulon (also spelt Djampang Kulon), Cipatuja, Kalimantan has several reported localities containing
Cidaun, Cikaso, Sindang Barang, and Banjuwangi. The one or more of the following heavy minerals: ilmenite,
small island of Bali, east of Java, also contains substantial rutile, zircon, monazite, gold, platinum and diamond.
deposits. The location of these deposits is shown in figure Indonesia’s most important alluvial gold mines are located
4.6.1, and the limited information available on these and in the south and east of the island, producing about 200 to
other deposits is summarized in table 4.6.1. 300 kg/year.
Generally, the iron sand deposits are located in A large area in southern Sulawesi is reported to have
unconsolidated present day beach and coastal dunes. The abundant chromite sands. A chromite deposit at Lampee in
Jampang Kulon deposit, however, is a partly-cemented south-eastern Sulawesi was investigated by three Japanese
palaeo (Miocene) dune deposit. Mineralization may extend companies in the late 1970s but no results are available.
for considerable distances, the Cilacap deposit has a total Chromite is also reported associated with magnetite and
length of 45 km, the Jogjakarta deposit has a length of over ilmenite in the north-east of Halmahera Island.
Figure 4.6.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Indonesia

Figure 4.6.2 Location of iron sand deposits on Java (Indonesia)


72

Table 4.6.1 Mineral sand deposits, Indonesia

Deposit Location Major heavy mineral Geology and general comments Reference

Cilacap South Java: 150 km Ti-magnetite Beach and dune sands are present-day coast. Di­ Geological Survey
West of Jogjakarta mensions: 45 km long, 500-800 m wide, 1.5 m of Indonesia, 1971
thick. Average grade: 20-50 per cent magnetic Macdonald, 1971
fraction, consists of magnetite closely intergrown United Nations,
with ilmenite and hematite. Concentrate analysis 1970,Wu, 1986
57-59 per cent Fe, 11 per cent TiO2, 4.5 per cent
Sio2, 5 per cent A12O3, 0.05 per cent P, 0.03 per
cent S. Resource: 6 million tons conc. (1971) at
37 per cent Fe cut-off grade: tonnage would be
much higher if lower cut-off grade was used (say
10 per cent Fe). Mined since 1971 by P.T. Aneka
Tambang by hydraulic sluicing. Production in
recent years 80,000-140,000 tons of concentrate;
most used by local cement industry.
Pelabuanratu 100 km S of Jakarta, Ti-magnetite Mined by P.T. Aneka Tambang between mid 1970s Wu, 1985
South Java and 1982. Reportedly worked out. No details
available
Jogjakarta South Java: Bog- Ti-magnetite Undeveloped deposit in the form of a long raised Tambang, 1974
(Yogyakarta) wonto R - Progo R, beach occurring as a plateau 5-7 m above sea level.
30 km South of Jog­ A number of discontinuous dune systems may be
jakarta recognized. Dimensions: 22 km long, 1-1.5 km
wide, average 8.1 m deep (including 1.4 m below
sea level). Average grade 12.25 per cent Fe. Highest
grades near surface and at eastern end of the depo­
sit. Sand composition: titanomagnetite, plagioclase,
pyroxene, minor quartz, amphibole and mica. Con­
centrate: 59 per cent Fe, 7-10 per cent TiO2. Full
analysis in Tambang (1974). Resources: 230
million tons sand, 28 million tons recoverable con­
centrate.
Jampang Kulon South Java: 140 km Ti-magnetite, Mag­ Deposit occurs in two forms: a weathered palaeo­ MacDonald, 1971
(Djampang Kulon) South of Jakarta netite Ilmenite placer and a modern coastal dune system. It con­
sists of an intergrowth of ilmenite and magnetite
grains cemented by iron. It has a cellular structure.
Average grade is 37 per cent Fe and 12 per cent
TiO2. The coastal dune has average grade 20 per
cent Fe and 4 per cent TiO2. Reserves 6.7 million
tons at 37 per cent Fe in palaeoplacers.
Cipatuja South Java: 100 km Ti-magnetite Beach and dune sands. Area 3.6 sq km, 100-400 m Silitonga and Sur-
South-east of Ban­ wide, 2.6-3.6 m deep. Average 19.8 per cent mag­ jono,1984
dung netic fraction but western end has average 31.5 per
cent magnetic fraction. Concentrate: 57 per cent
Fe, 12.8 per cent TiO2, 0.25-0.4 per cent V. 0.05-
0.1 per cent P. Resources: 4.21 million tons conc.
(7 per cent magnetics cutoff).
Cidaun South Java: 70 km Ti-magnetite Beach and dune sands. Dimensions: 10.3 km long, Surjono, 1983 Sili­
South of Bandung 182 m av. width 3.9 m.av. depth, 1.89 sq km area. tonga and Surjono,
Average grade: 23.2 per cent magnetic fraction. 1984
Major minerals: Titanomagnetite, pyroxene, quartz,
minor feldspar, amphiboles, mica, hematite and
ilmenite. Resources: 3.22 million tons conc, at
57.39 per cent Fe, 12.75 per cent TiO2.
Cikaso South Java: 150 km Ti-magnetite Beach and dune sands between Cikaso R. and Subandoro, 1982
South of Jakarta Cibuni R. Dimensions: 12 km long, 240 m av.
width, 4.7 m av. depth, 2.9 sq km area. Average
grade 18.5 per cent magnetic fraction. Concentrate:
57.18 Fe, 12.32 per cent TiO2. Resources: 25.0
million tons sand, 4.65 million tons conc. An ad­
ditional 0.46 million tons conc, present below sea
level. Deposit preserved as a national reserve for a
possible future steel industry.
73

Table 4.6.1. (continued)

Deposit Location Major heavy mineral Geology and General Comments Reference

Sindang Barang South Java: 150 km Ti-magnetite Very near Cikaso deposit, average 120 m wide, Silitonga and Sur-
South of Jakarta 3.45 m deep, 20.15 per cent magnetic fraction. jono,1984
Major minerals titanomagnetite, pyroxene, quartz,
minor hematite, ilmenite. Concentrate 57.67 per
cent Fe, 13.76 per cent TiO2.
Puger-Lumadjang South Java: 100 km Ti-magnetite Dimensions: 25 km long, 400 m average width, 4 m MacDonald, 1971
South-west of Ban- (or more) av. depth. Further reserves possibly on
juwangi nearby Barung Island.
Baljuwangi East Java Ti-magnetite 2 separate beach deposits in the area, combined MacDonald, 1971
total length 30 km, av. 10 m width, av. 2 m depth.
Dload Barawah Bali Ti-magnetite Possible large-scale deposits in the beach dune area. MacDonald, 1971
They cover a length of about 50 km width: 10 m,
depth: 2 m.
Sondan East Sumatra Ilmenite 14 km-long beach, 20-50 m wide. H.M. content Subandoro, 1976
4.10 per cent composed of ilmenite, and traces of
leucoxene, zircon and amphibole.
Banda Aceh North Sumatra Ti-magnetite The sand is composed of quartz, feldspar, chlorite, Subandoro, 1976
amphibole, titanomagnetite and traces of zircon,
monazite and others. Highest tonnages occur at
Alur Naga with 61,000 tons conc, and Krueng Aceh
with 27,500 tons conc, (approx. 56 per cent Fe,
8 per cent TiO2). Grades in the latter area are 10.6
per cent magnetic fraction. The sands might be
utilized in a planned cement industry in the area.
Pasar Ngalam - South Sumatra: 45 Magnetite Most reserves are in the flat frontal beach dunes Djumhani and Husin,
Pasar Talo km South-east of Ti-magnetite but reserves also present in back dunes. The depo­ 1974
Bengkulu Ilmenite sit extends over 45 km with average width 250 m.
Composition of sand (from 3 samples): magnetite
7.3-11.6 per cent; Ti-magnetite 0-3.2 per cent;
ilmenite 1.6-1.8 per cent.
Bukit Duabelas East Sumatra Ilmenite Beach and dune sands. Also present are monazite United Nations,1976
Sarolangun Suru- Magnetite zircon and cassiterite. These sands were encoun­ Subandoro, 1976
langun Wai Sepu- tered in preliminary surveys but are probably not
tih Telek Betung significant.
Kalianda Wa-
tubelah
West and North Monazite Mineral is reported to be abundant in some areas.
Sumatra
Barito Plains South-east Kali­ Rutile-Zircon Geological Survey
mantan of Indonesia, 1971
Balikpapan East Kalimantan Ilmenite Zircon Highest grades of 5.5 per cent H.M. at Tanah Merah Subandoro, 1975
-Semboja but area has generally low grades.
Mahakam delta East Kalimantan Limonite Ilmenite Area is not very promising, but possibility of palaeo­ Subandoro, 1976
placers in hills to the east.
Martapura- South-east Rutile Zircon Also minor platinum and diamond. Geological Survey
Pleihari area Kalimantan of Indonesia, 1971
Landak Central Kalimantan Diamond Geological Survey of
Indonesia, 1971
Purukcahu Central Diamond Geological Survey of
Indonesia, 1971
Kembajan West Kalimantan Monazite Geological Survey of
Mountains Indonesia, 1971
East, North-east, Monazite Significant quantities of monazite have been iden­
South, South-west tified in beaches and river placers in these areas.
Borneo
74

Table 4.6.1. (continued)

Deposit Location Major heavy mineral Geology and General Comments Reference

Endeh South Flores Ti-magnetite These are four specific beaches with a total of Subandoro and
175,000 tons of concentrates (59 per cent Fe, 12.25 Pudjowalugu, 1978
per cent TiO2). Possibly may be exploited for use Subandoro, 1976
in domestic cement industry.
South Sulawesi Chromite A 200 sq km concession was being explored by three South African
Japanese companies in the late 1970s. There are Minerals Bureau,
said to be hundreds of kilometers of beaches with 1982
sufficient Cr content to allow economic mining.
Additional exploration was carried out by Explora­
tion of Australia Ltd.
NE Halmahera Chromite South African Mine­
rals Bureau, 1982
Momi River Irian Jaya Xenotime, Samples tested showed high radioactivity, 3-27 times Sigit and others,
Monazite, Zircon normal background. 1969

Monazite is reported at several localities in Kaliman­ Past production has been over 300,000 tons/year of con­
tan (Borneo) and also from Berhala Island in the Strait of centrate but in recent years production has been in the
Malacca. Xenotime, monazite, and zircon are reported at range of 80,000 to 145,000 tons/year. The company
the mouth of the Momi River in Irian Jaya. A small iron operated another mine at Pelabuanratu in south Java from
sand deposit occurs at Endeh in the south of Flores Island. the mid 1970s until 1982.

Heavy minerals are associated with tin mining in the Since 1979, annual production has declined to
‘Tin Islands’ of Singkep, Billiton, and Bangka off the east about 100,000 tons/year following the fall in exports to
coast of Sumatra. A major portion of tin production, Japan (Nippon Kokan Co. Ltd) to about 10,000 to 12,000
which is now about 20,000 tons/year of contained metal, is tons/year. The bulk of production is used by local industry
derived from offshore placers, stream gravels, and old principally as an additive in the production of portland
palaeo beaches. The associated heavy minerals monazite, cement (Wu, 1986). Total production of iron sand con­
zircon, ilmenite, wolframite, xenotime, and others are not centrate from both mines up to 1985 was 3.05 Mt.
recovered from the ‘amang’ dumps. Monazite, however,
was recovered as a by-product of tin mining in the period In recent years Indonesia has imported 11,000 to
1936-1938, when 1,431 tons were produced from Billiton 15,000 tons/year of TiO2 pigment mainly from Japan, the
Island, accounting for about 10 per cent of the total world Federal Republic of Germany, and Australia. A few hun­
monazite output at the time. dred tons/year of rare earth metal and alloys have also been
imported, mainly from Japan (Wu, 1986).

Production and Trade Processing


At present the only production of detrital heavy Indonesia has a 2.3 Mt capacity steel plant at
minerals, apart from gold and tin, in Indonesia is titani- Cilegon, West Java. The plant, built by the State-owned
ferous magnetite from the Cilacap mine on the south coast company P.T. Krakatau Steel in 1979, does not use the
of Java. This mine, owned and operated by the State mining locally produced iron sands as feedstock but the higher
company P.T. Aneka Tambang, began operation in 1971. quality iron ore pellets imported from Sweden and Brazil.
75

REFERENCE

Djumhani and Husin, A., 1974 Notes on the titaniferous Subandoro, 1976 Progress of heavy detrital mineral in­
magnetite sand deposits on the west coast of vestigations in Indonesia between 1974 and 1976.
southern Sumatra. Bengkula Province, In Proceed­ In Proceedings of the thirteenth session of CCOP.
ings of the eleventh session of CCOP. United Na­ United Nations Economic and Social Commission
tions Economic Commission for Asia and the Far for Asia and the Pacific, p.194-200.
East, p. 273-278.
Subandoro, 1982 Beach sand investigations in Indonesia,
Geological survey of Indonesia, 1971 Notes on prospect­ 1980-1981. hi Proceedings of the eighteenth
ing for placer deposits in Indonesia. In Report of session of CCOP. United Nations Economic and
the eighth session, CCOP. United Nations Economic Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, p.21 -29.
Commission for Asia and the Far East, p. 195-197.
Subandoro, and Pudjowalujo, H., 1978 Iron sand in
Geological Survey of Indonesia, 1969 The titaniferous
beach sand of South Java and Bali, Indonesia. In coastal areas of Flores, Indonesia. In Proceedings
of the fifteenth session of CCOP. United Nations
Report of the sixth session of CCOP. United Na­
tions Economic Commission for Asia and the Far Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific,
East, p. 105-106. p.155-161.

Geological Survey of Indonesia, 1971 Notes on the Smjono,S., 1983 Exploration for iron sand in the coastal
development of titaniferous iron sand deposits in area of Ciduan, West Java, 1983. In Proceedings of
Indonesia. In Report of the eighth session of CCOP. the twentieth session of CCOP. United Nations
United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
the Far East, p. 192-193. Pacific, p.52-57.
Macdonald, E.H., 1971 Country report: Indonesia. Tambang, P.N.A, 1974 Yogyakarta iron sand project, hi
United Nations, CCOP, Technical bulletin, vol. 5, Proceedings of the eleventh session of CCOP.
p. 48-53. United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific, p. 278-289.
Silitonga, P.H., and Surjono, 1984 Exploration for
titaniferous iron sand in the coastal area of Cipa- United Nations, 1976 Indonesia: Mineral resources devel­
tryah, West Java. In Proceedings of the twenty-first opment. Proceedings of the Committee on Natural
session of CCOP. United Nations Economic and Resources, No. 43, p. 68-69.
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, p.4-45.
United Nations, 1970 Survey of world iron orc resources:
Sigit, S., and others, of 1969 Minerals and mining in
occurrence and appraisal.
Indonesia, Djakarta.
South African Minerals Bureau, 1982 Chromium. A Wu, J.C., 1985 The mineral industry of Indonesia. In
mineral commodity review. Department of Mineral Minerals yearbook, 1983, vol. 111, Area reports:
and Energy Affairs internal report No. 86, 1 50 p. international. United States Bureau of Mines.

Suhandoro, 1975 Occurrence of zircon and rutile in Wu, J.C., 1986 The mineral industry of Indonesia. In
beach sands of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Pro­ Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. Ill, Area reports:
ceedings of the twelfth session of CCOP. United international. United States Bureau of Mines,
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia p.405-419.
and the Pacific, p. 295-299.
4.7 JAPAN

History trates to produce titanium dioxide pigment and titanium


Iron sand deposits have been mined in Japan since metal, zirconium dioxide and metal, and rare earth com­
ancient times when they were smelted down to produce pounds and metals.
iron for swords and other weapons. They remained an
important source of iron until the turn of the century when Geology and Resources
modern iron production techniques favouring other forms Iron sand deposits are widespread in Japan (figure
of imported iron were introduced. 4.7.1), occurring mainly on modern-day beaches, although
Iron sand mining recommenced on a minor scale in some are present in inland alluvial and flood terraces, and
1937 on Hokkaido Island, production increasing to nearly in shallow offshore areas.
1 million tons/year of concentrate in 1944 to meet Japan’s The beach deposits vary from 1.5 to 10 m in thick­
war requirements. After the war, production almost ceased. ness with generally no overburden. The high grade ore
With the development of steel-making by electric arc usually occurs either as thick units of heavy minerals, or
furnaces in the late 1940s production recovered to about in layers alternating with barren layers, or in the form of
0.5 Mt/year. By 1954 most of the major known high-grade poorly-de fined small patches or streaky layers in barren
beaches had been mined out. This led the Japanese govern­ sand. The majority of grains in representative samples are
ment to initiate a systematic and extensive survey for more between 0.1 and 0.2 mm (very fine sand) (Maruyama,
resources, and resulted in the discovery of new beach 1969; United Nations, 1966).
deposits, and other deposits in inland alluvial terraces, and
in shallow offshore areas (Okano others, 1968). The main heavy minerals, comprising over 95 per
cent of the heavy mineral fraction, are magnetite, titano­
Magnetite production exceeded 1.3 Mt/year in the
magnetite, ilmenite, and hematite, which may occur as
1960s, reaching a peak of 1.7 Mt/year in 1961. The average
exsolved grains in each other. Small amounts of limonite,
grade of the concentrate was 60 per cent Fe.
pyrite, chromite, rutile, ulvospinel and native gold are also
Occurrence of ilmenite beach sands was restricted present, with rare grains of zircon and monazite. The
to a few important deposits in the country. Ilmenite pro­ barren sands are predominantly composed of feldspar,
duction which commenced in the late 1950s was between quartz, pyroxene, and olivine, along with rock and shell
4,000 to 6,000 tons/year; maximum production of 7,400 fragments. The source of the heavy minerals is considered
short tons was in 1967. The grade of the ilmenite con­ to be the Quaternary volcanics, mainly andesites, that are
centrate was low, averaging 38 to 41 per cent TiO2 (Austra­ common throughout Japan. (Okano and others, 1968).
lian Mineral Industries Research Association (AMIRA),
1972; USBM Mineral Yearbooks for the period 1940 to The Fe content of the deposits mined in 1955
1980). averaged 25.6 per cent; by 1966 this had decreased to
10 per cent Fe (Okano and others, 1968).
The high price of rutile led to the development of
a titanium slag industry in the early 1950s based on the As the richer deposits became depleted, mining
TiO2 of the magnetite concentrate, which averaged about operations gradually shifted to inland terrace deposits
10 per cent TiO2. Initially, three companies were in­ and to offshore deposits. The terraced deposits, formed
volved, but by 1962 Hokuetsu Electric Chemical Industries by alluvial and diluvial flood processes, are located in
remained the sole producer. Production peaked in 1956 old alluvial channels, hilly plateaux, and on mountain
with 9,600 short tons, and again in 1970 with 8,700 short sides, and are often covered by overburden. The sand
tons. The slag contained from 70 to 72 per cent TiO2 may occur as lumps requiring crushing or grinding prior
(Adams, 1984). to mineral separation. The grain size is relatively coarse,
a representative sample yielding 90 per cent between 0.3
Production of magnetite, ilmenite and titanium slag
and 0.5 mm (medium sand). As these deposits cannot
declined during the 1970s, mainly as a result of the declin­
be so easily worked as the beach deposits, the grades have
ing grades of the deposits. Ilmenite production ceased in
to be commensurately higher to make them economic.
1974; magnetite and titanium slag production both ceased
The initial average grade of the deposit was 20 to 30 per
in 1979.
cent Fe (30 to 40 per cent magnetite), (United Nations,
In the past 50 years Japan has become a major 1966). The deposits in the far north of Honshu Island
world processor of mineral sands, using imported concen­ (Tohoku Province) are largely terraced deposits. These
77

42. Onezime 47. Shinchi


43. Ibusuki-Kagoshima 48. Takachiho
44. Tanegashima 49. Migita
45. Yakushima 50. Kabasawa
Ilmenite sand deposits
46. Kinsei

deposits contain about 200 Mt of potential ore, grading on


average about 14 per cent Fe (United Nations, 1970).
Many of the deposits located in the south of Honshu
Island are also of the terraced type (figure 4.7.1).
Offshore deposits are mainly concentrated around
Kyushu Island where 23 different deposits, centred prin­
cipally around the Kajoshima and Kumamoto Prefectures,
were outlined in the early 1960s. Initially, in 1956, mining
was carried out in water depths between 5 and 10 m, the
sands grading 20 to 30 per cent magnetic fraction (Okano
and others, 1968). As these deposits were exhausted lower-
grade sands in deeper waters were exploited. In 1969
grades as low as 3 per cent magnetic fraction were worked
(Maruyama, 1969).
Other important offshore areas were outlined in
the northern Hunshu-southern Hokkaido Island area
(especially Volcano Bay), and in the Chiba Prefecture near
Figure 4.7.1 Location of iron sand and ilmenite Tokyo. In 1966 a detailed investigation was undertaken of
deposits, Japan the south-west corner of the Volcano Bay area, where
twelve different deposits were outlined, each 2 to 4 km
Iron sand deposits 21. Tomobe Area long, 1 to 2 km wide, 1 to 3 m thick, with average grades
22. Choshi-oki and of 3 to 4 per cent magnetic fraction, in water depths of
1. Kushiro Area
Hasaki Area 10 to 25 m. Total probable and possible resources were
2. Shuttsu
estimated as 5.43 Mt of magnetite concentrate (Maruyama,
3. Tomakomai Area 23. Sahara Area
1969). The deposits were considered potentially economic
4. Horobetsu-Shiraoi 24. Iioka Area
at the time but there are no details of subsequent mining.
and Shiraoi 25. Torami
Maruyama Chemical analyses of Japanese iron sand concen­
5. Muroran 26.
trate from typical beach, inland terrace, and offshore
6. Oshamambe Area 27. Onuki
deposits are given in table 4.7.1.
7. Yakumo Area 28. Nabari
A resource figure for the whole of Japan derived
8. Shikabe 29. Ikoma
from mid 1960s data is 176 Mt of identified ore of average
9. Kameda Area 30. Nita-Hino-Tari
grade 9.3 per cent Fe. This is the equivalent of 16.4 Mt of
10. Oma 31. Todokoro-Iwami contained Fe. Total resources, including potential re­
11. Ohata Noushi 32. Sampo sources, are estimated as 1,306 Mt averaging 6.3 per cent Fe
12. Chikagawa 33. Ashizuri Nisaki (82.3 Mt Fe)(United Nations, 1970; United Nations, 1966).
13. Sabishiro 34. Nakatsu These resources are divided into districts in table 4.7.2.
The breakdown of these resources on a deposit-by-deposit
14. Tenmabayashi 35. Kunisaki
basis for each district is given in United Nations, 1970
15. Korekawa Area 36. Oita (p. 195-199). Also included for each of the 49 listed
16. Mugisawa 37. Iino deposits is the Fe and Ti content, and the 1965 production
17. Kuji Area 38. Chikugogawa figures.
18. Oyu Area 39. Tamana A survey published in 1967 by the Japanese Minis­
19. Odate Area 40. Fukiago Hama try of International Trade and Industry indicates total
20. Hachirogata and Kado 41. Shibushi measured resources developed for mining as about 67.5 Mt
78

Table 4.7.1 Chemical analysis of Japanese Table 4.7 3 Iron sand production by provincea
iron sand concentratesa 1957,1961 and 1964
(percentages) (million metric tons magnetite concentrate)

Inland Province 1957 1961 1964


Offshore
Beach Terrace
Hokkaido 056 0.64 0.41
Fe 58.76 58.40 56.77 Tohoku 032 0.66 0.62
SiO2 2.16 4.30 850 Kanto 0.19 030 0.26
A12O3 2.69 2.95 2.95 Chugoku 0.01 0.01 0.01
P 0.009 0.133 0.170 Kyushu 0.02 0.10 0.13
TiO2 10.92 754 10.44 Total 1.10 1.71 1.43

Source: United Nations, 1966 Source: United Nations, 1970.


a
Precise localities of analyzed samples unknown. For localities of provinces see figure 4.7.1.

of ore at 14.5 per cent Fe (about 9.8 Mt of Fe) (United contained 70 to 72 per cent TiO2. Yearly production levels
Nations, 1970). were between 2,700 and 4,500 tons, but reached peaks of
8,700 tons in 1956, and 7,900 tons in 1970 (USBM Mineral
Total Japanese magnetite production from iron
Yearbooks 1950 to 1980). Total production up to 1979
sands between 1941 and 1979 was 24.26 Mt. The period
was 96,720 tons. Initially, three companies were involved,
of maximum production, averaging between 1.2 and 1.5
but after 1962 the only producer was Hokuatsu Electric
Mt/year, was during the 1960s. A peak of 1.71 Mt was
Chemical Industries. The entire titanium slag output was
achieved in 1961. A breakdown of production for 1957,
used by Osaka Titanium in the production of titanium
1961, and 1964, by district, is given in table 4.7.3. Japan
sponge metal (Adams, 1984).
would therefore appear to have substantial resources of
iron sand remaining, especially in the potential resource
There are only a few ilmenite deposits in Japan.
category.
They were mined on a relatively small scale. Six deposits
The high price of rutile and the relatively high TiO2 were exploited, all in central-north Honshu Island: three in
content of the magnetite concentrate (approximately 10 Fukishima Prefecture, one each in Miyagi and Niigata
per cent) led to the development of a titanium slag industry Prefectures. All of the deposits occur on beaches, except
in the early 1950s. Production ceased in 1979. The slag for the Miyagi Prefecture deposit, which is an inland terrace

Table 4.7.2 Japanese iron sand resources by province3 (mid 1960s)


(figures in million metric tons)

Ore Resources Fe Resourcesb


Province
Identified Total %Fe Identified Total

Hokkaido (Hokkaido Is.) 28 45 13.7 3.8 6.2


Tohoku (N. Honshu Is.) 49 252 14.3 7.0 36.0
Kanto (Cnt-E. Honshu Is.) 23 103 10.3 2.4 10.6
Chugoku (S-W Honshu Is.) 63 255 4.3 2.7 11.0
Kyushu (Kyushu Is.) 13 642 2.8 0.4 18.0
Others - 9 7.3 - 0.7

Total 176 1,306 16.3 82.5

Sources: Ore resources - United Nations, 1970; %Fe - United Nations, 1966.
a Total resources include ‘potential’ resources.
b Total production of Fe since 1965: 5 Mt.
79

deposit. The deposits, which may be considered iron sand Table 4.7.4 Production of processed commodities,
deposits with a high ilmenite content, contain between 2 Japan 1982-1984a
and 20 Mt of ore with an average grade of between 6 and (’000 short tons)
8 per cent TiO2 (Geological Survey of Japan, 1982;
AMIRA, 1972; Australian Embassy Trade Office, 1971). 1981 1982 1983 1984
Mining of ilmenite began in the late 1950s; produc­
Titanium dioxide 178 186 198 206
tion during the 1960s was between 4,000 and 6,000 tons/
year with a peak production of 6,880 tons in 1967. Pro­ Titanium metal 24.9 16.9 10.6 15.4
duction declined in the early 1970s and ceased in 1974. Zirconium oxides 4.0 4.3 4.9 6.0
Total production from 1960 onwards was 62,700 tons Zirconium metal 0.05 0.05 NA NA
(AMIRA, 1972; USBM Mineral Yearbooks 1969 to 1975). Lanthanum oxide 0.23 0.12 0.16 0.24
The major portion of the concentrate was used in the Cerium metal 0.85 0.63 0.60 0.63
production of titanium dioxide pigment, a small amount
Steel (million tons) 102 100 97 106
was used as an ‘additive’ for iron and steel manufacture
(AMIRA, 1972).
Source: Wu, 1986.
The mining of mineral sands in Japan ceased com­ a Not all produced from mineral sand concentrates.
pletely in 1979 because the deposits were no longer econo­
mic. Large resources of low-grade titanium-bearing-iron with a combined capacity of 228,000 tons/year, the largest
sands remain; these may become economic with improved being Ishihara with a plant capacity of 118,000 tons/year at
mining techniques. There have been no recent reports of Yokkaichi. The Sakai and Teikoku Kako companies
any exploration or development activities of the mineral together account for another 60,000 tons/year. Eighty-
sand resources in Japan, and reactivation of this industry nine per cent of the production is via the sulphate route.
appears unlikely in the near future. Details on the operations of the seven producers are given
in Adams (1984).
Production and Trade
Japan is second only to the United States as the
Japan is a leading world processor of mineral sand world’s largest market for TiO2 pigment, with most of the
products. It produces synthetic rutile, titanium dioxide country’s production of about 200,000 tons/year (table
pigment, and metal from ilmenite and rutile; zirconium 4.7.4) consumed locally. Exports in 1982 and 1983 were
dioxide (ZrO2) and metal from zircon; rare earth com­ about 17,000 tons, the bulk going to the Asian market,
pounds and metals from monazite and xenotime; iron and particularly China, and the Republic of Korea, with Indo­
steel from magnetite. It relies totally on imported raw nesia and the Philippines also being important markets.
materials, which are mined from hardrock deposits as well Japan imports some TiO2 pigment, presumably of special
as mineral sand deposits. Production details from 1981 grades. In 1982 and 1983 imports were about 6,000 tons,
to 1984 are given in table 4.7.4. mostly from the Republic of Korea and Europe (Adams,
1984; Wu, 1986).
In 1984, for the production of titanium products,
Japan imported 645,000 tons of mineral sand concentrates, Titanium sponge metal production in Japan began
primarily ilmenite, mainly from Malaysia, Australia, and in 1952. There are five producers with a total capacity of
India in addition, 63,000 tons of titanium slag was im­ 38,900 tons/year (compared with a western-world capacity
ported from South Africa and Canada. of 69,860 tons/year). The largest producers are the Osaka
The only producer of synthetic rutile (92 per cent Titanium Corporation with a 18,000 tons/year plant at
TiO2) in Japan is Ishihara Sangyo Kaisha which has a Amagasaki, near Osaka, and Toho Titanium with a 14,400
48,000 tons/year plant at Yokkaichi near Nagoya. The tons/year plant at Chigasaki near Yokohama. Three other
company uses a sulphuric acid leaching process with companies have a combined capacity of 6,500 tons/year.
ilmenite feedstock. Most of Ishihara’s production is con­ Adams (1984) describes the operations of these companies.
sumed by the company’s own 24,000 tons/year chloride­ As shown in table 4.7.4, Japanese production in recent
route pigment plant at Yokkaichi, the remainder being years has only been at about 10 to 50 per cent of capacity.
exported to the United States. Plant capacity may be Japan has long been the world’s largest exporter of
expanded in the near future. Mitsubishi Metal has devel­ titanium sponge metal, traditionally exporting about 50
oped a synthetic rutile process of its own and is considering per cent of its production. According to USBM, sponge
setting up a plant in the late 1980s (Adams, 1984). exports in recent years have been between 2,000 and 6,000
Titanium dioxide pigment production in Japan tons/year (Wu, 1986); the United States is the major
began in about 1935. Currently there are seven producers market. The sponge that is not exported is processed into
80

ingot and mill products. The chemical industry accounts 1981-1984 imports of zirconium metal as 400 to 600 tons/
for 41 per cent of consumption; desalination and power year.
plants account for a further 40 per cent (Adams, 1984). Japan is a leading world producer of a wide range of
In recent years Japan has imported about 200,000 rare earth compounds and metals, with 11 companies
tons of zircon concentrate annually, most from Australia; actively involved in the industry. Production data are
South Africa is also an important Japanese supplier. The available only for lanthanum oxide (220 tons in 1984) and
zircon is used mainly for refractory bricks in the foundry cerium metal (570 tons) as given in table 4.7.4. Raw
industry but a minor amount is used in the production of materials used by the industry are mainly monazite from
zirconia and zirconium metal. Australia, India, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka, xenotime from
Malaysia, and bastnaesite from the United States. In 1984
Zirconia is produced from zircon and baddelyite, Japan imported over 600 tons of rare earth compounds and
which is imported from South Africa. Japanese zirconia about 150 tons of rare earth metals and alloys, with the
production (table 4.7.4) in recent years has been 4,000 to United States, France, China, India, and Malaysia the major
6,000 tons/year, of which 1,000 to 2,000 tons/year are suppliers (British Geological Survey, 1986). In 1983 and
manufactured from zircon. There are a few companies pro­ 1984, exports of rare earth metals and alloys were about
ducing zirconia from zircon, the largest being Daichi Kigenso 350 tons (destinations unreported). A summary of the
and Toyo Soda. Japan is one of the world’s major users of Japanese rare earth industry including consumption and
zirconia for special ceramics and refractories (Dickson, import data is given in Griffiths (1984).
1985); no zirconia is exported.
Total steel production in Japan in recent years has
Only one company, Nippon Mining, is involved in been about 100 Mt/year (see table 4.7.4). Of this only a
the production of zirconium sponge metal, with a 300 tons/ very small quantity (approximately 1 per cent) is produced
year plant at Tokyo (AMIRA, 1972). Production has been from iron sands. Average annual consumption of iron sand
relatively small (approximately 50 tons in 1981-1982, between 1982 and 1984 was 2.32 Mt (Tex Report Co.,
unrecorded in 1983-1984) because the metal has not yet 1986), imported from New Zealand. The iron sand is
been accepted for use in nuclear reactors, a major user of blended with other forms of iron ore to produce steel to
the metal. The British Geological Survey (1986) records meet required specifications.

REFERENCES

Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan­ session of CCOP. United Nations Economic Com­
cial Times Ltd., London, 244 p. mission for Asia and the Far East.

Australian Embassy Trade Office, 1971 — A Survey of the Okano, T., Shimazaki, Y., and Maruyama, S., 1968 - Off­
Japanese titanium industry, p. 1-3. Unpublished. shore detrital heavy minerals in Japan. Japan geolo­
gical survey bulletin, 19(6), p. 411-418.
Australian Mineral Industries Research Association
(AMIRA), 1972 - Report on titanium and zir­ The TEX Report Co. Ltd., 1986 — Iron ore manual 1985-
conium, p. 139-140. International Technical 1986, p. 108-109. The TEX Report Co. Ltd.
Services Ltd., Sydney. Tokyo.

British Geological Survey, 1986 - World mineral statistics United Nations, 1966 — Economic aspects of iron ore pre­
1980-1984: production: exports: imports (Key­ paration. Prepared by the Secretariat of the Econo­
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey). mic Commission for Europe, Geneva, 1966, p. 181-
188. United Nations, New York.
Dickson, E.M., 1985 - Zirconia - growth of a speciality.
Industrial minerals, No. 209, p. 49-53. United Nations, 1970 — Survey of world iron ore resources.
Occurrence and appraisal. Report of a panel of
Geological Survey of Japan, 1983 Geological Atlas of experts appointed by the Secretary-General, p. 130-
Japan. Geological Survey of Japan, Tokyo. 134, 195-199. Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, United Nations, New York.
Griffiths, J., 1984 Rare earths attracting increasing
attention. Industrial minerals, No. 199, p. 30-33. Wu, J.C., 1986 The mineral industry of Japan. In Mine-
rals yearbook, 1984, vol. Ill, Area reports: inter­
Maruyama, S., 1969 Exploration of iron sand deposits in national. United States Bureau of Mines, p. 465-
Volcano Bay, Hokkaido. In Report of the sixth 491.
4.8. REPUBLIC OF KOREA

The Republic of Korea has substantial resources of region, just south of the border. Ilmenite resources arc
detrital heavy minerals, chiefly ilmenite, monazite, zircon, given as 60,000 tons indicated, and 145,000 tons inferred;
magnetite, and gold. No production of these minerals, the ilmenite comprises 4.4 per cent of the raw sand. Over
except gold, has been reported since the mid 1970s. 40,000 tons (indicated and inferred) of combined zircon
and monazite are also present (MacDonald, 1971). Ad­
Production of monazite started in the late 1940s. ditional mineralization has been noted elsewhere in the
Maximum production was between 1951 and 1958 when 100 km stretch between Koseong and Yangyang.
a total of about 5,000 tons was produced. After that
production was sporadic, about 10 tons/year, and ceased Ilmenite deposits occur on Chumun and Acha
altogether in the mid 1970s. Minor quantities of ilmenite Islands off the far north-west coast. Grades are reported
and zircon, about 10 to 20 tons/year were produced in the to be about 5 per cent ilmenite, and the ilmenite resources
late 1960s and early 1970s (Kim, 1970). In 1958, the of the islands as 133,000 tons indicated and 470,000 tons
Geological Survey of Korea began systematic investigation inferred. Analyses of the ilmenite give a TiO2 content of
of the country’s detrital mineral deposits and by 1970 most 47.18 per cent (MacDonald, 1971).
of the important deposits had been outlined; further
detailed work was undertaken throughout the 1970s. Another major heavy mineral deposit occurs on the
Namdaechon River in the Muju area in the centre of the
Some of the more important heavy mineral deposits country. This deposit contains 240,000 tons (indicated)
(table 4.8.1) in the Republic of Korea are outlined below of heavy minerals, including 87,000 tons of ilmenite at a
(see fig. 4.8.1). grade of 0.44 per cent, as well as magnetite, monazite,
zircon, and gold (Table 4.8.1). The Asan Bay area on the
A major heavy mineral deposit, the Hwajinpo north-west coast is important for gold, but substantial
deposit, occurs on the far north-east coast of the Koseong quantities of ilmenite are also present. Measured ilmenite
resources are 120,000 tons at an average grade of about
0.1 per cent of ilmenite.

Substantial quantities of monazite and zircon occur


at several localities in central and south-west Korea (see
table 4.8.1), but the grades at most deposits appear to be
too low to be economical. Further investigation may
increase the grades and tonnages, as quoted figures are
regarded as conservative (Kim, 1970). The largest of these
deposits occurs at Kwangsangun, which has indicated
monazite resources of 48,000 tons.

Columbium and tantalum minerals occur at some


localities. At Seongnam in the Chongju area of central
Korea, fergusonite, comprising 12 per cent of the heavy
mineral fraction, is present with gold and ilmenite (Geologi­
cal Survey of Korea, 1968). In the Muju area in central
Korea, grades of about 1.2 per cent columbite in the raw
sands are reported (Kim, 1968). Fergusonite and columbite
have been produced in the past from a mine located over
the border in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
(Miyazawa, 1969).

The Republic of Korea has a sulphate-route TiO2


pigment plant at Inchon, 40 km west of Seoul. The plant
was commissioned in 1971 by Hankook Titanium with an
Figure 4.8.1. Location of heavy mineral sand deposits, initial capacity of 3,600 tons/year TiO2; its current capaci­
Republic of Korea ty is 15,800 tons/year TiO2. Further expansion in the
82

Table 4.8.1. Major heavy mineral deposits, Republic of Korea

Deposit Location Grade (per cent of sand) Resources (tons, indicated) References

Chumun Is. 70 km W of Seoul ilmn 4.95% ilmn: MacDonald, 1971


and NW Korea 47.18% TiO2 indicated 133,000 Geological Survey
Acha Is. 37°40'N : 126°15'E inferred 400,000 of Korea, 1968

Hwajinpo 10-20 KmSof Ilmn 4.4% ilmn: MacDonald, 1971


Koseong Ne Korea zrcn, mnzt 0.9% indicated 60,000 Geological Survey
38° 25'N : 128° 30'E ilmn 51.0% TiO2 inferred 145,000 of Korea, 1968
zrcn 51.5% ZrO2 zrcn, mnzt:
indicated 12 000
inferred 29 000
(zrcn: mnzt 4:1)

Namdaecheon R. 10 km S of Muju mgnt 0.51% mgnt 102 000 Lee, 1982


(Muju Area) Central Korea ilmn 0.47% ilmn 87 000
35°00'N : 12°40’E mnzt 0.14% mnzt 28 000
zrcn 0.11% zrcn 22 000
gold 0.18 gr/cu m gold 445 kg

Asan Bay 60 km SW of Seoul ilmn 0.06-0.23% (measured) Geological Survey


W Korea mgnt 0.02-0.05% ilmn 123 000 of Korea, 1972
36°50'N : 126°50'E zrcn 0.01% mgnt 44 000
zrcn 9 200

Kusipo 50 km N of Mokpo ilmn 0.56% (measured) Geological Survey


SW Korea zrcn 0.12% ilmn 11 600 of Korea, 1976
about 30° 20' N : mnzt 0.12% zrcn 2 400
126°30'E mgnt 0.12% mnzt 2 500
mgnt 2 500

So Yonpyong Is. 120 km W of Seoul mgnt +5% mgnt 137 000 Kim,1968
NW Korea Geological Survey
37°40'N : 125°45'E of Korea, 1968

Kwang sangun 10 km N of Kwangju mnzt 0.05% mnzt 48 000 Kim,1968


SW Korea zrcn 0.04% zrcn 10 000 Geological Survey
35°10'N : 126°50'E of Korea, 1968

Yongsanpo 30 km SW of Kwangju mnzt 0.07% mnzt 20 000 Kim, 1968


SW Korea zrcn 0.05% zrcn 14 000 Geological Survey
34°55'N : 126° 40'E
of Korea, 1968

Janghowon 60 km N of Chongju mnzt 0.07% mnzt 17 000 Kim,1968


Central Korea zrcn 0.03% zrcn 7 000 Geological Survey
37°10'N : 127° 30'E
of Korea, 1968

Soun-Miyang 40 km NW of Chongju mnzt 0.07% mnzt 25 000 Kim,1968


Central Korea zrcn 0.04% zrcn 13 000 Geological Survey
36°55’N : 127°20'E
of Korea, 1968

a ilmn = ilmenite; zrcn = zircon; mnzt = monazite; mgnt = magnetite


83

near future is likely to satisfy the increasing local demand. imported about 3,000 tons/year, chiefly from Japan and
The plant consumes 35,000 tons/year of ilmenite imported Federal Republic of Germany. In recent years the Republic
from Malaysia (Adams, 1984). of Korea has also imported 350 to 400 tons/year of titanium
metal, mainly from the United States and Japan, and about
in recent years, while Korea has exported about 15,400 tons/year of zircon concentrate, principally from
2,000 tons/year of TiO2 pigment, mainly to Japan, it has Australia.

REFERENCES

Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan­ Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the
cial Times Information Ltd., London, 244 p. Ear East, p. 225-240.

Chin, E., 1986 The mineral industry of the Republic of Kim, Won Jo, 1968 Outline of placer deposits in Korea
Korea. In Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III: area (Document 1&NR/R56). In Report of the fourth
reports international. United States Bureau of session of CCOP. United Nations Economic Com­
Mines, p. 501-513. mission for Asia and the Ear East, p. 96-101.

Geological Survey of Korea, 1968 Summarized Data of Kim, Won Jo, 1970 Placer deposits of detrital heavy
Eleven Main Placer Deposits in the Republic of Minerals in Korea. United Nations, CCOP, Tech­
Korea. In Report of the fifth session of CCOP. nical Bulletin, vol. 3, p. 127-136.
United Nations Economic Commission for Asia
Lee, J.K., 1982 An investigation report of the heavy
and the Ear East, p. 105-117.
sands of Namdaecheon River, Muju area. Korea In­
stitute of Energy and Resources, Miscellaneous Re­
Geological Survey of Korea, 1972 — Preliminary investiga­
port 12, 21 p.
tion of detrital heavy minerals in the Asian Bay
area, west coast of the Republic of Korea. In MacDonald, E.H., 1971 Country report Republic of
Report of the ninth Session of CCOP. United Korea. United Nations, CCOP, Technical Bulletin,
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Vol. 5,p. 54-73.
Ear East, p. 171-174.
Miyazawa, T., 1969 Heavy sands deposits of fergusonite
Geological Survey of Korea, 1976 Investigation of and columbite in Kikune (Kukkun) Min, Yonback-
detrital heavy minerals and silica sands on Inyada kun, Hwanghae-do, Lorca. In Geology and mineral
Island and in the Kusipo area, west coast of Korea. resources of the Far East, (ed. Tsutomu Ogura)
In Report of the thirteenth session, CCOP. United vol. 3,p. 85-99.
4.9. MALAYSIA

History production. There are numerous minor tinfields in the


country, the principal ones are listed in Anon. (1985).
Malaysia has produced tin from alluvial deposits
for more than 2,000 years. Tin production greatly ex­ Cassiterite and ilmenite the major constituents of
panded following the discovery of the Kinta Valley tinfield the heavy-mineral suites associated with the tinfields
in 1880. Most production has come from the states of comprise 80 to 90 per cent of the total heavy minerals
Perak and Selangor. (table 4.9.1). The ratio of cassiterite to ilmenite varies
widely from about 5:1 in the Kinta Valley (Perak) to 1:6
In 1932 ilmenite extraction began from the waste in some Selangor deposits. The typical grade of ilmenite
tin concentrates known as ‘amang’. Production, which in
for export is 54 per cent TiO2 (table 4.9.2.).
the early years was about 5,000 to 10,000 tons/year, has
steadily increased, reaching a peak of 223,000 tons in Apart from the ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and monazite
1983 (Wu, 1986). Other heavy minerals including zircon, associated with cassiterite, other heavy minerals are more
monazite, xenotime, and others are also extracted in localized, for example: xenotime in the Gambang area
substantial quantities from the amang. (Pahang); columbite in the Semeling area (Kedah) and the
Bakri area (Jahore); struverite in the Salak area (Perak);
The separation of ilmenite and other heavy minerals
and gold in the Bidor (Perak) and the Kuala Lumpur
as a by-product of tin has accounted for almost the entire
(Selangor) areas (Anon., 1985).
Malaysian output of these minerals. However, small-scale
operations not associated with tin have also made a minor The heavy minerals are concentrated in the amang
contribution. The first of these was on Langkawi Island off during the recovery of cassiterite, and the amang stockpiled
the coast of Perlis, which was in production just prior to in open dumps which are sold to amang treatment plants
the Second World War. Other more recent operations were where the heavy minerals and any remaining cassiterite
in the Bukit Payong and Kampong Ajil areas of Terengganu are recovered. Details of the methods and equipment
state, both mined briefly during the mid 1970s (USBM employed in the amang industry are given in Hasbi bin
Minerals Yearbook, 1953 and 1974; Aw, 1986). Haji Hassan (1983).
A 60,000 ton synthetic rutile plant operated briefly The total resources of heavy minerals associated
during 1976-1977 at Ipoh (Perak state); it has since been with the Malaysian tinfields are unknown. A conservative
dismantled (Adams, 1984). estimate is 5 Mt cassiterite, 10 Mt ilmenite and up to 1 Mt
of other heavy minerals combined (Towner and others,
Geology 1987). A figure equivalent to approximately 60,000 tons
of monazite is quoted by Hedrick (1987).
1. Heavy minerals associated with tin.
2. Kampong Ajil ilmenite deposit
Currently the entire production of heavy minerals in
Malaysia is as a by-product of tin mining. The areas of This deposit is the largest and most important il­
active tin mining are mainly in the states of Perak and menite deposit not associated with tin. It is located at
Selangor, but tin occurrences are known in all states 5° 10' N : 103° 10' E, near the village of Ajil, 28 km from
(figure 4.9.1). Mining is based mainly on Quaternary al­ Kuala Terengganu in the state of Terengganu (figure 4.9.1).
luvial deposits which occur on the surface or in buried It was delineated during exploration work by Pacific
palaeochannels and are derived from the weathering and Natural Resources (Aust) in 1969-1970. The deposit
erosion of primary tin lodes. was mined briefly in the mid 1970s but the operation is
reported to have ceased because of lack of water and ex­
The majority of the alluvial tinfields are located
cessive losses of ore during treatment (Aw, 1986).
along the western seaboard, both onshore and offshore.
The most important of these are the Kinta Valley (Perak), The ilmenite occurs in clay which appears to be
Kuala Lumpur, Batang Padang, and Batang Berjuntai alluvial-eluvial in origin. The heavy mineral content in the
(Selangor) tinfields (figure 4.9.1). The Kinta Valley is in clay ranges from less than 5 per cent to 60 per cent; il­
fact the world’s largest single alluvial tinfield, and to date menite comprises the major portion of the heavy mineral
has contributed about 30 per cent of Malaysia’s recorded suite (table 4.9.1). The average chemical composition of
85

THAILAND

KEDAH

KELANTAN
PENANG

TERENGGANU

PAHANG

NEGERI
SEMBILAN

Heavy mineral deposit (excluding tin)

Active tin mining areas where


MALACCA JOHORE
heavy minerals recovered as by-products

The boundaries and names shown on


m ap do not imply official acceptance
this
Of endorsement by the United Nations
SINGAPORE

Figure 4.9.1. Location of heavy mineral deposits. Malaysia


86

Table 4.9.1. Mineralogical composition of heavy minerals collected from some tin mines and the
Kampong Ajil ilmenite deposit

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Allanite 0.5 0.5 - - - - - -


Cassiterite 74.5 17 74.5 65.5 67 10 10.5 Tr

Corundum - - - 0.5 - - - -

Ilmenite 14 50 17.5 14 5 58 84.5 96.9

Iron oxide - Tr Tr 0.5 Tr 1 Tr 2.3

Magnetite 0.5 Tr - 8.5 Tr 0.5 Tr Tr

Monazite 2.5 0.5 2 Tr 0.5 1 1 -

Pyrite 1 1 Tr - - 23 1.5 -

Rutile 1 1 1 3.5 3 1 0.5 -

Siderite 3 - - - - 5.5 Tr -

Topaz - 0.5 1 - 23 0.5 Tr -

Tourmaline 0.5 0.5 0.5 Tr 1 Tr Tr -

Wolframite - 24.5 - - - - - -

Xenotime 1 1 1 Tr Tr Tr Tr -

Zircon 1.5 3.5 2.5 7.5 0.5 0.5 2 -

Leucoxene - - - - - - - 0.13

Source: Aw, 1986

Note: Sample 1 from Perlis 6 and 7 from Selangor


2 from Kedah 8 Kampong Ajil ilmenite deposit (average 13 samples)
3 to 5 from Kinta

Table 4.9.2. Malaysian ilmenite analysis the ilmenite is given in table 4.9.2. The dimensions of the
deposit, using a cut-off grade of 5 per cent heavy mineral,
Average Average Average is about 2.8 km long by 0.8 km wide. The reserves in this
Concentrate1 Export Grade2 Kampong Ajil2 area are estimated as 2.1 Mt ilmenite. A breakdown of
resources by grade is given in table 4.9.3 (Aw, 1986).
TiO2 51-55 54.8 53.09
Fe2O3 8-18 9.81 3. Other deposits
FeO 26-32 26.9
Other heavy mineral deposits (mainly ilmenite)
MnO 2.5-4.5
not associated with tin are known at the following localities
Cr2O3 0.03-0.1 0.016 (Geological Survey of Malaysia, 1973):
SiO2 2
5° 35' N : 102° 00' E, near kuala Kerai (Kelantan);
ZrO2 2
5° 20' N : 102° 10' E, near Kuala Kerai (Kelantan);
V2O5 0.03-0.1
2° 50' N : 102° 05' E, near Seremban (Negeri
P2O5 0.1-0.2 0.14 0.007
Sembilan);
SnO2 0.25
2° 05' N : 103° 05' E, near Batu Pahat (Johore);
S 0.017
6° 20' N : 99° 40' E, on Langkawi Island (perlis)
Source: 1. Adams, 1984 and near Bukit Payong (Terengganu) (Wessel, 1974);
2. Aw, 1986 Keluang district (Terengganu) (MacDonald, 1971).
87

Table 4.9.3. Kampong Ajil reserves material provided by several tin-mining companies in the
area, as well as tin tailings imported from China, Indonesia
Cut-off grade Area Ilmenite reserves and Thailand. The company specializes in the extraction
(hectares) (tons) of the rare earth minerals monazite and xenotime, and also
20%
produces up to 60,000 tons/year of ilmenite and substantial
12 216 000
quantities of zircon (Adams, 1984).
15% 20 2 45 000
Malaysian heavy-mineral production in the period
10% 84 7 67 000
1981-1984 is shown in table 4.9.5. Total ilmenite produc­
7% 88 550 000 tion from 1925 to 1985 was 5.1 Mt (Towner and others,
5% 76 3 34 000 1987).

Total 280 2 112 000 Table 4.9.5. Malaysian heavy mineral production
1981-1984
Source: Aw, 1986 (tons)

1981 1982 1983 1984


No significant detrital mineral deposits are known
outside of Peninsula Malaysia, i.e. in Sarawak and Sabah Tina 59 938 52 342 41 357 41 307
on the island of Borneo. Ilmeniteb 172 757 101 202 222 7 22 2 34 984
b
Production Zircon 1 307 2 147 2 548 7 614
Monaziteb 320 582 1051 4 451
Production of heavy minerals in Malaysia currently Xenotimeb 24 76 10 384
occurs in association with tin mining. The states of Perak
and Selangor account for 90 per cent of the country’s Columbium &
tin production (Malaysian Department of Mines, 1983 and Tantalumc 23 8 67 27
1984). These two states have 92 per cent of the country’s Source: Wu, 1986
amang treatment plants (table 4.9.4.), Perak accounting
for 76 per cent of the total. a Actual production.
b Based on export figures
The Government-owned Malaysia Mining Corp. Bhd
c Contained in exported tantalite, struverite and
(MMC), the country’s major tin producer is the largest columbite.
producer of heavy minerals in Malaysia. The company has
the capacity to produce 150,000 tons/year ilmenite,
Malaysian tin mining has been affected in recent
2,000 tons/year zircon and 1,500 tons/year monazite from
years by export controls imposed by the International
its operations in Perak and Selangor states (Coope, 1982).
Tin Council (ITC) resulting in the closure of many tin
The other major heavy mineral producer is Beh mines and a subsequent reduction in tin production.
Minerals Sdn Bhd which operates a centralized amang- However, this decline has resulted in a decline in exports
processing plant at Lahat, Perak state. The company uses of the other heavy minerals, such as ilmenite, zircon,
monazite, and xenotime production of which has actually
Table 4.9.4. Number of amang treatment plants increased (table 4.9.5). This probably reflects increased
operating in Peninsular Malaysia extraction of heavy minerals from amang stockpiles.
However, if tin production in Malaysia is cut back further,
State 1983 1984 the tonnage of amang available for treatment will be
steadily reduced and heavy mineral production must
Perak 48 48 eventually decline.
Selangor 15 10
Processing
Negri Sembilan 1 1
Johore 1 1 No further processing is carried out on the ilmenite
Pahang 3 3 and zircon concentrates prior to export. A synthetic
rutile plant with 60,000 tons/year capacity operated
Total 68 63 briefly in 1976-1977 at Ipoh, Perak state. The plant,
owned by the Malaysian Titanium Corporation, has re­
Source: Aw, 1986 portedly been sold to China (Adams, 1984).
88

Japan is the main market for Malaysian ilmenite chlorides (46 per cent REO). This plant, located at Ipoh,
concentrate. The concentrate is sold in three grades: high has a rated annual capacity of 4,000 tons/year of rare
grade (min 60 per cent TiO2, max 10 per cent Fe); medium earth chlorides (Griffiths, 1984).
grade (min 52 per cent TiO2, max 28 per cent Fe), and A 20,000 tons/year sulphate-route TiO2 pigment
low grade (various specifications). The Republic of Korea, plant was to have been established in Perak state in the
Singapore, the United Kingdom and the United States also
mid 1970s by the Gopeng Consolidated Group and other
import the ilmenite, mainly for use in the production of
Malaysian mining companies, but the project did not
TiO2 pigment. The main market for zircon is Europe,
proceed, mainly because the country has no substantial
Japan, and the United States where it is processed into
sulphurous raw materials, no existing large-scale acid
zirconium metal (Wu, 1986.)
facilities, and has high energy costs (Adams, 1984).
Further processing of xenotime and monazite is
carried out by two companies, both of which are joint Trade
ventures of Beh Minerals Sdn. Bhd. and Mitsubishi Chemical In recent years Malaysia has imported between
Industries Ltd (Japan). Xenotime is processed by Malaysian 5,000 and 7,000 tons/year TiO2 pigment, mainly from
Rare Earth Corp. Sdn. Bhd. (formed in 1976) to produce Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. A
yttrium concentrate (containing 60 per cent Y2O3). The minor but unspecified amount of rare earth metal is im­
plant located at Ipoh, Perak, has a rated capacity of 80 ported, mainly from Japan. Up to 300 tons/year of zircon
tons/year of yttrium. Monazite is processed by Asian concentrates have also been imported (Wu, 1986; British
Rare Earths Ltd (formed in 1982) to produce rare earth Geological Survey, 1986).

REFERENCES

Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan­ Hasbi bin Haji Hassan, A., 1983 — Recovery of by-product
cial Times Information Ltd., London, 244 p. minerals from Malaysian tin mining industry. In
Hasbi bin Haji Hassan, A., de le Fuente, J.C., and
Anon., 1985 — Malaysia: explanatory brochure. Volume 1
Baylis, D.M. (eds.) Beneficiation of tin and associated
in Atlas of mineral resources of the ESCAP region.
minerals. Technical publication No. 3. SEATRAD
United Nations Economic and Social Commission
Centre, Ipoh, Malaysia.
for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, 16 p.
Aw, P.C., 1986 - Titanium resources in Peninsular Malaysia. Hedrick, J.B., 1987 — Rare earth metals. In Mineral
Economic Geology Report, Geological Survey of commodity summaries, 1987. United States Bureau
Malaysia. 16 p. of Mines, p. 126-127.

British Geological Survey, 1986 — World mineral statistics Macdonald, E.H., 1971 — Country report - Malaysia.
1980- 1984: production: exports: imports (Key­ United Nations, CCOP, Technical Bulletin, Vol. 5,
worth, Nottinghamshire: British Geological Survey). p. 74-78.
Coope, B., 1982 - Titanium minerals - focus on produc­ Towner, R.R., Gray, J., and Porter, L.M., 1987 - ISMI
tion. Industrial minerals, No. 178, p. 33. summary report - titanium. U.S. geological survey
circular 983 - G.
Department of Mines, Malaysia, 1983 - Bulletin of statistics
relating to the mining industry of Malaysia. Depart­ Wessel, F.W., 1976 — Titanium. In Minerals yearbook,
ment of Mines. Kuala Lumpur, 59 p. 1974, vol. 1: Metals, minerals, and fuels. United
Geological Survey of Malaysia, 1973 - Annual report. States Bureau of Mines, p. 1295-1305.
Peninsular Malaysia mineral distribution maps.
Wu, J.C., 1986 - The mineral industry of Malaysia. In
Figure 4.
Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III, Area reports:
Griffiths, J., 1984 - Rare earths - attracting increasing international. United States Bureau of Mines,
attention. Industrial minerals, No. 199, p. 19-37. p. 537-544.
4.10 NEW ZEALAND

History extent of ilmenite resources. A pilot concentrating plant


was operated during this period with the aim of upgrading
The mineral sand industry in New Zealand is cur­
the ilmenite to a synthetic rutile. However the project was
rently based on the large resources of iron sands in the
abandoned in 1976 for economic reasons (Mann and James,
North Island; ilmenite sands on the South Island may be
1986).
exploited in the near future.
Fletcher Challenge Ltd has recently undertaken
The potential for commercial development of the further intensive drilling of the Barrytown deposit. A pilot
iron sands on the west coast of North Island has been plant to produce TiO2 pigment from the low-grade ilmenite
recognized since the early days of European settlement. was planned for operation by the end of 1986at Charleston.
They have been of particular interest because the country Development of the deposit and others in the area could
has no substantial resources of lump iron ore. An initial depend on the successful outcome of this pilot plant
attempt to smelt the iron sands was made in New Plymouth (Terry, 1985).
in 1849 but failed because the sand was too fine and the
titanium content too high for traditional blast furnace Geology and Resources
operations. Subsequent smelting attempts up to 1949 were
also commercially unsuccessful but led to an understanding 1. Ironsands
of the problems involved (Jones, 1974).
Iron sands represent the greatest known resource of
In 1939 detailed investigations and shallow drilling metalliferous ore in New Zealand. Their occurrence is
of the deposits was started by the New Zealand Mines restricted mainly to the west coast of the North Island,
Department, and by 1949 all the known major North Island with major deposits extending from Kaipara Harbour, 60
deposits had been investigated (Kear, 1965). The New km to the north of Auckland, for nearly 500 km south­
Zealand Steel Investigating Co. was formed by the Govern­ ward along the coast to the Whangaehu River mouth, near
ment in 1960 to determine the feasibility of establishing a Wanganui (figure 4.10.1). The deposits currently being
steel industry based on these deposits and other local raw mined are at Waikato North Head and Taharoa, both in the
materials. Its investigations indicated that a steel industry north, and at Waipipi in the south.
was viable. In 1965 New Zealand Steel Limited was formed
to carry out mining operations at Waikato North Head, and The iron occurs as titanomagnetite in beach and
to operate a steel mill nearby at Glenbrook. Production at dune sands of Quaternary age. The sands may be part of
the mill commenced in 1969. In 1970 a subsidiary, New the present-day beach or of inland fossil beach deposits.
Zealand Steel Mining Ltd was established to take over the Each of the mineralized formations is described briefly in
mining operations at Waikato North Head and to undertake table 4.10.1. The formations have been accurately mapped
a new mining operation at Taharoa, 80 km to the south. and defined in the area to the north of New Plymouth;
Another company, Waipipi Iron Sands Ltd was formed in formations to the south have not been so well delineated.
1971 to mine an area near Wanganui. Production from the In the north, four formations arc present, compri­
latter two deposits is all exported to Japan (Department sing the Kaihu Group. As described in table 4.10.1 the
of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), 1981). formations arc generally composed of grey or brown sand,
The beaches of the west coast of the South Island generally unconsolidated, with varying clay content. Over­
have long been known to contain large resourcesof ilmenite. burden is generally thin or absent. The thickness of the
In 1948-1949 DSIR carried out a survey to assess the formations ranges from 30 to 180 m. The titanomagnetite
ilmenite potential. Commercial interest in the deposits content is variable but generally about 15 to 30 per cent,
was first shown in 1953, but the low TiO2 content of the although the Hood sand averages about 40 per cent tita­
ilmenite precluded its exploitation. There has been a long nomagnetite. At the Waikato North Head mine the high­
history of gold mining from the beaches of the area, the grade Hood sand is blended with the lower grade Bothwell
main activity occurring during the period 1870 to 1920. and Mitawi sands to provide a consistent grade of about
24 per cent titanomagnetite. At Taharoa, the average
In the period 1966-1976 Carpentaria Exploration grade of the Mitawai sand is about 32 per cent titanomag-
Co. (a subsidiary of Mt Isa Mines Limited) undertook an netitc (Kear, 1965; New Zealand (Ecological Survey (NZGS),
intensive drilling programme at Barrytown to establish the 1981).
90

North Island South Island


21. Karamea
1. Kaipara Harbour
22. Buller River
2. Muriwai
23. West port
The boundaries and names shown on 3. Piho
this map do not imply official acceptance 24. Barrytown
or endorsement by the united Nations AUCKLAND 4. Manukau Head
25. Hokitika
5. Maioio
26. Ross
6. Waikato Head
27. Okarito
7. Raglan Harbour
28. Gillespies Beach
8. Aotea
29. Hunts Beach
9. Kawhia Harbour
30. Bruce Bay
10. Taharoa
WELLINGTON 31. Haast River
11. Awakino
32. Jacksons Bay
12. Mokau
33. George Sound
13. Waitara
34. Orepuki
CHRISTCHURCH 14. Fitzroy
15. Patea
Stewart Island
16. Waipipi
Titanomagnetite 35. Port William
Ilmenite 17. Wanganui River
Magnetite 36. Kingaringa
Rutile 18. Wangaehu River
19. Cape Colville
20. Waihi Beach

Figure 4.10.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, New Zealand

In the southern area, around Wanganui, only the 4.10.2. Resources of the deposits currently mined at
Patea Dune sand is considered as a possible source of iron Waikato North Head are put at: 94 Mt concentrate at 57.5
sand. This formation, mined at Waipipi, has an average per cent Fe; Taharoa: 300 Mt concentrate at 55.3 per cent
grade of 18 per cent titanomagnetite. However, the under­ Fe; and Waipipi: 55 Mt concentrate at 56.0 per cent Fe.
lying Rapanui formation has economic potential where it These estimates are based on a cut-off grade of 8 per cent
occurs in association with the Patea Dune sand. The other concentrate in the sand (NZGS, 1981; Kear, 1965). An
two formations have lower grades, 10 per cent or less, and additional 74 Mt of concentrate (average grade 10 per cent)
are covered by 1.5 m or more of overburden (table 4.10.1) occur offshore in the region (McDougall, 1961); these are
(Kear, 1965; NZGS, 1981). currently of no economic interest.
The components of the sands are titanomagnetite, Chemical analyses of some magnetic concentrates
titanohematite, augite, hornblende, hypersthene, andesine, from the major deposits are given in table 4.10.3. Total
and minor zircon, apatite and garnet. Rock fragments are iron content in these analyses is higher than the 55 to 58
common, and ilmenite forms over 8 per cent in some depo­ per cent that is typical of the concentrates produced. TiO2
sits in the far north. The titanomagnetite is considered to content is about 8 per cent and V2O5 generally about
be derived mainly from the erosion of Quaternary andesitic 0.5 per cent. Description of the mineragraphy of the
volcanoes (Mount Egmont and its ancestors) near the coast titanomagnetite is detailed in Williams (1974).
(Kear, 1965; Williams, 1974).
New Zealand Steel Ltd, through its subsidiary New
Identified resources of iron sand from major deposits Zealand Steel Mining Ltd, owns and operates the Waikato
on the west coast of the North Island are estimated to be North Head mine at the mouth of the Waikato River about
more than 780 Mt of iron concentrate, of which at least 50 km south of Auckland. The deposit covers an area of
550 Mt assays better than 55 per cent soluble iron. The 12 km2 and has an average thickness of 17 m (Thompson
breakdown of these resources by deposit is given in table and others, 1985). Mining commenced in 1969, and pro-
91

Table 4.10.1 Major features of North Island sand-bearing formations Northern region - Kaihu Sands group

Feature Mitiwai Bothwell Hood Awhitu

Major lithology Loose gray sand Consolidated grey sand, Thick clayey brown sand Clayey brown sand with
with loose sand below with loose grey sand black stainings
below
Soil clay Nil Thin Thick Very thick
Chy penetration from Nil Average 15 ft Average 35 ft Over 100 ft
surface
Vegetation None or lupin Usually grassed Grassed or bushed Grassed or bushed
Topography Good dune form Dune form Eroded, no dune form Deeply dissected
Maximum height 10 ft 70 ft 135 ft 550 ft
above sea level of beach
sands
Volcanic ash cover None None Possibly thin ash Thick ash
Age Late Holocene Late Pleistocene Mid Pleistocene Early Pleistocene
(Monastirian) to early (Tyrrhenian and Penultimate
Holocene Glaciation)
Titanomagnetite Variable (average about Most beds not very rich Includes richest iron sand Only in younger higher
Content 20-25%) (average about 10-15%) beds, named Waiuku beds, say over 400 ft above
Blacksand Member sea level where average
(average about 40%) may be 15-20% locally, but
generally low
Remarks Actively drifting or very - - Pumice and lignite com-
recently fixed sands mon in older beds

Southern Region — Patea Sand and Pouakai group

Feature Patea Rapanui Brunswick Kaiatea

Major lithology Loose grey dune-sand Marine sand, lignite and Marine sand, ash and Alluvial sand, silt, etc.
dune-sand dune-sand
Overlying soil, ash, and Virtually nil Few feet (say 5 ft) Commonly 5 to 5 ft, plus 10 ft and more
blown sand cover Rapanui dunes locally
Vegetation None or scrub Grassed Grassed Grassed
Topography Good dune form Terraces and dunes Eroded terraces, no dune Highly eroded terraces, no
form dune form
Age Holocene Late Pleistocene (e.g. Mid-late Pleistocene (e.g. Mid Pleistocene (e.g.
Monastirian) Tyrrhenian) Milazzian)
Titanomagnetite content 20% 10% 11% Less than Brunswick
(average)
Possible source of iron Yes No No
sand

Source: Kear, 1965.


92

Table 4.10.2 Iron sand resourcesa of west coast North Island deposits

Raw sand Grade Concentrate Soluble


(x 106 tons) (%) (x 106 tons) iron (%)

Muriwai-Whatipu 105 21 22 56.6


Manukau Peninsula 430 13 56b 55.7
NZ. Steel Mine site (Waikato
North Head) 390 24 94b 55.7
Port Waikato 18 25 4 —
Waimai 42 47 20 —
Raglan 125 20 25 55.8
Aotea ) 125 10 12 —
Kawhia ) 500 10 50 —
Taharoa 940 32 300 553
Harihari ) 1 100 1 582
Marakopa ) 55 53 29 —
Awakino ) 9 64 6 —
Mokau ) 10 37 4 —
Fitzroy ) 025 37 0.1 —
Waitara ) 40 20 8 462
Patea ) 70 33 23 533
Wanganui ) 225 16 36 54.1
Waipipi 300 18 54 56.0
Total 744

Source: NZGS, 1981


a Resources at identified level
b Awhitu sand not included in estimates

Table 4.103 Chemical analyses of magnetic concentrates from North Island iron sand deposits

A B C D E

FeO 30 3 7 31.1 29.46 31.9 29.2


MgO 3.30 2.8 2.81 32 2.7
MnO 0-59 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.66
CaO 0.10 0.52 0.17 0.37 0.1
FeiOa 52.47 51.6 49.74 51.5 54.0
AI2O3 331 3.1 2.49 3.3 5.6
V2O5 0.36 037 0.47 035 0.4
Cr2O3 — 0.023 0.03 0.017 -
TiO2 8.00 7.74 8.75 7.87 7.0
SiO2 1.00 0.01 2.95 0.01 0.2
P2O5 0.15 - 0.50 - 0.1
Insol. — 2.26 — 1.44 —
Fe (total) 60.43 60.23 57.66 60.79 60.44

Source: Williams, 1974


A Waikato North Head
B LakeTaharoa
C Fitzroy
D Patea
E Patea
93

duction in 1974 was 217,000 tons of concentrate; the owned and operated by Waipipi Ironsands Ltd. The deposit
operation has been expanded to 1.5 Mt/year concentrate has an average thickness of 9 m and is mined by two
(Anon., 1983; Anon., 1985). cutter-suction dredges; an offshore loading system similar
Two bucketwheel excavators are now used to ex­ to that at Taharoa being used for loading concentrates
tract the ore. The concentrate is trucked to the Glenbrook onto ships. Mining commenced in about 1971. In 1984,
steel mill about 20 km away. Production by New Zealand 568,000 tons of titanomagnetite concentrate was produced
Steel Ltd in 1984 was near capacity of 135,000 tons of and exported to Japan (DSIR, 1981; DSIR, 1985).
crude steel billets; a fivefold expansion programme was to
be completed by late 1986 (New Zealand Steel Ltd, 1985;
2. Ilmenite
Anon., 1983).
The Taharoa operation 10 km to the south of Detrital deposits of ilmenite are known in several
Kawhia Harbour, about 160 km south of Auckland, is also districts in New Zealand, mainly along the west coast of
owned and operated by New Zealand Steel Ltd. The the South Island. Most of the present-day beaches and
deposit, which averages about 6 m in thickness, is mined by sand dunes along the 420 km of coastline between the
a combination of a cutter-suction dredge which floats on Karamea River in the north and Jacksons Bay in the south
a man-made pond, and bulldozers working around buried contain substantial concentrations of ilmenite, associated
feeder systems. The raw sand is piped or conveyed to a with garnet and other heavy minerals. Some of the deposits
concentrating plant, from where it is pumped as slurry onto have been dredged for gold.
an offshore loading buoy and then to an ore carrier. Mining The largest of the deposits occur at Barrytown and
commenced in 1971, and 1,518,000 tons of titanomagne­ Westport; deposits at Karamea North and Hokitika South
tite concentrate was produced and exported to Japan 1984. are also important. The resources and grades of these and
The Waipipi operation 7 km to the south-west of other deposits in the area are given in table 4.10.4, and
Waverly, about 50 km to the north-west of Wanganui, is their localities are shown in figure 4.10.1.

Table 4.10.4 Ilmenite resources in west coast South Island deposits

Location Ilmenite Resources Other economically


tons x 106 ilmenite grade recoverable minerals

Karamea North 2.5 6% Zircon, monazite


Karamea South 0.65 3.6% Zircon, monazite
Birchfield 1.0 5.8% Zircon, monazite
Fairdown No estimate
Carters Beach (Westport) 6.5-9.6 7.6-15% Zircon, monazite, gold
Nine Mile Beach North (Westport) 1.8-2.4 5.4-7.4% Zircon, monazite, gold
Nine Mile Beach South (Westport) 0.45-0.58 10-13% Zircon, monazite, gold
Barrytown 10.8 8.5% Zircon, monazite, gold
New River No estimate
Hokitika North 0.42 6.0% Zircon, monazite, gold
Hokitika South 3.0 5.9% Zircon, monazite, gold
Mokonui 0.17 5.2% Zircon, monazite, gold
Ross 0.56 55% Zircon, monazite, gold
Ounatai Small
Saltwater Lagoon 0.51 10.1% Zircon, monazite, gold
Five Mile Beach, Okarito 0.47 5.6% Zircon, monazite, gold
Omoeroa No estimate 1.6%
Gillespies Beach 0.44 3.2% Gold
Hunts Beach 0.31 11.0% Zircon, monazite
Bruce Bay 0.12 6.0% Zircon, monazite

Source: NZGS, 1981


94

The Barrytown deposit, which extends from the indicated. At the Waikato North Head operation, the
present-day beach to about 1 km inland, occurs as north­ ilmenite grades about 0.6 per cent, and could eventually be
south trending beach and dune sand and has an average recovered as a by-product of the titanomagnetite. However,
thickness of about 10 m. Most of the deposit contains beds the TiO2 content of the ilmenite is very low, about 35 to
and stringers of gravel and pebbles and has an average thick­ 43 per cent (Williams, 1974).
ness of overburden of about 1.5 m. Grades tend to be
Ilmenite beach sands are present on the eastern
lowest in the older inland dunes, as is the case at the nearby
Coromandel Peninsula in the north-east of the North
Westport deposit (Mann and James, 1986; McPherson,
1978). Island. Four specific localities have been reported: Whare-
kaho Beach near Whitianga, Opoutane Beach near Whare-
An extensive drilling programme was undertaken kawa, Waihi Beach near Waihi, and Waimana Beach on the
during 1984-1985 by the current operators, Fletcher Chal­ eastern side of Cape Colville.
lenge Ltd (throughtheir wholly-owned subsidiary, Grampian
Mining); the results are not yet available. On the basis of While the heavy mineral concentrations occur
drilling in the early 1970s by the previous operators, Car­ mainly in sand dunes, both modern and fossil, deposits are
pentaria Exploration, inferred resources are estimated as also known in modern beaches and in the estuary and off­
10.8 Mt of ilmenite, averaging 8.5 per cent ilmenite (DSIR, shore bay areas. The first two localities referred to above
1981). Other heavy minerals include garnet 15 to 20 per contain a combined tonnage of 2.5 Mt of ilmenite, of
cent, zircon 0.1 to 0.3 per cent, monazite 0.1 to 0.3 per average grade of 35 per cent ilmenite. Waihi Beach is of
cent, rutile 0.1 per cent, gold 0.06 g/ton, and minor cassite­ lower grade, about 6 per cent ilmenite, but probably
rite and scheelite. While the zircon, monazite, and gold contains larger tonnages. Zircon averages about 1 per cent
have economic possibilities, the associated garnet is unlikely in the sand. The TiO2 content of the ilmenite, as elsewhere
to have any commercial value because of its relatively low in New Zealand, is low, on average 40 to 45 per cent
value and the isolated location of the deposit (DSIR, 1981). (NZGS, 1981; Williams, 1974).

The TiO2 content of the ilmenite is relatively low Heavy mineral occurrences have been reported
(45 to 47 per cent, table 4.10.3) because of minute (10 to elsewhere in New Zealand but few, if any, are of commercial
20 micron) inclusions of albite, minor quartz and apatite. interest. On the north-east coast of Stewart Island small
Chromium and vanadium contents are low and well within quantities of high-purity black sand are known. One
commercial specifications. The ilmenite has an unusually sample contained 85 per cent magnetite and 13 per cent
high ferrous to ferric iron ratio (Fe ++/Fe+++) which makes ilmenite (containing 44 per cent TiO2 ). At George Sound
it particularly suitable for acid leaching. This characteristic in Fiordland, and Orepuki in Southland, small quantities of
has enabled Fletcher Challenge Ltd to develop a new process ilmenite are present, but at both localities the ilmenite
which produces TiO2 pigment directly from the ilmenite. assays only 26 per cent TiO2. The Orepuki area also con­
A pilot plant to test this process was to be in operation in tains minor quantities of rutile, zircon, and gold.
late 1986 (Judd and Palmer, 1973; Terry, 1985). Rutile occurs as a minor or trace component of
The other major ilmenite deposit in the district is at many of the heavy mineral beach-sand deposits of New
Westport,some 50 km to the north. Large resources of Zealand. In the ilmenite deposits of the South Island it
ilmenite, approximately 10 Mt (inferred) are present on and is generally less than 0.16 per cent — too low for economic
close to the present shoreline at Carters Beach and Nine recovery unless perhaps as a by-product. However, a grade
Mile Beach (table 4.10.4). Bulk grade is about 10 per cent of about 2 per cent was reported in a sample from Carters
ilmenite. Additional resources are known in the older Beach at Westport. Small quantities of garnet-rich beach
Pleistocene strandlines further inland and these are esti­ sands containing up to 1 per cent rutile have been reported
mated to contain between 10 and 20 Mt ilmenite (inferred). at Transit Beach and Poison Bay (south of Milford Sound),
The sands grade about 3 to 5 per cent ilmenite and are not and the nearby Anchorage Cove in George Sound (NZGS,
regarded as an economic resource. Gold in the sands is 1981; Williams, 1974).
currently being evaluated by Buller Minerals and CRA Gold has been recovered from beach and alluvial
Exploration. The Westport deposit is described in detail deposits at many localities in New Zealand, mainly in the
in McPherson (1978). South Island.
Ilmenite is a significant component of some titano­
magnetite sand deposits, particularly north of the Waikato Production and processing
River mouth of the North Island (figure 4.10.1). At Manu-
kau Heads, Piho and Muriwai Beach, average values of 7 to In 1984, production of titanomagnetite concentrates
9 per cent ilmenite are recorded, with substantial tonnages from North Island operations totalled 2.303 Mt (56 per
95

cent Fe) as shown below (DSIR, 1985): An expanded operation will include a vanadium recovery
operation. Details of the steelmaking process and expansion
Waikato North Head
programme are given in Anon., 1983.
(New Zealand Steel Ltd) 216,991 tons
No other heavy minerals, apart from gold, are com­
Taharoa mercially produced in New Zealand. A pilot plant lor the
(New Zealand Steel Ltd) 1,5 17,567 tons production of 5 to 10 tons/year of TiO2 pigment from
Barrytown ilmenite was planned for late 1986. If success­
Waipipi ful, the operating company, Fletcher Challenger Ltd,
(Waipipi Ironsands Ltd) 568,235 tons intends to construct by 1990 a full-scale plant capable of
producing 250,000 tons/year of pigment forexport (Terry,
The bulk of production from the Taharoa and 1985). The process developed by the New Zealand Depart­
Waipipi mines is exported to Japan; a minor amount is ment of Scientific and Industrial Research, under contract
exported to Korea. The titanomagnetite is important to to the operators, uses the low TiO2 ilmenite. The process
the Japanese steel producers for blending in minor quan­
employs hydrochloric acid and produces minor toxic wastes,
tities with other iron ore feedstock to extend the life of the
hydrochloric acid being regenerated within the system. The
refractory linings of the blast furnaces. It also helps to
process is particularly applicable to the New Zealand
reduce and remove nitrogen in the pig iron. Concentrates
ilmenite with its high ferrous to ferric iron ratio. Details of
are purchased by seven steel producers in Japan, the major the process are given in Judd and Palmer, 1973. The
purchasers being Nippon Steel, Nippon Kokan and Kawa­
process is energy-intensive and a suggested site for the
saki Steel. Because of declining steel production in Japan
pigment plant is Charleston where low-grade Coal could be
over recent years iron sand exports from New Zealand
converted into gas to operate a power station. Other sites
have decreased (Tex Report Co. Ltd, 1986).
with access to low-cost energy arc being considered, includ­
ing those on North Island and overseas locations (Terry,
New Zealand Steel Ltd steel plant at Glenbrook uses
1985; Fletcher Challenge, personal communication, 1985).
the entire production from the Waikato North Head mine.
Production at the plant in recent years has been near
Trade
capacity of about 135,000 tons/year of steel billets. An
expansion of the operations to 775,000 tons/year capa­ New Zealand imported 2,400 to 2,600 tons/year of
city of slab and billet is currently under way and isexpected TiO2 pigment in 1983 and 1984, mainly from Australia,
to be completed in 1987. The plant, which began operation with lesser amounts from the United Stales and the Federal
in 1969, uses the Steelco-Lurgi process. Sub-bituminous Republic of Germany. Imports of rare earth products in
(non-coking) coal from the Hentley area is used to produce 198 3 and 1984 arc unspecified, but less than $NZ 10,000
a highly-metallized sponge iron which is directly converted, in value, mainly from the United Kingdom and Japan.
without liquifying to steel, in a conventional electric arc Imports of minor amounts of zirconium products have been
furnace. The slag, rich in titanium, is currently stockpiled. recorded.

REFERENCES

Anon., 1983 New Zealand: iron sand to steel. Mining of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, Monograph 4,
magazine, May, p. 346-353. p.5-17.

Anon., 1985 New Zealand iron sand exploration. Mining Judd, B. and Palmer, E.R., 1973 Production of titanium
journal, Feb. 8, vol. 304, No. 7799, 94 p. dioxide from ilmenite of the west coast. South
Island, New Zealand. Proceedings of the Austra­
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1981 lasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, No. 247,
The iron sands industry. Information leaflet, p. 23-33.
No. 22.
Kear, D., 1965 (Ecology of New Zealand’s iron sand
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1985 resources. Publications of the Eighth Common­
Mine production data for iron sand deposits. New wealth Mining and Metallurgy Congress: Paper 219,
Zealand Geological Survey. p. 1-10.
Jones, L.S., 1974 History of mineral prospecting and Mann, G. and James, D., 1986 The evaluation and devel­
production. In Williams, G.L., (Ed.) Economic opment of the Barrytown ilmenite deposit as a
geology of New Zealand. Australasian Institute source of titanium dioxide pigment. In Australia:
96

a world source of ilmenite, rutile, monazite, and and 1983-1984. Department of Scientific and
zircon, Symposia Series No. 46, Australasian Insti­ Industrial Research, New Zealand Geological Survey,
tute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, p. Report Ml42. p. 1-33.
139-142.
Terry, S., 1985 — Uniques west coast sands boost new
McDougall, J.C., 1961 — Iron sands deposits offshore from industry hopes. National business review, October
the west coast, North Island, New Zealand. New 21,p.37.
Zealand journal of geology and geophysics, 4,
p. 283-300. The TEX Report Co. Ltd, 1986 — Iron ore manual 1985-
1986. The TEX Report Co. Ltd. Tokyo.
McPherson, R.I., 1978 — Geology of Quaternary ilmenite­
bearing coastal deposits at Westport. New Zealand Thompson, B.N., Braithwaite, R.L., and Sherwood, A.M.,
Geological Survey bulletin 87. 1985 — Mineral resources map of New Zealand.
Scale 1:2,000,000. New Zealand Geological Survey,
New Zealand Steel Limited, 1985 - Annual report 1985. Lower Hutt.

NZGS, 1981 — Minerals of New Zealand — A Summary of Williams, GJ., 1974 — Iron and titanium-bearing minerals.
resources, prospects and other occurrences, Part A: In Williams.
Metallics. New Zealand Geological Survey, Report
NZGS 38A, p. 1-9. Williams, G.J., (Ed.) Economic geology of New Zealand.
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
NZGS, 1984 — New Zealand metallic and non-metallic Monograph 4, p. 127-142.
mineral commodity imports and exports 1982-1983
4.11 PACIFIC ISLANDS

A. Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea has substantial heavy mineral The smith-east Papuan area appears to have the
beach-sand deposits consisting of titaniferous magnetite greatest economic potential with mineralized beach sands
sands, and chromite sands with minor associations of rutile. occurring on the fiat coastal plain, which has maximum
These deposits have not been developed to date. Alluvial width of 8 km in the four major areas. There are no sand
gold deposits, which have been worked since the last cen­ dunes. Drilling by the Australian Oil and Gas Corp. Ltd
tury, are not considered in this paper. (AOGC) in 1970 at specific localities indicated mineraliza­
tion in the form of titanomagnetite-rich lenses parallel to
Iron sand deposits are known in the following areas: the present coastline. Each lense was several kilometres
on the south-east Papuan coast between Beagle Bay and long, with the broadest being 200 m wide. The shallow
Mullins Harbour; on the coast of the Gulf of Papua, drilling (average 1.7 m) rarely penetrated the mineralized
between Popondetta and Lae on the north coast of the lenses, and isolated deeper drilling indicated lense thick­
Papua New Guinea peninsular; and on Bougainville Island nesses averaging 9 m. The lenses are underlain by uncon­
(figure 4.11.1). solidated clays.

MANUS ISLAND

NEW
HANOVER

NEW
IRELAND
BISMARK SEA
JAYA
IRIAN

BOUGAINVILLE

SOLOMON SEA

GULF Of
PAPUA
DARK

Magnetite, titaniferous magnetic bearing sands


Chromite-bearing sands
Olivine sands
Sample location
The boundaries and names shown on
this map do not imply official acceptance CORAL SEA
or endorsement by the United Nations

Figure 4.11.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Papua New Guinea


98

Titanomagnetite is the major heavy mineral con­ Occurrences of heavy minerals - magnetite,
stituent. It generally occurs in the form of magnetite with ilmenite, chromite and others - are known at a few locali­
minor ilmenite as sets of parallel lamellae. The magnetite ties between Popondetta and Lae on the north coast of the
is frequently altered to hydrated iron oxides and the Papua New Guinea peninsula (figure 4.11.1). Analysis of
ilmenite to leucoxene. Free ilmenite and rutile are rare sands from two areas near Cape Ward Hunt, 70 km north­
and traces of silver, gold and platinoids are also present. west of Popondetta - Mambara beach and Douglas Harbour
beach - indicate heavy mineral content of between 3 and
The gangue material is comprised of pyroxene,
4 per cent. Minor platinum and gold may also be expected
quartz, kaolinised feldspar, and basic rock fragments in
in the sands. The quantities of sand above sea level in any
varying proportions. The limited drilling by AOGC
one area are probably insufficient to support a mining
indicated 21 Mt of titaniferous magnetite sands with an
operation (Davies, 1969).
average grade of 13 per cent magnetics (Berkman, 1972).
Berkman (1975) calculated an inferred resource of 445 Mt A large alluvial chromite deposit occurs 70 km
of titaniferous magnetite sand at a grade of more than south-west of Madang on the Ramu River. The deposit
10 per cent Fe for the south coast area. contains resources of 80 to 100 Mt of sand containing 8 to
The iron content of the titanomagnetite appears 10 per cent chromite, amenable to simple recovery and
too low to be currently of much economic interest. A processing methods. The deposit, which overlies substantial
concentrate produced from the area of Deba village, near resources of lateritic nickel and cobalt, could possibly yield
Magarida, contained about 39 per cent Fe, 10 per cent between 200,000 and 400,000 tons/year of metallurgical-
Ti, and 0.4 per cent V. However, tests carried out by grade chromite. However, a feasibility study undertaken by
CSIRO (Australia) indicate that the iron and titanium in the owners, Nord Resources (70 per cent) and MIM Hold­
the concentrate may be separated by reduction techniques, ings (30 per cent) indicated that at current market prices
followed by smelting to produce a low carbon, vanadiferous exploitation of the deposit is uneconomic. The lack of
iron and a titania slag containing about 32 per cent Ti necessary infrastructure such as roads and harbour facili­
(Berkman, 1975). ties is one of the major problems hampering future develop­
ment (Power, 1985).
Deposits in the Gulf of Papua, to the west of Port
Moresby were jointly studied by Australian and Japanese Alluvial rutile deposits have been reported on an
companies (Catherine Investment Ltd and Kanematsu- unnamed island near Cape Blackwood, and on Goaribari
Gosho Ltd) in the early 1970s when the feasibility of in the Gulf of Papua. These were examined by Premier
shipping the sands to Japan was also examined. Resources Mining Pty Ltd (Australia) in the mid 1960s but no follow­
were estimated at 300 Mt of concentrate assaying 63.12 per up activities are recorded.
cent Fe, 8.26 per cent Ti, 1.70 per cent Al, 1.11 per cent
A review of the exploration for beach sands in
Si, 0.05 per cent P, 0.035 per cent S (Minerals week), but Papua New Guinea is given in Power-Fardy (1985).
no development of the deposits has been undertaken.
Titanomagnetite deposits are also reported just north of Imports of mineral sand products into Papua New
the Fly River. Guinea are not listed (Lyday, 1986).

B.

Fiji has two main mineral sand deposits. Both are an area of 2.62 km2 , with a length of about 5 km, and an
titaniferous iron sands located on Viti Levu Island. Neither average width of about 500 m. They have an average height
has been developed. of about 20 m with a maximum height of about 60 m
The Singatoka deposit located in the south of the above sea level. The average thickness of the dunes below
island extends for 5 km west of the Singatoka River mouth sea level is about 13 m, but in some areas they extend down
(figure 4.11.2). Investigations of the deposit first began in to 30 m. Most of the mineralization is contained in the
1951, the first drilling programme being undertaken in upper 5 m of the dunes, in relatively fine sands (less than
0.25 mm). The principal heavy minerals are magnetite,
1961-1962 by Banno Oceanic Ltd in conjunction with
Fijian Government organizations. Limited offshore work ilmenite, and hematite, with gangue predominantly com­
posed of quartz, feldspar and pyroxene. The sands overlie
was carried out by Crawford Marine in 1967. Further
late Tertiary marls and limestones.
exploration in 1969-1972 by Manganex Ltd involved
detailed drilling of the richer eastern zone.
The highest-grade sands occur at the eastern end of
The iron sands are concentrated in dunes that cover the deposit where the grade averages 5 to 7 per cent mag-
99

economic status of the deposit (Greenbaum, 1980).

The other major known iron sand deposit is Fiji


occurs in the Mba River delta in (he north of Viti Levu
Island and was investigated by Manganex in the early
1970s. The delta covers an area of about 20 km2 and is
composed of black sands derived from the inland basic
volcanics. The depth of waler over the delta is 1 to 3 m,
a large area being exposed at low tide. The iron sands are
between 2 and 5 m thick, with titanomagnetite (he predo­
minant heavy mineral. The highest grades and largest
tonnages of mineral occur in the central delta area. In­
ferred resources were estimated by Manganex to be approx­
imately 8 Mt of magnetic material, as outlined in the
drilling campaign summarized below:

central delta ( 12 holes) 5.6 million tons


eastern delta (1 hole) 1.4 million tons
Figure 4.11.2 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Fiji western delta (62 holes) 0.9 million tons

netic material; 1.9 to 2.0 Mt of magnetic concentrate have Concentrates produced from the deposits assayed
been proved in an area of 0.62 km2. The concentrate 57 to 58 per cent Fe, 6.7 to 7.5 per cent TiO2,0.7 to 1.0
contains about 77 per cent Fe and 5 per cent Ti. The per cent V2O5, and 0.3 to 0.35 per cent Cr2O3. The
remainder of the deposit, covering an area of about 2 km2, deposit is considered by the Geological Survey of Fiji to
is lower grade, containing about 2.5 to 4 per cent magnetic be subeconomic at present (Greenbaum, 1980).
material. Resources in this area are estimated at about
Substantial tonnages of magnetite, together with
4 Mt. Additional resources are also present in the area
chromiferous minerals, are reported in other offshore areas
offshore from the dunes. Samples recovered from an
of Viti Levu Island. Iron sands are also reported in large
average water depth of 20 in contained up to 21 per cent
quantities off Vanna Levu Island.
magnetic material. While the deposit is not considered to
be economically exploitable at present, further investiga­ Fiji imports about 300 tons/year of TiO2 pigment,
tion of the western and offshore areas could improve the mainly from Australia (Lyday, 1986).

C. Solomon Islands

Alluvial gold from the Chovohio River on Guadal­


canal Island is the only metal which is currently being
worked in the Solomon Islands, although occurrences of
magnetite and ilmenite beach sands arc known on many
of the islands, including Guadalcanal, Santa Isabel,Choiscul,
and Malaita Islands (figure 4.11.3). Grades arc generally
high, with values in excess of 50 per cent. Magnetite is
common. Twenty-five magnetite and ilmenite deposits and
occurrences are listed in a United Nations publication, with
locations, brief notes and references (Anon., 1985); how­
ever, none of the deposits appear to be of economic dimen­
sions. The most interesting of these deposits is located at
Cost Lithoghuahua Bay in the south-west of Santa Isabel
Island. It contains 127,000 m3 of sand (about 200,000
tons) containing 64 per cent magnetite. Another interest­
ing deposit consisting of 270,000 tons of sand averaging
24.6 per cent heavy minerals (mainly magnetite and
ilmenite) occurs in south Choiseul Island in the Ghoma Figure 4.11.3 Location of heavy mineral deposits,
River estuary. Solomon Islands
100

Beaches of San Jorge Island and eastern Choiseul these prospects are given in the United Nations publication
Island contain minor quantities of chromite and magnetite. (Anon., 1985).
One such prospect in north-west San Jorge averages 7.38
per cent chromite over a depth of 8 m. Olivine-rich sands The Solomon Islands is not listed as an importer of
on Rendova Island in the New Georgia group have been any mineral sands products.
considered as a possible source of foundry sands. Notes on

D. Vanuatu

Black sands containing substantial quantities of


titanomagnetite occur on many of the islands of Vanuatu,
although to date no mining has been undertaken. The
sands occur on present-day beaches and on older raised
beaches. The largest single concentration is in south-west
Efate (figure 4.11.4) where 370,000 tons of sand contain­
ing 47 per cent magnetic material has been delineated. This
could yield about 174,000 tons of titanomagnetite. Other
major concentrations occur in the east of Eromanga (35
to 37 per cent magnetics), and the south of Espiritu Santo
(6 to 9 per cent magnetics) and contain estimated resources
of 128,000 tons and 1.15 Mt of titanomagnetite, respec­
tively. There are smaller occurrences in the west of Espiritu
Santo, on Vanua Lava, in the west of Guaa, and on Epi.
Analysis of the magnetic concentrate from Espiritu Santo
and Eromanga Islands indicated 57 to 60 per cent Fe and
4 to 5 per cent Ti. Mining of these deposits is unlikely to
occur in the near future (Carney and MacFarlane, 1980;
Mallick, 1973).

There is no record of imports of mineral sand Figure 4.11.4 Location of heavy minerals, Vanuatu and
products into Vanuatu. New Caledonia

E. New Caledonia

While no mineral sand deposits are currently being Faitao (figure 4.11.4). The major island is also reported to
exploited, several areas with appreciable concentrations of have potentially-economic rutile sand deposits (Anon.,
chromite sands are known. These include two areas in the 1985b).
south-east of the major island; two areas, near Noumea and
near Yate, in the centre of the major island; areas near New Caledonia imports about 30 tons/year of TiO2
Kone and near Houailu, and on one of the small islands off pigment from France (Lyday, 1986).

REFERENCES

Adams R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan­ Anon., 1985b — New Caledonia — mineral potential
cial Times Information Ltd., London, 244 p. assessed in new multi-client report. Industrial mine­
rals, No. 217, p. 15-17.
Anon., 1985a - Solomon Islands: explanatory brochure,
vol. 1 in Atlas of mineral resources of the ESCAP Berkman, D.A., 1972 - Summary of mineral exploration in
region. United Nations Economic and Social Com­ eastern Papua, 1969 to 1972. A.O.G. Minerals Pty
mission for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. Ltd (unpublished).
101

Berkman, D.A., 1975 Magnetite beach sands deposits of on Mineral Assessment, Evaluation and Calculation
south-east Papua. In C.L Knight (ed.), Economic vol 1: Proceedings. Commonwealth Geological
geology of Australia and Papua New Guinea, vol. 1; Liaison Office CGLO SLR3/1, P. 75.
Metals. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metal­
lurgy, Monograph No. 5,p. 1088-1090. Lyday, T.Q., 1986 The mineral industry of other South
Pacific islands. In Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. iii.
Bernie, L., 1984 Ocean mining activity shifting to exclu­ Area reports: international. United States Bureau
sive economics zones. Engineering and mining of Mines, p. 1069-1079.
journal, 1985, No. 7, p. 57-60.
Mallick, D.I.J., 1973 Review of the mineral deposits of
Carney and MacFarlane, 1980 Mineral resources of the the New Hebrides. In N.H. Fisher (ed.). Metallo-
New Hebrides. Report of the Regional Workshop genic provinces and mineral deposits in the south­
on Mineral Assessment, Evaluation and Calculation, western pacific. Bureau of Mineral Resources,
vol. 1: Proceedings, Commonwealth Geological Geology and Geophysics, Australia, Bulletin 141,
Liaison Office CGLO SLR3/1 p. 105. p. 13-31.
Davies, H.L., 1969 Notes on Papuan ultramafic belt Power, T., 1985 Chromite the non-metallurgical mar­
mineral prospect, territory of Papua New Guinea. kets. Industrial minerals No. 211, p. 17-51.
Bureau of Mineral Resources, Australia, Geology &
Geophysics, Record 1969/67 (unpublished). Power-Fardy, D., 1985 Commodity review: beach sands
of Papua New Guinea. Geological Survey of Papua
Greenbaum, D., 1980 - An assessment of the mineral New Guinea, Report 1985/9, 53 p.
resources of Fiji. Report of the Regional Workshop
4.12 PAKISTAN

There has been no mining of heavy mineral sands in sources in the area. A proposal for the development of the
Pakistan to date. Little information is available on the deposit was prepared by MacDonald (1978). However,
heavy mineral resources of the country. The area of greatest according to present knowledge, tonnages are too small
interest occurs along the margin of the Indus River delta to to support any substantial operation.
the east of Karachi where several Mt of sand containing sub­
stantial quantities of heavy minerals have been identified. Additional resources have also been indicated in the
Tharparker Desert in south-east Pakistan, near the towns
The heavy-mineral-bearing sands have accumulated of Mithi and Diplo, but as yet no detailed work has been
on several small islands which are generally flat, low-lying carried out (Macdonald, 1978). Scheelite and minor quan­
and marshy, and composed principally of mud, located at tities of other heavy minerals occur in alluvial deposits in
the front of the marshy delta area. The sand accumula­ the far north-east of Pakistan along the Indus , Gilgit and
tions are constantly reworked by the action of the tides and Hunza Rivers, the most promising locality being near Oghi
currents. Over 2.3 Mt of sand with 25 to 30 per cent heavy in the Hazara district, 100 km north of Islamabad. How­
mineral content have been outlined on the four most ever, no economic deposits have been reported (Asrarul-
interesting islands. Total inferred resources are estimated lah, 1982; Ahmad and others, 1976).
as 662,000 tons of heavy minerals, composed largely of
magnetite and ilmenite, with minor zircon, monazite, and The only mineral sand product imported into
rutile. The TiO2 content of the ilmenite is not known Pakistan, apart from alluvial tin, is TiO2 pigment imports
(MacDonald, 1978). Additional work is required to deli­ of which are currently about 2,000 tons/year, mainly from
neate these deposits further and to locate additional re­ the United Kingdom and Australia (Connor, 1986).

REFERENCES

Ahmed, E., and others, 1976 — Investigations of placer Connor, K., 1986 — The mineral industry of Pakistan. In
mineral deposits in the Indus, Gilgit, Hunza, and Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. iii, Area reports:
Chitral Rivers of Pakistan. The Geological Survey International. United States Bureau of Mines,
of Pakistan, Record v 35. p. 637-648.

Asrarullah, 1982 — Investigations for tungsten in Pakistan, Macdonald, E.M., 1978 — Raw materials prospects (the
In Tungsten geology Jiangzi, China. Proceedings of assessment of mineral beach sands near Karachi).
a symposium jointly sponsored by ESCAP/RMRDC Report to the Government of Pakistan, Interna­
and the Ministry of Geology, People’s Republic of tional Atomic Energy Agency, TA report No. 1305,
China, 12-22 October 1981, p. 9-13. 65 p.
4.13 PHILIPPINES

History The suspension of mining remained in force until


1981 when the Government relaxed its controls slightly to
Heavy mineral beach sands in the Philippines have allow the mining of chromite sands from a deposit on
long been known to contain substantial quantities of Palawan Island by the Philchrome Mining Corp. This
magnetite, titanomagnetite, and other heavy minerals, but company currently produces 20,000 to 2 5,000 tons/year
were never investigated or exploited because of the lack of of refractory-grade chromite. A minor chromite-sand
a suitable market. Interest in the sands began in the latter mining operation was also allowed on Mindanao Island.
part of the 1950s when representatives of Japanese iron However, no large-scale magnetite sand mines are operating
and steel companies showed interest in them as a potential in the country at present (Philippine Bureau of Mines,
source of iron and titanium for Japanese steel and chemical 1968; Vera Cruz, 1977; Noakes, 1968; Wu, 1983; Chin,
plants. 1981).
In 1959 the Bureau of Mines started a reconnais­
sance sampling campaign of the black sands of northern Geology and Resources
and western Luzon Island to obtain a preliminary assess­
ment of the economic potential of the area. Encouraging Substantial deposits of heavy-mineral-bearing sands
results led to further detailed investigations of the area, occur in numerous localities in the Philippines. While the
and also of selected areas of the other islands including island of Luzon is the most important locality, deposits
Mindanao, Leyte, Palawan and Negros Islands. Many are also known in Mindanao, Leyte, Palawan, and Negros
deposits of economic potential were outlined. Islands. Titanium-rich magnetite is the most abundant of
the heavy minerals and has been mined from several locali­
In 1964 production of magnetite-bearing sands was ties. Chromite is currently being mined at Iwo localities.
begun by Filmag Inc. which worked a deposit in La Union
Province in north-west Luzon Island. Initial production The majority of iron sand deposits on Luzon Island
was about 140,000 tons/year of magnetite concentrate con­ are located on the north-west coast in the provinces of
taining 61 per cent Fe and 6 to 7 per cent TiO2. The Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, and Pangasinian. They
company’s production capacity was increased to approx­ occur within a 300 km stretch from Laoag in the north to
imately 400,000 tons/year by the late 1960s and to over San Fabian in the south. The individual deposits (figure
700,000 tons/year by the early 1970s. 4.13.1) reported in the literature arc (listed from north to
south): Laoag, Vigan, Bauang, Santa Lucia, Santa Cruz,
Another operation was started in 1967 at Dilalongan Libtung, Bacnotan, Aringay, Damortis Bay, Santo Tomas,
on the east coast of Luzon Island by Maraveni Consolidated and San Fabian. Summary data on these deposits arc given
Mines Inc., at approximately 100,000 tons/year of magne­ in table 4.13.1. Luzon Island was the first area in the
tite concentrate. The operation ceased in the early 1970s. country to be mined for mineral sands production, begin­
In 1969, the Inco Mining Corporation started commercial ning in 1964 at one of the La Union beaches, possibly at
operations at Orani-Morong, near Manila in the south-west Bacnotan or Aringay.
of the island. The company abandoned this deposit in
1974, and began new operations on the south of Leyte The beaches which terminate abruptly at the foot­
Island, and at Bayawan on Negros Island. Other companies hills of the Central Cordillera arc typically 100 to 300 m
to become involved with magnetite-sand mining were the wide and range from as little as 10 m wide to over 500 m.
Long Beach Mining Corp. (also at Orani-Morong), and the They arc among the emerging and prograding shorelines
AngJo-Philippine Oil and Mining Corp. (in La Union and that arc typical of the Philippines. Most of the iron-bearing
Cagayen Provinces, Luzon Island). sand is very young, probably all Quaternary, and is often
underlain by Upper Miocene tuff. The source of magnetite
Production of magnetite sand in the Philippines is the andesite and other volcanica of the inland mountains
reached a peak of approximately 1.53 Ml in 1973, all of the (Encina, 1976).
concentrate being sold to Japanese steel companies. In
1976, the Philippines Government suspended all beach- The iron sands generally occur on the forebeach but
mining operations in the country because of environmental may extend out under the foreshore waters, or arc present
considerations. Cumulative magnetite sand production in low lying dunes (up to 2m high). The average thickness
prior to this was about 8.5 Ml. of the deposits varies between 1 and 3 m. The magnetic
104

Iron sand

Chromite

Heavy mineral

LUZON

PACIFIC OCEAN

SOUTH CHINA SEA

Bayawan

SULU SEA

MINDANAO

The boundaries and names shown on


this map do not imply official acceptance
or endorsement by the United Nations

Figure 4.13.1 Location of heavy mineral deposits, Philippines


105

Table 4.13.1 Mineral sand deposits of the Philippines

Deposit Location Commodity Grade Resources Geology Comments Reference

Laoag. NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — I Mt Ti-mgnt Mgnt conc. 62% Additional resources Anon., 1970
Ilocos Norte (identified) be, 4.8% TiO2, in Laoag Paoay Anon., 1975
Pr. 0.04% P, 3.7% area were explored
(18°4’ N: SiO2 by La Playa Mining
120°36’E) Corp., 1.7-13.65%
mgnt. extends to
3km inland
Vigan NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt av 24% mag­ 2 Mt Ti-mgnt 2-3 sq km area Anon., 1970
Ilocos Sur Pr. netics (parts (measured) 8 Phil. Bureau
(17°35' N: up to 40% Mt limagnt of Mines,
20°23'E) magnetics) (indicated/ 1968
interred)
Bauang NW Luzon Is. Mgnt 55% magne­ — 0.1-0.2 sq km Phil. Bureau
Ilocos Sur Pr. tics (from 3 area of Mines,
samples) 1968
Santa Lucia NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 18% be 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Production from Anon., 1970
Ilocos sur Pr. (identified) 1965 probably by
(minus post- Filmag. All sand
1970 produc­ mining operations in
tion) the Philippines were
suspended by govt.
in 1976.
Santa Cruz NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 15-35% Fe 3 Mt Ti-mgnt Mantas area has Important sands also Phil. Bureau
Ilocos Sur Pr. (identified) 0.9 Mt mgnt at at nearby village of of Mines,
(17°O8' N: av. 35% in area Agoo. 1968; Anon.,
120°27'E) 1,700 m x 500 m 1970; Macdo­
x 2.5 m nald, 1971
Libtung NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — Mined by Filmag. A Macdonald,
Ilocos Sur Pr. pier and bulk-load­ 1971
(16°59' N: ing facilities were
120°28' E) installed here.
Bacnotan NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 30-40% Ti- 2 areas: Nth, and Mined by Filmag Phil. Bureau
La Union Pr. mgnt (from Sth Bacnotan, of Mines.
(16°45' N: 5 samples) combined area 1977; Mac­
12O°21'E) 1.0 sq km donald, 1971
Aringay NW Luzon Is. Mgnt-hem 20% be 3 Mt mgnt 58-59% be in Mined by Filmag Anon., 1970
La Union Pr. (identified, conc. Production in 1965:
1970) 134,000 tons mgnt
Santo Tomas NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 58-62% be in Mined by the Anglo Anon., 1975
(offshore) La Union Pr. cone. Philippines Oil &
LingayenGulf Mining Co.
(16 30' N:
120°22' E)
Damortis Bay NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 9.4% mgnt up 1 Ml sand at Part of a sub­ Deposit is possibly Caguiat, 1971
(offshore) La Union Pr. to 40% mgnt 15% mgnt; merged sandbar, the same as Santo
LingayenGulf 6.4 Ml sand 4-7 m water Tomas
(16 15' N: at 9.4% mgnt depth, 7-8 km
120°25' E) (identified) long, 2-3 km
wide, av. 2.6 m
thick. Some mag.
has ilmn & hem
exsolutions.
(’one. av. 59.5%
be,7%Ti()2
San Fabian NW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — 1 Mt Ti-mgnt (’one. 57-61% Anon., 1970
Pangasinan Pr. (identified) be, 6-7% TiO2
(16 15' N: 0.04% P.
120°24'E)
106

Table 4.13.1 (continued)

Deposit Location Commodity Grade Resources Geology Comments Reference

Aparri Nth Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt av. 35% mgnt 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Area 2-3 sq km An unspecified depo­ Phil. Bureau
Cagayan Pr. (from 5 sam­ (identified) Conc. 59-61% sit in Cagayan Pr. of Mines,
(18°22' N: ples) Fe, 4.8-5.8% TiO2 was mined by the 1968; Anon.,
121°40'E) Anglo Philippines 1970
Oil & Mining Co.
from 1972. Total
Luzon Is. production
by this company
300,000 tons.
Calamaniugan Nth Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Conc. 53-56% Fe, - Anon., 1970
Cagayan Pr. (identified) TiO2
Broad Earth Nth Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt — 2 Mt Ti-mgnt — A company was in­ Noakes, 1968
(identified) vestigating possibi­
lity of mining here
but it was reported
that Ti content was
too high.
Camiguin Is. Tinu island 70 Ti-mgnt over 2 Mt Ti- Conc. contains high Noakes, 1968
km nth of mgnt vanadium, up to
Luzon Is. (identified) 0.49%. Investigated
(18°55' N: by Filmag.
127°55'E)
Iba Botran SW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 1 Mt Ti-mgnt Cone. 60% Fe, — Anon., 1970
Bataan Pr. (identified) 7% TiO2 25%
(15°20' N: SiO2, 15%
119°59'E) A12O3, 0.03% S,
0.02% P.
Orani-Morong SW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Beach & dune Mined by Inco Anon., 1970
Bataan Pr. (identified) deposit rising to Mining Corp (1.5 Mt Anon., 1975
(14°48' N: (prior to 2 m a.s.l. 8 km 1970-1974) and Vera Cruz,
120°32'E mining) long, 300 m Long Beach Mining 1977 Bihis
wide, 2.3-4.7 m Corp (0.54 Mt 1971- and others,
thick. Overlies 1974). Deposit ex­ 1977
weathered horn­ hausted in 1974.
blende andesite
(Quaternary).
Conc. 56-60%
Fe, 6% TiO2,
0.04% P.
Mauban SW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 41% magne­ 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Beach deposit Phil. Bureau
Bataan Pr. tics (range (potential) over 16.5 km, of Mines,
10-77%) 50-150 m width. 1968
Conc, 50-58%
Fe, 10.78-12.67%
TiO2
Bagac SW Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt 22% Fe 2.3% 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Covers 25 ha, oc­ Anon., 1970
Bataan Pr. TiO2 (?) (identified) curs on beach - Apelo, 1977
(14°35' N: and on shallow
120°25'E) foreshore. Un­
derlain by andesi­
tic volcanics.
Dilalongan- NE Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt av. 17% Fe, 2 Mt Ti-mgnt Black sand layers Maraveni Consoli­ Noakes, 1968
Casiguran ? Pr. 2.7% TiO2 (measured) on beach 1.0-15 dated Mines started Anon., 1970
(16°22' N: (13-35% mag­ 1 Mt Ti-mgnt m thick,. Sand production here in Phil. Bureau
122°07'E) netic) (indicated/ alsocontains50% 1967 (120,000 tons/ of Mines,
interred) 1970 SiO2, 0.03% S, year but not re­ 1977
0.04%, P. 1.3% corded as producer
A12O3 in 1970
107

Table 4.13.1 (continued)

Deposit location Commodity Grade Resources Geology Comments Reference

Lamon Bay E. Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt Anon., 1970


(14°1()' N:
121°50’E)
Albay Gulf SE Luzon Is. Ti-mgnt Anon., 1970
(12°10' N:
124°00' E)
Mindanao Is.
Claver-Bacuag Nth Mindanao Ti-mgnt av. 3.72 mag­ 65,400 t Ti 133 km long Esguerra,
Is. Surigao del netics (up mgnt beach deposit. 1980
Norte to 17.3%) (identified) Conc. 55% Fe,
8.2% TiO2
0.89% Cr
Kinalab laban Nth Mindanao Cr-mgnt av. 5.88% Cr- 3,100 t Cr- Beach sands at A chromite sand is Esguerra,
Is. Surigao mgnt mgnt mouth of Kina- produced at an 1980
del Norte (potential) lablaban R., Conc. unlisted locality on
35.4% Fe, the island, possibly
28.33% Cr. in this area.
Lanuza Bay NE Mindanao Ti-mgnt Anon., 1970
Is. (9°20' N:
126 00' E)
Cateel Bay E. Mindanao Ti-mgnt - — Anon., 1970
Is. (7°50' N:
126 20' E)
Devao SE Mindanao Ti-mgnt - - Phil. Bureau
Is. of Mines,
1968
Surigao del unknown Ti-mgnt - — Phil. Bureau
Sur of Mines,
1968
Leyte Is.
Sth Leyte unlisted Ti-mgnt Mining by the Inco Anon., 1975
coast area localities Mining Corp. in early
1970s. Production
approx. 650,000
tons in 1974
Tolosa NE Leyte Is. Mgnt av. 10-20% Depth of depo­ Detailed magnetic & Phil. Bureau
(San Roque Leyte del magnetics sit 3-4 m. swamp geologic profiles of Mines,
& Tanghas) Norte (range 4-55%) over parts done in area (Tang­ 1968
has & San Roque)
by Phil. Bureau of
Mines, 1967
Palo E. Leyte Is. Mgnt 5 Mt mgnt Mining was being in­ Anon., 1970
(Elizalde) (1l°10' N: (potential) vestigated and possi­ Macdonald,
125°00' E) bly undertaken by 1971
the Samar Mining Co
in 1965-1966.
(called the“Sibuguey
project”), possibly
at this location.
108

Table 4.13.1 (continued)

Deposit Location Commodity Grade Resources Geology Comments Reference

Palawan Is.
Narra-Teresa SE Palawan Chromite - 2.6 Mt chro­ Av. grade of Production by Phil- Wu, 1983
Is. (9°05' N: mite (identi­ Chrom. 44.3% chrome Mining Corp Power, 1985
118°05'E) fied, 1981) Cr2O3 Refrac­ started 1981, 20­
tory grade 35- 25,000 tons/year
40%Cr2O3, 20% refractory grade
A12O3. Metallur­ chrom. plus some
gical grade 45-50 metallurgical grade
Cr2O3, 15-17% chrom.
Fe2O3.
Imuruan Bay NW Palawan Allanite, Approx. 0.05% Occur on beaches Grade is too low to Dela Cruz &
Is. (10°45'N: Sphene, (of sand) and coastal be economic but Tulay, 1983
119°20'E) Monazite shelves. Other possibility of other
Capoas-Era- heavy minerals higher concentra­
wan also present incl. tions in area.
rutile, zircon,
cassiterite, mag­
netite, leucoxene.
Negros Is.
Bayawan SW Negros Mgnt. - — - Mining started by Anon., 1975
Is. (9°21' N: Inco Mining Corp
122 47'E) in 1974.
Calatrava NE Negros Mgnt 13-58% Fe 1 Mt mgnt — — Anon., 1970
Is. (10°20’N: (potential)
123°20'E)

fraction (predominantly magnetite) in the sands ranges taining 7.4 Mt of ore with average magnetic content of 9.4
from 10 to 50 per cent. The average grade of the major per cent has been outlined in the Damortis Bay area of
deposits, pre-mining, was probably about 30 per cent; the Lingayen Gulf, La Union Province (table 4.13.1). This
grades of remaining resources are lower, with the grade deposit was mined by the Anglo-Philippine Oil and Mining
tending to decrease with depth (Anon., 1970).
Ilmenite, zircon, chromite, hematite, staurolite, Table 4.13.2 Analysis of magnetite concentrate
garnet and, rarely, gold are heavy mineral minor compo­ from La Union Province
nents of the deposits. Usually these minerals are not in (percentage)
sufficient quantities to warrant their recovery from the
FeO 25.21
magnetite tailings. The ilmenite is usually too intimately
Fe2O3 59.44
intergrown with magnetite to allow its separation. The
(Total Fe) (61.61)
lighter fraction of the sand is composed mainly of quartz,
feldspar, hornblende and pyroxene, with andesite frag­ TiO2 6.17
Al2O3 3.03
ments being common. The sand contains very little clay.
SiO2 2.34
Screen analysis of the magnetic fraction from the La Union
MgO 2.40
beaches indicated that 80 per cent is between 0.075 mm
CaO 0.66
and 0.25 mm in grain size, i.e. silt and fine sand (Noakes,
Mn 0.58
1968; Anon., 1970; Encina, 1976). The final magnetite
S 0.098
concentrate contained 57 to 62 per cent Fe; the titanium
Cr 0.021
was relatively high, ranging from 4 to 8 per cent TiO2,
Zn 0.081
averaging 6 to 7 per cent TiO2. The concentrates carried
Ni 0.006
0.2 to 0.3 per cent V (Noakes, 1968; Anon., 1970). A
Cu 0.011
typical analysis of the concentrate produced by Filmag
Bi 0.004
is given in table 4.13.2.
Pb trace
Additional resources may occur in offshore areas
of north-west Luzon Island. A magnetite deposit con­ Source: Macdonald, 1971
109

Company between 1971 and 1974 (Santo Tomas, table the Kinalablaban area has concentrations of chromium-
4.13.1). rich magnetite. The resources at these localities appear to
be too small to be of economic importance (table 4.13.1).
While total magnetite resources of north-west Luzon Other localities where magnetite sand deposits have been
Island have not been assessed proven resources of magnetite recorded are near Davao City, Linuza Bay, and Cateel Bay,
in Filmag leases were put at 38 Mt in 1971 (Macdonald, all on the east coast; details of the deposits are not available.
1971). Total production from this area to 1976 when sand Chromite sand is produced from an unlisted locality on the
mining was suspended by the Government was 6 Mt, island, possibly by the Acojoe Mining Co. (Power, 1985),
most of which was produced by Filmag. The only other to meet local demand.
company in the area was the Anglo-Philippine Oil and
Mining Company which mined a deposit in the Lingayen On Palawan Island chromite sand is currently being
Gulf (Bihis and others, 1977; Noakes, 1968). mined by the Philichrome Mining Corporation in the Narra-
Teresa area on the south-east coast. The company started
Magnetite-rich sands occur at several other localities operations in 1981 and currently produces 20,000 to
on Luzon Island (figure 4.13.1), all similar to those des­ 25,000 tons/year of refractory grade chromite (35 to 40
cribed in the north-west of the island. Summary data on per cent Cr2O3 with about 20 per cent A12O3). It also
each deposit are given in table 4.13.1. An important group produces an unknown but small quantity of metallurgical-
of deposits is located in Bataan Province in the south-west grade chromite (45 to 50 per cent Cr2O3 with 15 to 17
of the island. These are at Orani-Morong, Iba-Botran, per cent Fe2O3). Ore reserves are quoted as 2.6 Ml of
Mauban and Bagac. The Orani-Morong deposit was mined chromite averaging 44.3 per cent Cr2O3 (Power, 1985).
was mined by the Inco Mining Corp. and the Long Beach
Mining Corp. between 1970 and 1975, when up to 2 Mt of Beach sands containing radioactive minerals occur
ore was mined (Vera Cruz, 1977). on the shores and coastal shelves of the Imuruan Bay area
of north-west Palawan Island. The minerals allanite, sphene,
Another group of deposits is located on the north monazite, and zircon form significant proportions of the
coast, in Cagayan Province, at Aparri, Calamaniugan, and
heavy mineral fraction but the heavy mineral grades
Broad Earth. The Camiguin Island deposit 70 km to the
(averaging 0.05 per cent) arc generally too low to be of
north of Luzon Island is considered with this group. Mining any economic interest, although there is potential for
was undertaken at an unspecified locality in this area by the
economic concentrations elsewhere in the vicinity (Dela
Anglo-Philippine Oil and Mining Company from about Cruz and Tulay, 1983).
1972. Total magnetite production by the company from
all its Luzon Island operations (1972-1976) was approx­ On Leyte Island magnetite-sand mining was carried
imately 30,000 tons (Bihis and others, 197 7). out at unlisted localities on the south coast by the Inco
Mining Corp. production in 1974 being quoted as 667,000
An important deposit occurs in the Dilalongan- tons (Anon., 1975). A short-lived magnetite-sand-mining
Casiguran area on the east coast. Mining of the deposit was project (the Sibuguey project) was in operation in about
undertaken by Maraven Consolidated Mines from 1967 to 1966 at an unlisted locality on the east coast of the island
1970, at the rate of 100,000 tons/year of magnetite con­ (Macdonald, 1971). This may be the deposit at Elizalde
centrate (Philippine Bureau of Mines, 1968). Two other near Palo. Another magnetite-sand deposit is recorded near
unnamed localities are shown in figure 4.13.1, one in the Tolosa in Leyte del Norte in the north of the island.
Lamon Bay area on the central cast coast, the other in the
Albay Gulf region in the far south of the island. On the island of Negros, magnetite was mined from
1974 to 1976 by the Inco Mining Corp. at Bayawan on the
Mineral sand deposits on the other Philippine
south-west coast; no details are available (Anon., 1975).
islands are less widespread and arc generally of lower grade.
Another deposit is recorded at Calatrava on the east coast.
However, important deposits do occur on the islands of
On the island of Mashale a magnetite-sand deposit is
Mindanao, Leyte, Palawan and Negros; they arc shown in
recorded near the town of Masbate.
figure 4.13.1. Additional information on them is given in
table 4.13.1. Most arc titanium-rich magnetite sands Other beaches in the Philippines possibly contain
similar to those on Luzon Island. In addition, some are concentrations of magnetite and other heavy minerals, but
important for their concentrations of chromite or radioac­ further investigations arc needed to prove their economic
tive minerals. potential.
On Mindanao Island, beach-sand depositshave been While there has been little investigation of mineral
recorded in the province of Surigao del Norte in the north­ sands in offshore areas, prospects arc not encouraging as
east corner of the island. The Claver Bacuag village area many of the Philippine islands arc characterized by com­
has substantial titanium rich magnetite concentrations and paratively narrow shelves surrounded by deep water. Areas
110

with broad, gently-sloping shelves adjacent to known on­ A minor iron sand mining operation by Construc­
shore deposits, such as offshore north-west Luzon Island tion Aggregate Producers has been in operation since 1981.
and Leyte Island, would appear to offer the best prospects. Production in 1981 and 1982 was about 100 tons/year
(Wu, 1984).
Resources of magnetite known in onshore areas are
Production of chromite sands in the Philippines
sufficient to support production for many years should the
commenced in 1981. The company, Philichrome Mining
Government allow large-scale mining to resume. Extensive
Corp., mines a deposit in the south of Palawan Island,
resources of chromite are contained in hardrock deposits
current production being about 20 to 25,000 tons/year
in the Philippines and currently these are mined extensively.
refractory-grade chromite (35 to 40 per cent Cr2O3) and
Against this background, there is not a great incentive to
an unknown, but probably small, quantity of metallurgi­
search for additional mineral sand resources.
cal-grade chromite (45 to 50 per cent Cr2O3). Both
products are exported mainly to Japan, and some to the
United States. A chromite sand is also produced on
Production and processing
Mindanao Island when required for local use, probably
As has been mentioned, the production of magnetite for foundry and chemical industries applications (Power,
sands ceased in 1976 because of Government restrictions 1985). Most chromite production in the Philippines is from
based on environmental considerations. Prior to this, hardrock deposits. In 1984 total chromite production was
annual production was about 1.3 Mt, with a maximum of about 130,000 tons refractory grade and 120,000 tons
1.53 Mt in 1973. The companies involved were Filmag metallurgical grade (Wu, 1986).
Inco., the Inco Mining Corp., the Long Beach Mining Corp., A ferrochrome plant with 50,000 tons/year capacity
and the Anglo Philippine Oil and Mining Company (Philip­ was commissioned by Ferrochrome Philippines Inc. on
pine Bureau of Mines, 1977). Mining was based on the use Mindanao Island in 1983. It is unlikely that locally-
of suction dredges or bulldozers combined with other produced chromite sands are used in the operation.
heavy-earth-moving equipment. The magnetite was separ­
ated at small on-site plants, which were usually dismantled Trade
and sold when mining ceased.
In recent years the Philippines has imported about
The magnetite concentrate generally contained 57 1,000 tons/year of titanium mineral concentrate (both
to 62 per cent Fe and an average 6 to 7 per cent TiO2, and rutile and ilmenite), mainly from Australia. Imports of
was exported mainly to Japan. The relatively-high titanium TiO2 have been approximately 2,000 tons/year, Australia
content allowed the production of a high-quality steel by and Japan being the major suppliers. About 100 tons/year
electric arc smelting. Some Japanese companies limited the of zircon concentrates have been imported, mainly from
TiO2 content of the concentrate to 8 per cent (Noakes, Australia. An unspecified but probably minor amount
1968). In some cases the concentrates were mixed with of rare earth metal alloy has also been imported, probably
Japanese iron sand concentrates which averaged 53 to 59 from the United States or the Federal Republic of Germany
per cent Fe and 8 to 12 per cent TiO2 (Macdonald, 1971). (Wu, 1986).

REFERENCES

Anon., 1970 — Survey of world iron ore resource: Occur­ Bihis, M.L., Vargas, C.T. and Apacible, A.M., 1977 - The
rence and appraisal. Report of a panel of experts phosphotungstate method of determining vanadium
appointed by the Secretary-General. United in magnetic sands. Philippine Bureau of Mines,
Nations, New York. Report of investigations, No. 88, 13 p.

Anon., 1975 - Mining of magnetite sand in the Philippines


Caguiat, A., 1971 - Report on investigation of offshore
during 1974. In Proceedings of the twelfth session,
magnetite sand deposits in Lingayen Gulf, Philip­
of CCOP. United Nations Economic Commission
pines. In Report of the eighth session of CCOP.
for Asia and the Ear East, 312 p.
United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and
Apelo, M., 1977 - Magnetite sand beach deposit in Saysain the Far East, p. 186-190.
Bagnac, Bataan. In The geology and mineral re­
sources of Bataan Province. Philippine Bureau of Chin, E., 1981 - The mineral industry of the Philippines.
Mines, Report of investigations, No. 90, 4 p. In Minerals yearbook, 1978-1979, vol. III, Area
111

reports: international. United States Bureau of mic Commission for Asia and the Far East, p. 112-
Mines, p. 737-749. 118.

Dela Cruz, N.B. and Tulay, J.N. Jr., 1983 — Radioactive Philippine Bureau of Mines, 1968 — Investigations on
detrital minerals in beach sands of northwest detrital heavy minerals in beach sands of the Philip­
Palawan, Philippines. In Report of the Twelfth pines. In Report of the fourth session of CCOP.
session of CCOP (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). United United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia the Far East, p. 108-111.
and the Pacific, p. 14-19.
Power, T., 1985 - Chromite - the non-metallurgical mar­
Encina, D.C., 1976 — Magnetite sand deposits of La Union kets. Industrial minerals, No. 217, 31 p.
Province. Philippines Bureau of Mines, Report of
Vera Cruz, B., 1977 — Long Beach Mining Corporation iron
investigations, No.82,p. 13-14.
sand deposits at Morong, Bataan. In The geology
and mineral resources of Bataan Province. Philippine
Esquerra, F.B., 1980 — Magnetite-bearing sand deposit
Bureau of Mines, Report of investigations, No. 90
along Claver-Bacuag, Surigao del Norte. Magnetite­
p. 3-4.
bearing beach sand deposit along Mayangalson-
Taganito, Surigao de Norte. Chromite-magnetite- Wu, J.C., 1983 - The mineral industry of the Philippines.
bearing beach sand deposit along Kinalablaban, In Minerals yearbook, 1981, vol. III, Area reports:
Surigao de Norte. In Geology and mineral resources international. United States Bureau of Mines,
of Surigao del Norte. Bureau of Mines and Geo­ p. 789-803.
sciences, Report of investigations, No. 102, p. 17 -18.
Wu, J.C., 1984 — The mineral industry of the Philippines.
Macdonald, E.H., 1971 — Country report: The Philippines. In Minerals yearbook, 1982, vol. III, Area reports:
United Nations, CCOP, Technical Bulletin, vol. 5, international. United States Bureau of Mines,
p. 79-83. p. 729-742.
Wu, J.C., 1986 — The mineral industry of the Philippines.
Noakes, L.C., 1968 - Notes on iron sand deposits and off­ In Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III, Area report:
shore prospecting in the Philippines. In Report of international. United States Bureau of Mines,
the fourth session of CCOP. United Nations Econo­ p. 663-676.
4.14 SRI LANKA

History quartz and shell fragments comprising most of the light


fraction. The ore minerals are generally very fine-grained.
Heavy-mineral-bearing sands have been known for
many years at several locations in Sri Lanka; however, it is Total proven resources of the deposit have been
only at Pulmoddai in the north-east of the country that any assessed as 4 Mt, 3 Mt of which lie above the low-tide mark.
development has occurred. The Pulmoddai deposit has Additional resources occur in silt and clay in the backshore
been known since the 1920s. In 1957, the Government of areas 3 to 4 m above sea level, and are covered by scrub
Sri Lanka (or Ceylon as it was then called) established the forest.
Ceylon Mineral Sands Corporation (CMSC) to exploit the
Monsoonal storms replenish the beach annually with
limenite, rutile, zircon, and monazite of this deposit.
additional high-grade heavy mineral sands. This allows
Production at Pulmoddai by CMSC began in 1961, repeated mining along the same stretch of beach, greatly
with an initial ilmenite capacity of 50,000 tons/year which reducing environmental problems that confront many
was increased to 85,000 tons/year in the late 1960s. In beach-mining operations elsewhere. The beach is cleared
1968 the company established a processing plant at China of slimes during these monsoonal storms, which adds to
Bay, near Trincomalee, 70 km south ofPulmoddai, designed the attraction of the mining operation.
to recover 2,000 to 3,000 tons/year each of rutile and
zircon from the Pulmoddai tailings. Minor quantities
of monazite was also extracted. Mineral sand deposit

In 1978, expanded facilities for the recovery of


14,000 tons/year rutile and 9,000 tons/year zircon were
commissioned at Pulmoddai, and the China Bay facilities
were closed down. In 1979 CMSC announced that it would
expand its ilmenite capacity to 150,000 tons/year with
financial assistance from the United Nations. These ex­
panded facilities came on stream in 1984.
At present the mineral sand products are not up­
graded, although plans for ilmenite benefication are being
considered by CMSC (Adams, 1984; Clark, 1983).

Geology and Resources

Pulmoddai deposit

The Pulmoddai deposit is the largest known mineral


sand deposit in Sri Lanka. The village of Pulmoddai is
located at 8°57' N : 80°57' E, about 70 km north of the
large town of Trincomalee in the north-east of the country
(figure 4.14.1).
The deposit extends along the beach for 7.2 km,
with an average width of 50 m and a maximum of 250 m.
It covers an area of 3.2 km2. It has an even thickness of
approximately 6 m over Precambrian crystalline rocks, with
no overburden. The deposit is very high grade, with a
heavy mineral content approaching 80 per cent, and a
composition of 70 to 72 per cent ilmenite, 8 to 10 per cent
zircon, 8 per cent rutile, 1 per cent sillimanite, and 0.3
per cent monazite. Other heavy minerals include spinels Figure 4.14.1 Location of heavy mineral sand
(mainly magnetite), garnet, tourmaline, and others, with deposits, Sri Lanka
113

The ultimate source of the heavy minerals is the The heavy mineral content in the sands nearest to
(?) Precambrian rocks of the interior of the island, the the shoreline averaged 30.8 per cent by weight, with the
intermediate source being the Pleistocene and recent sedi­ highest values occurring in the southern part of the area.
ments which occur along the coast. Material eroded from Further from the shoreline the heavy mineral content in
these rocks is transported mainly by the Ma-Oya river to the the sands was lower and more diffuse, averaging 11.8 per
Kokkilai lagoon (8°59' N : 80°57' E) north of Pulmoddai. cent by weight.
It is then carried southward by coastal drift to the deposit The heavy mineral suite averaged 68.7 per cent
area, a promontory at Arisa Malai forming a reef barrier ilmenite, with an average TiO2 content of 56 per cent.
which prevents the material drifting further south. The Rutile and zircon were generally important only in a 50 m
rich heavy mineral sands are thereby confined to the short wide strip adjacent to the shoreline; concentrations were
stretch between Kokkilai lagoon in the north and the 4.65 per cent and 5.80 per cent respectively. Monazite was
Arisa Malai rocks in the south. estimated as less than 1 per cent.
The chemical composition of the ilmenite, rutile, Metallgesellschaft estimated total reserves in the
and zircon is shown in table 4.14.1. Export grades for each offshore area to be: ilmenite 903,000 tons, rutile 9,500
of the minerals is given as: ilmenite, minimum 53 per cent tons, and zircon 39,000 tons (Meyer, 198 3).
TiO2; rutile, minimum 95 per cent TiO2; and zircon,
minimum 65 per cent ZrO2. The monazite usually contains Other Deposits (figure 4.14.1)
about 55 per cent REO.
The deposit is described in detail in the following Heavy mineral concentrations have been reported
references: Fantel and others, 1986; Adams, 1984; Clark, in several other localities in Sri Lanka. However, little
1983; Herath, 1977; Lynd and Lefond, 1975 and Kanapa- information has been published on the occurrences.
thipillai, 1964. Prospecting by SIMEC LIMITED has outlined the
In 1979 the offshore areas adjacent to the Pulmod­ existence of other deposits in the vicinity of the Pulmoddai
dai deposit were investigated by three companies from the deposit. These occur in an 80 km stretch from just north
Federal Republic of Germany in conjunction with CMSC. of Mullaittivu (9°15' N : 80°48' E) south to Nilaveli
Substantial additional resources of heavy mineral sands (8°41' N : 81°H' E) (Clark, 1983). SIMEC LIMITED
were delineated in a narrow strip several hundred metres concluded that there were five potential deposits in this
wide to a water depth of approximately 10 m. The average area, containing some 47 5,000 to 700,000 tons of rutile,
thickness of the sand is 0.73 m. These resources are con­ 3 50,000 to 500,000 tons of zircon, and some 2.4 to 4.1
sidered to be an extension of the known beach deposit Ml of ilmenite. Further south along the cast coast at
and do not indicate any major offshore accumulations. Tirrukkovil (7°07' N : 81°51' E), a deposit has been
reported containing 25 per cent zircon (Siddiquie and
Table 4.14.1 Chemical analysis of ilmenite, rutile, others, 1984).
and zircon from Pulmoddai, Sri Lanka Heavy mineral concentrations occur to the south of
Colombo in the south-west of the island. An ilmenite­
ilmenite Rutile Zircon-standard grade monazite-zircon placer occurs on the Kaikawela and Pol-
96.76 ZrO2 66.46 kotuwa beaches near Induruwa, Ihe sand containing 15 to
TiO2 5458 TiO2
40 per cent monazite. The source of the monazite is
Fe2O3 23.15 Fe2O3 0.89 SiO2 32.60
believed to be pegmatite veins which crop out nearby.
FeO 18.11 SiO2 0.64 Fe2O3 0.1 1 Monazite is also important at Beruwala (6°29' N : 79°59’
SiO2 1.51 ZrO2 0.38 TiO2 0.50 E). Zircon and monazite have been produced from a pilot
ZrO2 0.02 A12O3 0.16 Al2O3 0.2 plant set up al Kalutara (6°35' N : 79°59' E) but now
Al2O3 1.18 S nil closed (Herath, 1977; Siddiquie and others, 1984; Clark,
1983).
MnO 0.37 P less than .001
Cr2O3 0.07 Heavy minerals have also been recorded al Kudrem-
V2O5 0.09 alai Point to the south of Mannar (8°58' N : 79°54' E), the
Negombo area (7° 13' N : 79°51' E), the Kelani River near
MgO 0.85
Colombo (approximately 7° N : 80° E), and the Modara-
CaO 0.08 gam River (approximately 8°30' N : 80° E ) (Lynd and
P2O5Traces (0.1) Leford, 1975). They are present in substantial quantities
Total 100.01 in the ‘red and brown earths’ found in the Puttalam, Man­
nar, and Jaffna areas in the north west of the island (Daha-
Source Clark, 1983. nayaka and Jayawardana, 1979).
114

Zircon is a major constituent of heavy residues from capacity is reflected in 1984 output (table 4.14.2). Rutile,
the washing of gem gravels in various parts of the island. zircon, and monazite are recovered from an ilmenite tailings
The mineral baddelyite occurs in some mineral sand treatment plant which did not undergo an increase in pro­
deposits on the island, but no locality names are available. duction capacity along with the ilmenite plant; it is capable
Zircon-rich granites, a possible source of zircon placer of producing 14,000 tons of rutile, 9,000 tons of zircon
deposits occur in inland areas near Balangoda (6°38' N : and approximately 300 tons of monazite. However, as
80o41' E), and near Mirigama (7°15' N : 80°08' E) larger quantities of non-magnetic tailings are now available,
(Herath, 1977). the capacity of this plant could be expanded (Adams, 1984;
Clark, 1983).
No estimate of total resources of heavy minerals in
Sri Lanka is available. Ethnic problems in the area during 1985 resulted
in the disruption of the fresh-water supply to the main
Production and Processing plant, putting the wet magnetic plant out of action, and
causing a decline in the 1985 output. CMSC has restricted
The Pulmoddai deposit is mined by dragline, which its ilmenite production to 150,000 tons/year because of
hauls the sand into piles on the beach for natural drying. shipping problems. Production levels of rutile, zircon, and
Mining is by local contractors (mainly farmers) who are monazite have varied between 50 per cent and 100 per cent
paid by the ton of sand delivered to the wet plant plus a of rated capacity in recent years. CMSC is considering
distance allowance. Mining is earned out for up to 12 hours extracting sillimanite from the ilmenite tailings. In addi­
a day, 7 days a week during the dry season, approximately tion, the production of small quantities of baddelyite has
250,000 to 300,000 tons of sand being mined annually. A been recorded from an unlisted locality (Herath, 1977).
royalty of Rs 50/- per ton of raw sand is paid to the Geolo­
gical Survey Department. The ilmenite-processing plant Currentlh there are no facilities for the upgrading
was expanded in 1984 from 85,000 tons year to 150,000 of heavy minerals in Sri Lanka. In 1972 a proposal for an
tons/year with the installation of a wet gravity and magne­ electric arc smelter for the production of titania slag was
tic separation facility. The increased ilmenite production submitted by the Soviet Union under a UNIDO programme,

Table 4.14.2 Production and export of mineral sands, Sri Lanka


(Tons)
Ilmenite Rutile Zircon
Production Export Production Export Production Export

1971 91,425 - 2,545 - 137 —


1972 81,200 - 2,117 — 30 —
1973 92,005 - 2,216 - 28 -
1974 79,817 85,627 4,200 2,335 - 30
1975 62,999 53,740 3,111 3,272 - 30
1976 59,932 54,592 1,039 2,177 - -
1977 33,092 41,125 954 191 375 —
1978 33,041 37,145 11,497 9,246 3,194 2
1979 55,370 30,478 14,675 14,148 1,326 1,329
1980 29,340 36,680 12,789 12,148 3,032 2,025
1981 80,011 41,465 15,300 5,136 3,266 4,617
1982 68,282 48,895 7,212 15,301 5,789 —
1983 80,486 27,863 7,803 5,612 5,335 9,206
1984a 97,040 130,957 6,467 4,761 3,708 3,808
1985a 114,954 147,666 8,605 8,374 4,061 4,548
1986a’ b 96,509 - 6,927 — 910

Source: Mineral resources of Sri Lanka - An information survey


a Ceylon Mineral Sands Corporation
b January-September.
115

but the proposal did not go ahead. However, plans are now The maximum size of ships loaded is 46,000 tons. Ship­
being prepared by CMSC for an ilmenite benefication ping of the concentrate is restricted to the dry season
operation, possibly a titania slag plant to produce minimum (April-August).
85 per cent TiO2, or a synthetic rutile plant to produce
minimum 92 per cent TiO2; no firm details have been Exports during 1982 and 1983 were at a very low
announced. Financial assistance for such a programme was level, less than 15,000 tons; they increased sharply to
offered by the United Nations in 1980. The company has 96,000 tons in 1984. The major markets are Japan
since been seeking foreign collaboration in such a project. (Ishihara), and the United States. Zircon, rutile, and
A TiO2 pigment plant is also under consideration (Adams, monazite have not been recorded as Sri Lankan export
1984; Clark, 1983). commodities in recent years. It is believed, however, that
the bulk of zircon production is exported to Europe and
Trade Japan; about 1 per cent is used by local industry. Most
rutile and monazite production is believed to be sold on the
Most of the heavy mineral production of Sri Lanka open world market. There appears to be no imports into
is exported. Port facilities at Pulmoddai have been im­ Sri Lanka of any heavy mineral commodities, either in the
proved recently with bulk shipment loading rates of 2,000 raw or processed state. (Chin and others, 1986; British
tons of concentrate a day now possible (Adams, 1984). Geological Survey, 1986; Clark, 1983).

REFERENCES

Adams, R., 1984 - Titanium and titanium dioxide. Finan­ States Bureau of Mines, Information circular 9061,
cial Times Information Ltd., London, 244 p. 48 p.

British Geological Survey, 1986 - World mineral statistics Herath, M.M.J.W., 1977 — Mineral based industries of Sri
1980-1984: production: exports: imports. (Key­ Lanka. Commonwealth Committee on Mineral
worth, Nottinghamshire). Resources and Geology liaison report CGLO LR
131,p.24-26.
Chin, E. and others, 1986 — Sri Lanka. In Minerals year­
Kanapathipillai, K.C., 1964 — Ilmenite from the east coast
book, 1984, vol. III, Area reports: international.
of Ceylon. Mining magazine, April, p. 23941.
United States Bureau of Mines, p. 1033-6.
Lynd, L.E. and Leford, S.J., 1975 - Titanium minerals. In
Clark, G., 1983 — Sri Lanka’s industrial minerals — much
Lefond, S.J. (ed.), Industrial mineral and rocks,
potential to be realised. Industrial minerals, No.
4th edition. American Institute of Mining Metallur­
193,p.61-71.
gical and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. p. 1303-1362.
Dahanayake, K. and Jayawardana, S.K., 1979 - Study of Meyer, K., 1983 - Titanium and zircon placer prospection
red and brown earth deposits of northwest Sri off Pulmoddai, Sri Lanka. Marine mining, vol. 4
Lanka. Geological Society of India, Journal, vol. (2/3),p. 139-166.
20, p. 433-440.
Siddiquie, H.N. and others, 1984 — Superficial mineral
Fantel, RJ., Buckingham, D.A. and Sullivan, D.E., 1986 — resources of the Indian Ocean. In Martin, V. (ed.),
Titanium mineral availability — market economy Marine science of the northwest Indian Ocean and
countries. A minerals availability appraisal. United adjacent waters. Deep sea research.
4.15 THAILAND

History Resources

Alluvial tin deposits have been mined in Thailand Almost all resources of heavy minerals ilmenite,
for over 1,000 years. The most important areas have been zircon, monazite, xenotime and tantalum-columbium in
in Phang-nga and Phuket provinces in the south-west of the Thailand are associated with alluvial tin deposits.
country. In the past two decades mining has shifted to
offshore areas as grades in onshore deposits have declined. All of the major known tin deposits are located in
the southern peninsular region, the most important area
Tungsten has been produced as a by-product of tin
being in Phuket and Phang-nga Provinces, situated on the
since the early part of the century, other associated heavy
western side of Thailand approximately 900 km SSW of
minerals traditionally being discarded or stockpiled. Since
Bangkok. As these two provinces and adjacent offshore
the late 1960s these commodities have been extracted along
areas are the most important areas for tin, they are also the
with the tin and tungsten. Columbium and tantalum con­
most important known sources of other heavy minerals.
centrates were first produced in 1967. Within a few years
The composition of untreated gravel from 13 tin mines
Thailand had become the world’s largest exporter of
in these two provinces is shown in table 4.15.1.
columbium and tantalum.
Zircon was first produced as a by-product of tin in The heavy minerals are concentrated during the
1967. In 1969, production began from a zircon deposit separation of tin (in cassiterite) and are normally stockpiled
near Prachuab Khiri Khan in the Gulf of Thailand, the only as waste in open-air dumps, locally known as “amang”.
heavy mineral deposit not associated with tin or tungsten The Department of Mineral Resources of Thailand has
to be exploited in Thailand. Production of monazite began conducted a survey to assess resources in these amangs
in 1969, of ilmenite in 1976, and of xenotime in 1977. but most of the results have not yet been published. Waste
Production of these minerals has been maintained on a dumps from 222 tin mines in Phuket and Phang-nga Pro­
relatively small scale, generally less than 1,000 tons/year vinces are estimated to contain 35,000 tons of monazite
(USBM Minerals yearbooks 1965-1984). (Kinney, 1986).

Table 4.15.1 Mineral constituents of samples from palongs at gravel pump mines, Thailand

SiO2 SnO2 Y2O3 Ilmenite Monazite Zircon


Mine Province
% % % % % %

Ban Yun Phuket 97.1 1.05 02 127 0.004 0.17


Main Khao " 97.0 053 0.11 2.33 0.007 0.13
Ban Huan " 94.0 4.6
Wichit " 95.0 4.07 0.76 0.001
Ruam Chok Phang-nga 99.5 0.31 0.17
Mit-Thawi " " 98.7 1.01 0.23 0.12
Pra-Sert-Chai Phuket 97.4 0.025 0.05
Thawi-Thap Phang-nga 99.0 0.46 0.28 0.05 0.09
Chumphon Chumphon 54.5 44.0 0.4 0.05 0.16
Sin-Krasom Phang-nga 97.8 023 1.8 0.02
Kuwn-Thong Phuket 97.5 0.73 1.47 0.03 023
Sai-Chon " 95.6 2.6 1.5 0.02 0.13
Layan " 285 34.2 2.2 0.36 15
" 97.5 1.80
Anupas & Son 0.06

Source: Macdonald, 1971.


117

Interesting results were obtained in a 1971-1972 Monazite up to 29 per cent of the suite was re­
survey of the amang dumps in the Phuket/Phang-nga area corded in the coastal areas near Takua-pa, with scattered
(Isarangkoon, 1973). The sample localities of the survey minor occurrences, elsewhere. Rutile up to 16 per cent was
area are shown in figure 4.15.1. Of the 67 samples analysed, found in the northern inland areas of Phang-nga Province.
over half contained more than 80 per cent heavy minerals, Columbite-tantalite occurrences were minor in the region,
with many of the others containing between 40 and 80 except at Thoongkamin mine, south of Takua-pa, where
per cent heavy minerals. Quartz made up the bulk of the concentrations of 15 per cent were recorded.
non-heavy mineral material. From the survey results the
distribution of the various heavy minerals in the amang Garnet was abundant locally, up to 94 per cent in
dumps was delineated as contour maps (Isarangkoon, the centre of Phuket Island, and 53 per cent near Phang-
1973). Ilmenite was the most common mineral with nga town. While scattered occurrences of xenotime,
concentrations up to 94 per cent of the heavy-mineral wolframite and ilmenorutile were recorded, cassiterite often
suite occurring in the western coastal area north of Thai formed 2 per cent or more (up to 12 per cent) but these
Muang (Phang-nga Province) and in the area south of values were dependant on the efficiency of the ore treat­
Phuket town (Phuket Province); ilmenite concentrations ment processes at individual plants.
decreased to the east. The TiO2 content of the ilmenite from the Phuket/
While concentrations of zircon up to 46 per cent Phang-nga area varies widely from, 32.75 per cent TiO2 to
of the heavy mineral suite were present in the northern 73.48 per cent TiO2 , because of the weathering and altera­
coastal part of Phang-nga, near Takua-pa, most of this tion of ilmenite to leucoxene (Macdonald, 1971). A typical
province had low zircon concentrations. Substantial zircon analysis of ilmenite is TiO2 : 53.55 per cent, FeO; 38.08
concentrations (up to 27 per cent) occur on Phuket Island. per cent, Cr2O3: 0.04 per cent. Ilmenite from the area is
reported to be generally suitable for the pigment industry
(Anon., 1972).

The ThO2 content of the monazite from 20 samples


from the area was generally less than 1 per cent. Signifi­
cantly higher values were recorded in samples from the
Chao Fa mine, (up to 15.69 per cent ThO2), the Kluan
ANDAMAN Tong mine, both in Phuket Province; and from the Bang
Lin area of Rayong Province. High values of U3O8 (up to
4.08 per cent) were also recorded in monazite from the
Kluan Tong mine (Macdonald, 1971). Chemical analyses
of columbite-tantalite samples from the area are given in
Macdonald (1971).
Amphoe Muang
PHANG-NGA
An important zircon deposit not associated with tin
Thai Muang
occurs on the western side of the Gulf of Thailand about
7 km north of Prachuab Khiri Khan. This deposit was
brought into production in 1969, the operation being
capable of an annual output of 2,000 tons of mixed con­
centrates. The concentrates are reported to contain zircon
40 per cent, ilmenite 20 per cent, monazite 5.6 per cent,
Amang sample locations
and rutile 3 per cent (Macdonald, 1971). The deposit
occurs on the present-day shoreline and has been tested
over a length of 4 km and a width of 100 m. Monsoonal
storms replenish the beaches as they become depleted
towards the end of the dry season. No estimate of re­
PHUKET sources is available.

Heavy mineral sands with an average grade of


approximately 1 per cent heavy minerals have also been
reported at Maptaphut beach in Rayong Province on the
east coast of the Gulf of Thailand. Tourmaline, ilmenite,
Figure 4.15.1 Location of amang dumps in the Phuket/ and zircon are the most abundant of the heavy minerals
Phang-nga area, southern Thailand associated with smaller quantities of leucoxene, anatase,
118

rutile and others. No development plans for this deposit tons (in 1980). The production capacity is available to
have been announced (Rasrikriengkrai and others, 1984). increase the level of output of these heavy minerals.

Total resources of heavy minerals in Thailand have Accumulative production (to 1984) of heavy
not been estimated. minerals since recovery commenced (year in parentheses)
is: columbium-tantalum minerals (1967) 3,364 tons; zircon
Production (1967), 11,893 tons; monazite (1969), 3,377 tons; ilmenite
(1976), 1,870 tons; xenotime (1976), 265 tons.
Almost the entire output of heavy minerals in
Thailand is produced as by-products of tin. The main In the period from 1960 to 1984, tin and tungsten
methods of tin mining both on shore and offshore are concentrates produced totalled 540,000 tons and 5 5,000
by dredge and gravel pump from detrital deposits. tons respectively (USBM Mineral yearbooks).
Tungsten (present in wolframite and scheelite)
Thai tin production has declined over recent years
and columbium-tantalum (in columbite, tantalite and
in line with troubles experienced by the world tin industry.
struverite) can be concentrated with tin (cassiterite) during
This decline, however, has not been reflected in decreased
the ore treatment process. These commodities can be
production of tin by-products, with the exception of tung­
recovered from the tin smelter slags. The other heavy
sten. The recovery of heavy minerals has in fact generally
minerals (ilmenite, zircon, monazite, xenotime, and
increased. This trend may continue as heavy minerals
others) are concentrated during the final stages of the
represent an important source fo income to the tin-mining
tin ore treatment process. In Thailand only a very small
companies, particularly at current prices.
proportion of the stockpiled amang is actually sent to
amang treatment plants for the separation of the individual
heavy minerals. Processing

The annual production of tin and associated by­ At present there are three tin smelters in Thailand
products for the period 1980-1984 is given in table 4.15.2. which process most of the country’s tin concentrate into
The combined current annual production of ilmenite, metal, two on Phuket Island and the other at Pathum Thani,
zircon, monazite and xenotime minerals has been less than just to the north of Pak Kret Island. (Chao Phraya River
1,000 tons — less than 5 per cent of tin production — and north of Bangkok).
is substantially below the maximum levels reached in the
past: zircon, 3,220 tons (in 1968); ilmenite, 780 tons (in Tantalum and columbium are present in the tin
1979); monazite, 441 tons (in 1974); and xenotime, 52 smelter slags and much of this is exported. The tantalum
extraction plant on Phuket Island which was expected to be
operational in late 1987 was destroyed by rioters. A new
Table 4.15.2 Heavy mineral production
plant is being planned for an area that is away from the
in Thailand, 1980-1984
environmentally-sensitive regions of Phuket Island. The
(tons)
plant will be supplied with slag from the Thaisarco tin
smelter. Tantalite and columbite raw concentrates are also
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984
to be used.
Tin metal 33,685 26,109 19,943 21,960 A project to produce up to 70,000 tons/year
Tungsten 3,134 2,348 1,661 1,092 1,439 ilmenite plus substantial quantities of other heavy minerals
Cb-Tan 657 93 49 824 507 was planned in the early 1970s by Fuji Titanium (Japan)
Ilmenite - 37 18 205 148 but the project has not eventuated (Adams, 1984).
Zircon 61 104 196 199 290
A pilot plant for the extraction of thorium from
Monazite 152 107 162 277 298 monazite was planned by the Government following a
Xenotime 52 45 46 38 28 survey of the monazite content in amang dumps in Phuket
and Phang-nga Provinces in 1984. The Government had
been considering since 1979 a proposal by Siam Tungsten
Source: Kinney, 1986.
to build a 3,000 tons/year ammonium paratungstate plant
Production refers to mineral concentrate, except for tin which at Ayuthaya, near Bangkok, but there have been no
refers to primary smelted metal.
reported developments (Kinney, 1986).
Tungsten contained in wolframite/scheelite.
Columbium-tantalum (Cb-Tan) contained in columbite, tantalite Currently there are no plans for the further process­
and struverite. ing of ilmenite, zircon or xenotime.
119

Trade Belgium and Luxembourg. A few tons of tungsten metal


has been imported from Japan in recent years.
Only tin (mainly metal), tungsten and columbium­
tantalum concentrates are exported from Thailand at In recent years 100 to 200 tons/year of rare earth
present. The major markets for these commodities are: for concentrate has been exported. In 1980 176 tons of ferro­
tin, the United States, China (Taiwan Province) and Japan cerium (a rare earth metal alloy) and other such alloys were
for tungsten, the United States, the Netherlands and the imported, probably from the United Kingdom and the
Federal Republic of Germany; and for columbium-tantalum, Federal Republic of Germany. This amount decreased
the Federal Republic of Germany, the Netherlands and the to about 60 tons in 1984.
United States.
Recently, zircon has not been listed in Thai import
Thailand is a net importer of titanium products. In or export tables. However, in 1978, 50 tons of zircon
recent years it has imported annually approximately 1,000 concentrates were imported from Japan (British Geological
tons of rutile concentrate, mainly from Australia, and in Survey, 1986).
1984 up to 1,135 tons of TiO2, mainly from Japan,

REFERENCES

Anon., 1972 — Thailand by-product minerals from tin international. United States Bureau of Mines,
mining. Industrial minerals, June 1972, 35 p. p. 797-807.

British Geological Survey, 1986 — World mineral statistics Macdonald, E.H., 1971 - Country report: Thailand.
1980-1984: production: exports: imports. (British United Nations, CCOP, Technical bulletin, vol. 5,
Geological Survey. Keyworth, Nottinghamshire). p. 84-107.
Isarangkoon, P., 1973 - Distribution of heavy minerals in Rasrikriengkrai, C., Vongpromek, R. and Kittayabunlur,
the Phuket and Phang-Nga areas, southern Thailand. A., 1984 — Preliminary report on heavy mineral
In Report of the seventh session, of CCOP. United distribution at Maptaphut Beach, Rayong Province,
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far eastern Thailand. In Proceedings of the twenty-first
East, Technical Bulletin, vol. 7, p. 11-21. session of CCOP. United Nations Economic and
Kinney, G.L., 1981 — The mineral industry of Thailand. Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Techni­
In Minerals yearbook, 1978-1979, vol. III: Area cal reports, p. 74-79.
reports - international. United States Bureau of
Mines, p. 921-934. Siddiquie, M.N. and others, 1984 - Superficial mineral
resources of the Indian Ocean. Deep-sea research.
Kinney, G.L., 1986 - The Mineral Industry of Thailand. Part A. Oceanographic research papers, vol. 31.
In Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. III: Area reports — Pergamon Press. Oxford, p. 781-783.
4.16 VIET NAM

The central and southern coast of Viet Nam from available. (Tran-Huynh-Anh and Nguyen-Tan-Thi, 1972;
Hue to the Mekong Delta is a heavy mineral sand province Anon., 1972).
containing several prospective deposits. General reconnais­ Other important heavy-mineral-bearing beaches in
sance work was carried out in the area by the French in the Vietnam occur in the vicinity of the following locations,
late 1950s and early 1960s. Further reconnaissance work from north to south: Da Nang, Qui Nhon, Nha Trang,
in the early 1970s was undertaken by the Vietnamese Vinh Giat, Vinh Cam Ranh, Long Hai, and Vung Tau
Department of Natural Resources with a specialist assistant (figure 4.16.1). The Qui Nhon area includes important
from Australia. Follow-up investigations were carried out beaches at Hoi Loch, Bai Bang, Vinh Cuu and Bo Ngua.
in some areas but little detailed investigation of prospective A deposit of economic potential occurs at Thuan-An beach.
areas has been undertaken. No mineral sand mining has In addition to ilmenite, it contains a relatively high con­
been reported. centration of rutile. Unfortunately, the precise location
Some 700 km of sandy beaches border the granitic of this beach is unknown (Anon., 1972).
rocks of the Vietnamese cordillera along the east coast of Heavy mineral analyses for four of the deposits are
Viet Nam. Substantial work is needed to assess accurately given in table 4.16.1. While details of the deposits are very
the mineral sand potential of the area. Several prospective limited, none of the these deposits appears to contain
areas are known on the beaches near Hue on the central sufficient resources to warrant a mining operation, and
coast and at Phan Thiet on the south coast (figure 4.16.1). further work is required to assess accurately the potential
In the vicinity of the large town of Hue (16°28' of the area.
n: 107°35' E) mineralized beaches occur at several localities. Vietnam produces a minor quantity of tin, approx­
These include Vinh My, immediately adjacent to the city, imately 500 tons/year, from three mines. The proportion
Huong Dien, 20 km to the north, and at another locality recovered from detrital tin deposits is not known. Detrital
30 km to the south. The area was reported to contain some deposits of tin and wolfram occur in the Nha Trang area,
5.4 million m3 of mineralized sand averaging 5 per cent and detrital gold deposits are reported in the Da Nang area
heavy minerals. The heavy-mineral suite was approximately: (Anon., 1968).
ilmenite 65 per cent, zircon 30 per cent, rutile 1.5 per cent,
While there appears to be some trade based on
monazite 1.5 per cent, and minor magnetite and others. On
heavy mineral products (Kinney, 1986; British Geological
this basis the sand would contain about 216,000 tons
Survey, 1986), details are not available. In 1982, Viet Nam
ilmenite, 103,000 tons zircon, 4,500 tons rutile, and 4,500
exported 110 tons of tin metal to an undisclosed country,
tons monazite. On its own this beach could support only a
and in 1983, 622 tons of titanium dioxide was imported
very small operation, but combined with the other nearby
from Japan.
deposits it could possibly be the basis of a viable operation
(Noakes and MacDonald, 1972). Table 4.16.1 Heavy mineral analyses from
selected localities, Viet Nama
Substantial quantities of heavy mineral sands occur
in the Phan Thiet area (10°56' N : 108°06' E) particularly (percentages)
between the villages of Thien Phuoc and Mui Ne. The
Vinh My Vinh Cam
heavy minerals occur on the shorefront, in berms (sand (Hue)
Vinh Giat
Rank
Vung Tau
terraces), and in dunes up to 100 m high. Of the 24 sam­
ples analysed, five contained heavy mineral grades exceed­ Ilmenite 65 78 85 92
ing 10 per cent, the highest value was 20.3 per cent and the Zircon 30 4 7 3
average was 5.2 per cent. The highest value occurred in the Monazite 1.5 3 2 0.25
top metre of the shorefront sands, with the berm and dune
Rutile 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
samples generally having less than 3 per cent heavy minerals.
Magnetite 15 0.1 1.5
The heavy mineral fraction is likely to have a composition
similar to that of other deposits in southern Viet Nam, Quartz 12 45 2
where ilmenite predominates, with minor quantities of Miscellaneous 1 0.9 0.75
zircon, monazite and magnetite, and generally very minor
amounts of rutile, kyanite, mica, tourmaline, hornblende, Source: Isnard,1957 In Anon., 1972.
and epidote (table 4.16.1). No estimate of resources is a See figure 4.16.1 for locations.
121

LAO
P. DR.

DEM. KAMPUCHEA VIET NAM

Heavy mineral deposit

Figure 4.16.1 Location of heavy mineral sand deposits, Viet Nam


122

REFERENCES

Anon., 1968 - Regional geology and offshore prospects for Laos, Thailand and the Republic of Viet Nam.
minerals in the Republic of Viet Nam. In Report of United Nations mineral resources development
the fourth session of CCOP. United Nations Econo­ series, No. 39, p. 70-72.
mic Commission for Asia and the Far East, p. 68-72.
British Geological Survey, 1986 — World mineral statistics
Anon., 1972 — Mineral resources of the Lower Mekong 1980-1984: production; exports: imports. Key­
Basin and adjacent areas of the Khmer Republic, worth, Nottinghamshire.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK

The ESCAP region covers approximately 21 per future supply, particularly from the ESCAP region, are seen
cent of the world’s surface and has some 60 per cent of as follows:
its population. The region has been a major supplier of
heavy minerals over a large part of the present century 1. Titaniferous material
and seems likely to continue in this role. Apart from
Japan, which is already a major consumer of mineral sand, The recent trend towards production of pigment by
countries of the region have the potential for becoming the chloride-process has caused a shift towards high- TiO2
major consumers, but up till now consumption has been content material as the preferred feed. The resultant in­
centred mainly in the more industrialized countries — the creased demand for high TiO2 material could be met: by
United States, Japan and Europe an countries — where expansion in the production of natural rutile; by the
mineral processing has been concentrated. development of alternate high TiO2 minerals, such as
anatase in Brazil; by upgrading current slag operations, such
However, new opportunities are now emerging for as at Sorel (Canada) and Richards Bay (South Africa); or
processing mineral concentrates locally, thereby adding by increasing the capacity for synthetic rutile production
considerably to revenue earned in the country of origin. using relatively low TiO2 ilmenite and leucoxene.
The more obvious opportunities for such developments
include: • Natural Rutile
• rutile — processing to TiO2 pigment using The potential for expanding output of natural rutile
the chloride process is not great, notwithstanding the following proposed expan­
sions either announced or in the developmental stage:
• ilmenite — as a raw concentrate to produce
TiO2 pigment using the sulphate Australia — TiO2 Corporation in Western Aus­
process tralia to produce some 15,000 tons/
— upgrading to synthetic rutile for use year of rutile by 1988-1989
as feed for the chloride process Africa — an increase in capacity in Sierra
— slagging to produce high-grade Leone from 100,000 tons to about
titania slag for sulphate/chloride 125,000 tons/year by 1987-1988
TiO2 pigment
— a 30 per cent capacity increase by
• zircon — manufacture of refractory bricks Richard Bay Minerals of 19,000
tons/year of rutile by late 1987
— processing to zirconia for refrac­
tories and abrasives India — possible production of 10,000 tons/
— processing to ceramics, particularly year of rutile from the Orissa Com­
as value-added partially-stabilized plex by 1988
zirconia (PSZ) Such developments could provide an additional
• monazite/xenotime 70,000 tons/year of rutile to world markets by 1990; of
this, about 35 per cent would be provided by ESCAP coun­
— processing of concentrates to rare tries, namely, Australia and India.
earth oxides, and recovery of
thorium • Anatase
— separation of individual rare earth
oxides Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) currently
produces 15,000 tons/year of 90 per cent anatase from the
— manufacture of “high-tech” pro­
Tapira mine in Minas Gerais, Brazil. CVRD is reported to
ducts such as superconductors and
have commenced construction of a commercial plant
supermagnets.
(capacity 300,000 to 400,000 tons/year of 90 per cent
Possible future supply and demand scenarios for the anatase concentrate) to be in operation in 1988. Anatase
principal beach-sand heavy minerals, with emphasis on is considered to be suitable for chloride process pigment
124

production. However, it seems unlikely that production the production of synthetic rutile. Given the continuing
from this plant will reach full capacity before the end of problems associated with the commissioning of this plant,
the decade. some of the ilmenite may be exported in the short term.
India’s other producer, Kerala Minerals and Metals, also
• Ilmenite plans to increase production from 2 7,000 to 100,000 tons/
year, with some 20,000 tons/year of ilmenite available for
Ilmenite is used as feedstock for two intermediate export.
processes titanium slag and synthetic rutile as well as
as a feedstock in its own right, for pigment production via Ilmenite deposits in Madagascar are not expected
the sulphate route. to be developed until the early 1990s; ilmenite from this
source will be dedicated to slagging to high TiO2 in Canada.
(i) Titanium slag Of the planned world increased output of 600,000
tons/year of ilmenite, about half will be available from the
Currently, titania-slag production by South Africa,
ESCAP region for pigment production by the sulphate
Canada, and Norway is based on ilmenite produced in these
route.
countries. There are no titania-slag operations in the
countries of the ESCAP region. However, some countries, During 1986, the world supply of and demand for
for example Australia and Sri Lanka, are considering the titaniferous materials were in balance at about 3.3 million
development of such operations; none are likely to be tons of contained TiO2. Future expansions in the pigment
operational before the middle of the next decade. industries by the 1990s include the conversion of plants
from sulphate to chloride processing, and the commission­
(ii) Synthetic rutile ing of new chloride plants (Brazil, Taiwan a Province of
the Peoples’ Republic of China the Republic of Korea,
Western world synthetic rutile capacity is about and Saudi Arabia) and some expanded capacity in current
470,000 tons/year (including that of the two new Austra­
plants. These developmentswill result in increased pressure
lian plants commissioned in early 1987). This capacity is on supplies of chloride feedstock, despite the increase in
expected to increase to 570,000 tons/year when the Indian natural rutile production capacity. This pressure will be
synthetic rutile plant at Orissa becomes operational. Al­ reduced by the use of synthetic rutile, or high TiO2 titania
though the plant was to be commissioned in 1987, full slag by some chloride-route plants. Australia and India
capacity is not expected to be reached until late 1988 or
should be well placed to take advantage of the increased
even later. Total world capacity of synthetic rutile is demand for synthetic rutile.
projected to remain at 570,000 tons/year until the mid
1990s. Over 80 per cent of this capacity will be located in In addition, operators of sulphate-route TiO2 plants
the ESCAP region, and 70 per cent of the resultant syn­ will be under continuing pressure to choose between the
thetic rutile production will be exported from the region. use of raw ilmenite and more environmentally-acceptable
In addition, China’s Sichuan Non-Ferrous Metals Industries titania slag as feedstock for their operations.
is working with SCM (United States) with the aim of
In summary, the ESCAP countries are well placed in
building a 120,000 tons/year synthetic rutile plant in
the short term to expand supplies of titaniferous materials,
China.
and to benefit from improved world demand for TiO2
pigment. However, in the 1990s the introduction of
(iii) Sulphate-route pigment
Madagascar ilmenite (as slag) and continuing expansion in
World supply of ilmenite (TiO2 content of about South African slag will provide strong competition for the
54 per cent) available to the sulphate pigment plants could ESCAP countries as world suppliers of high TiO2 feedstock.
increase by up to 600,000 tons/year in the short term (up
Rutile prices are expected to plateau at current
till 1990). This increase will come mainly from Australia
levels and then to decrease marginally in real terms as the
(TiO2 Corporation - Cooljarloo mine, Consolidated Rutile
gap is narrowed between supply and demand, and as large
Ltd ilmenite plant), from Brazil, Sierra Leone, and the
tonnages of synthetic rutile became available to the market.
United States (reworking the old New Jersey mine). Capa­
city in Malaysia is not expected to increase; in fact, actual Ilmenite prices are expected to rise further in the
production is unlikely to reach current capacity levels short term (1987-1988), but further increases appear
because of the recent decline in tin production. No change unlikely, at least in the medium term. Only minor new sul­
is expected in Sri Lanka’s capacity, and output may actual­ phate plant capacity is planned; TiO2 pigment manufac­
ly fall in the short term given current political unrest. turers are showing preference towards titania slag as a
Ilmenite from the 200,000 tons/year plant at the Orissa feedstock; and large resources of ilmenite remain to be
Complex in India is to be stockpiled locally for use in developed.
125

2. Zircon increasing emphasis on the shipment of more highly-


processed products.
Current zircon production capacity in the western
world is some 760,000 tons/year of which about 542,000 Many of the other ESCAP countries have substantial
tons is available in the ESCAP region; Australia is respon­ deposits of detrital minerals. However, in most cases
sible for about 90 per cent of the production capacity of detailed assessment of the resources has not been adequa­
the region. South Africa is the major producer outside the tely undertaken nor have they been quantified. Resources
region. currently being mined in India, China, and Sri Lanka appear
to be extensive, and capable of sustaining a mineral sands
During 1986, production capacity was fully used; industry for many years. However, many problems, from
the position is expected to continue through 1987 and mining, transport through to processing have prevented
1988. The only expansions in the ESCAP region planned these countries becoming a major force in world markets.
in the short term are the 30,000 tons/year at Cooljarloo, Resources of heavy minerals in countries such as Thailand,
and about 2,000 tons/year capacity increase at Capel by Malaysia and Indonesia appear to be limited, and their
Westralian Sands Ltd (both in Western Australia); and recovery will continue to be as a by-product of tin opera­
about 2,000 tons/year from the Orissa Complex and 5,000 tions.
tons/year from Chavara (both in India). Production may
also be expanded in Brazil and South Africa. Until these Future heavy mineral supplies from the ESCAP
expansions come on stream, the supply of zircon will region are seen as:
continue to be tight, with a concomitant increase in prices
and eventually a switch away from zircon to alternative Natural rutile: Australia, India, Sri Lanka.
materials for foundry and refractory uses. Ilmenite:

3. Rare earths • for sulphate pigment production: Australia,


India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
Australia (55 per cent), Brazil (23 per cent), India,
Malaysia, and the United States are responsible for the bulk • for upgrading to synthetic rutile: Australia.
of the world’s output of monazite concentrates. Lesser India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and China.
tonnages are produced in Thailand, Sri Lanka, the Republic
• for slagging: New Zealand, Australia, India,
of Korea, and Zaire. In effect, countries of the ESCAP
China.
region supply about 80 per cent of world monazite require­
ments. Indications are that the ESCAP region will maintain Zircon: Australia, and minor tonnages from India,
its pre-eminence as a source of monazite and a major sup­ Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia.
plier of rare earths to world markets, possibly in processed
form. Monazite/xenotime: Australia, India, China, minor
tonnages from Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia.
To sum up, studies by Towner and others (1987),
and Fantel and others (1986) indicate that production of In conclusion, it must be emphasized that if the
rutile and zircon from producing mines will decline signifi­ ESCAP region is to achieve its full potential as a world
cantly within the next 20 years as economic demonstrated source of heavy minerals, there is a pressing need for
resources, particularly in Australia, are depleted. Future countries in the region to delineate and classify their
production from alluvial deposits not yet developed may endowment of mineral resources. This will require a
eke out supply for a while but will involve substantially- programme of fundamental investigation to achieve a
higher production costs. While synthetic rutile may substi­ comprehensive understanding of the geology of the area
tute for natural rutile, and ilmenite and rare earths both on and offshore. Onshore, factors believed to
(bastnaesite) may be recovered from hardrock sources, control accumulation and maintainance of mineral sand
there is no alternate economic source of natural zircon deposits will need to be studied, with emphasis on prove­
when the detrital heavy mineral deposits arc exhausted. nance and concentration based on sea-level curves, factors
controlling the concentration of heavy minerals in the
Australia has been a leading world producer of sediments, their source dispersal patterns, and weathering
mineral sand concentrate since the 1950s and is expected history. Offshore, the bathymetry of shelves adjacent to
to continue as an important world source of titanium, zir­ potential sources of mineral supply will need to be studied
conium and rare earths for the foreseeable future, with to delineate fossil beaches and other relevant features.
126

REFERENCES

Fantel, RJ., Buckingham, D.A. and Sullivan, D.E., 1986 - international. United States Bureau of Mines,
Titanium minerals availability - Market economy p. 1037-1041.
countries — A minerals availability appraisal. United
Noakes, L.C. and MacDonald, E.H., 1972 - Activities con­
States Bureau of Mines information circular No.
cerning detrital heavy minerals in CCOP Countries
9061, p. 42.
1967-1972. In Report of the ninth session of CCOP.
United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and
Towner, R.R., Gray, J. and Porter, L.M., 1987 - ISMI
the Far East, p. 137.
Summary report — Titanium. United States Geolo­
gical Survey circular, 980-G. Tran-Huynh-Anh and Nguyen-Tan-Thi, 1972 — Heavy­
mineral sands near Phan-Thiet and Long-Hai,
Kinney, G.L., 1986 — Viet Nam. In The mineral industry Republic of Viet Nam. In Report of the ninth
of other areas of the Far East and South Asia. In session of CCOP. United Nations Economic Com­
Minerals yearbook, 1984, vol. Ill, Area reports: mission for Asia and the Far East, p. 194-196.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank staff of various geoscien- Evans for typing sections of the initial draft, and to Eliza­
tific organizations in countries visited in the course of the beth Walker for typing the final manuscript.
survey for their assistance and co-operation; and to acknow­
ledge the untiring effort of Jonathan Gray and Denis The report is published with the permission of the
Fortowski who were responsible for much of the literature Director, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geo­
search involved with the report, of Ken Barrett, Rex Bates, physics, Canberra.
Norma Price, and Greg Scott for all the drafting, to Felicity
7. APPENDICES

7.1 BMR RESOURCE CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

TOTAL RESOURCES

Decreasing degree of geological assurance

IDENTIFIED UNDISCOVERED

DEMONSTRATED
INFERRED HYPOTHETICAL SPECULATIVE
MEASURED INDICATED
ECONOMIC

MARGINAL
PARA­
Decreasing degree of economic feasibility

SUBECONOMIC

SUBMARGINAL

Figure 7.1 BMR resource classification scheme

BMR classifies known (identified) mineral resources Resources are classified in accordance with circum­
according to two parameters: degree of assurance of occur­ stances at the time of classification. Resources which are
rence (degree of geological assurance) and degree of econo­ not available for development at the time of classification
mic feasibility of exploitation. The former takes account because of legal or land-use factors are classified without
of information on quantity (tonnage) and chemical com­ regard to such factors; however, the amount of resource
position (grade); the latter takes account of changing thus affected will, wherever possible, be stated for each
economic and technical factors such as commodity prices, classification category.
operating costs, capital costs, discount rates and mining and
metallurgical recoveries.
TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS

RESOURCE A concentration of naturally- UNDISCOVERED RESOURCES Unspecified


occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous materials in or on the bodies of mineral-bearing material surmised to exist on the
earth’s crust and in such form that its economic extraction basis of broad geological knowledge and theory. Undis­
is presently or potentially (within a 20 to 25 year time­ covered resources include the following categories:
frame) feasible.
HYPOTHETICAL Resources which may reasona­
CATEGORIES OF RESOURCES BASED ON DEGREE bly be expected to exist in a known mining district or
OF ASSURANCE OF OCCURRENCE mineral province under known geological conditions. As
exploration confirms their existence and reveals informa­
IDENTIFIED RESOURCE - Specific bodies of tion about tonnage and grade, such resources would be
mineral-bearing material whose location, quantity, and reclassified in the appropriate subdivision of identified
quality are known from specific measurements or estimated resources.
from geological evidence. Identified resources include
economic and subeconomic components. To reflect SPECULATIVE Resources which may occur
degrees of geological assurance, identified resources can either in known types of deposits in a favourable geological
be subdivided into the following categories: setting where no discoveries have previously been made, or
in as yet unknown types of deposits which remain to be
MEASURED Resources for which tonnage is recognized. As exploration confirms their existence and
computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, reveals information about tonnage and grade, such
workings, and drill holes, and for which the grade is com­ resources would be reclassified in the appropriate subdivi­
puted from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for sion of identified resources.
inspection, sampling, and measurement are spaced so
closely, and the geological character is so well defined that CATEGORIES OF RESOURCES BASED ON ECONO­
size, shape, and mineral content are well established. MIC CONSIDERATIONS
INDICATED Resources for which tonnage and ECONOMIC This term implies that, at the time
grade are computed from information similar to that used of determination, profitable extraction or production under
for measured resources, but the sites for inspection, sam­ defined investment assumptions has been established, analy­
pling and measurement are farther apart or are otherwise tically demonstrated or assumed with reasonable certainty.
less adequately spaced. The degree of assurance, although
lower than for resources in the measured category, is SUB-ECONOMIC This term refers to those re­
high enough to assume continuity between points of sources which do not meet the criteria of economic; sub-
observation. economic resources include paramarginal and submarginal
categories.
DEMONSTRATED A collective term for the
sum of measured and indicated resources. PARAMARGINAL That part of sub-economic
resources which, al the lime of determinal ion, almost
INFERRED Resources for which quantitative satisfies the criteria for economic. The main characteristics
estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the of this category arc economic uncertainty or failure (albeit
geological character of the deposit and for which there are just) to meet the criteria which define economic. Included
few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates arc arc resources which would be producible given postulated
based on an assumed continuity or repetition, of which changes in economic or technological factors.
there is geological evidence. This evidence may include
comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are SUBMARGINAL That part of sub-economic
completely concealed may be included if there is specific resources that would require a substantially higher commo­
geological evidence of their presence. Estimates of inferred dity price or some major cost-reducing advance in techno­
resources should be stated separately and not combined in logy to render them economic.
a single total with measured or indicated resources.

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