Biology Animal systems test

Atoms > Molecules > Organelles > Cells > Tissues > Organs > Systems > Multicellular organisms

Advantages Disadvantages
Unicellular • Fewer resources needed • Small, so easy prey
• Can live in harsh conditions • Cell death is death of entire organism
• Easier transportof nutrients and • Limited metabolic activities can be
o2 preformed
Multicellular • Larger size • More resources needed
• Longer life • Specialised cells are interdependent

Colonies were the first evolutionary step to becoming MC. Many individual organisms live together and though they
can live independently, certain roles can be given to certain organisms. Usually colonal organisms live longer.
Multicellular organisms
Sponges simplest living multicellular organisms
• Specialised cells working together for common goal
• Digestive cells, tubular pore cells, epidermal cells
Not organised into interconnected tissue BUT cannot survive alone
Specialisation and differentiation
Differentiation – a process in which cells become more specialised as they mature. Specializations increases
efficiency of function and survival. All specialised cells come from stem cells and usually occur during the embryonic
stages.. This happens as different genes are expressed. Specialised cells however, rely on communications and
coordination between cells. Eg Nerve cells need red blood cells for oxygenated blood.
Three main differences to normal cells: Unspecialised, Potential to divide and replicate for long periods,
Unspecialised cells can differentiate

• Groups of specialized cells working together to perform a similar function make up tissues.
• A collection of different types of tissues working together to perform a particular function is called an organ.
• In a similar pattern a collection of organs that work together to perform a particular function is called a
system. Each organ system contributes to the survival of all living cells in the body.

Tissues: A group of similar cells that perform a common function

• Humans have FOUR main types
• Nervous , Epithelial, Connective ,Muscle
Nervous: Carries messages between brain and the rest of the body via neurons that transmit nerve impulses

Epithelial: Covers body surfaces like cavities (airways) and ducts. They have a prominent nuclei and look like niples.
Protects and is a barrier towards infectious agents and water loss.
Connective : Connects and supports other parts of the body. Supports and nouriushes organs. Bone Cartliage Tendons

Muscles: Tightens and loosens to move other body parts using the nerve impulses. Use ATP

Plant tissue

Meristematic (growing), Undifferentiated

Permanent

• Dermal (epi/peridermal) for protection

• Ground (parenchyma) for support and PS
• Vascular (xylem/phloem) for transport

Organs: Groups oF tissues working together to perform a particular function

Systems are organs working together to perfor a larger similar function.

• integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, lymphatic system, respiratory system, digestive system,
nervous system, endocrine system, cardiovascular system, urinary system, and reproductive systems.

Circulatory Systems : Functions

• Transportation of water, O2 and CO2

• Distribution of nutrients and removal of wastes
• Maintenance of temperature
• Circulation of hormones

To be effective, you need:

• A fluid, Vessels . A pump ,Exchange organs

The blood has 4 parts

1. Plasma
• Pale yellow liquid ,Contains many different dissolved proteins Carries hormones, drugs etc. , Optimal pH of
7.35-7.45
•
2. Red blood cells
 • Biconcave disc
• No nucleus (mammals only) = more space for O2
• Haemoglobin (vertebrates) – iron-containing protein
• Haemocyanin (spiders, crustaceans) – copper
•
3. White blood cells
• White blood cells
• Immune system – attack and engulf foreign bodies
•
4. Platelets
• Fragments of cells, Blood clotting , Work with fibrin

Blood vessels:

The heart
• Circulates blood to lungs, back to heart and then to body
• Beats due to sinoatrial node (pacemaker)
o Electrical signal contracts and pumps
• Normally 4 chambers
o Labelled from own perspective
o Left oxygenated
o Right deoxygenated

Open Circulatory System: Fluid through open body Closed Circulatory System: Fluid through vessels
chamber
The hemolymph directly bathes the organs and The blood circulates within closed vessels.
tissues.
 The blood and interstitial fluid cannot be Blood and interstitial fluid are distinct.
distinguished.
Blood is pumped into the body cavity. Blood is pumped through the vessels by the heart.
Capillary system is absent. Capillary system is present.
Blood is in direct contact with the surrounding Blood is not in direct contact with the tissues.
tissues.

Nutrients are exchanged directly between blood and The nutrients are exchanged via tissue fluid.
tissues.
The volume of blood cannot be controlled. The volume of blood can be controlled by the
contraction and relaxation of blood vessels.
Blood flow is slow. So is exchange Blood flow is rapid.

Organisms with OCS: Snails, clams, cockroaches and Organisms with CCS: Humans, squids, cats,
spiders. earthworms.
Preasure isnst sustained. Uses less energy Pres is sustained in arteries. faster pump.more en

Simple animals don’t need a circulatory system as diffusion allow adequate exchange of water nutrients and gases
Open circulation invertabrates

• No distinction between blood and interstitial fluid

• Long, tubular muscle (heart) pumps fluid (haemolymph) into large cavity (haemocoel)
• Haemolymph bathes organs, exchange occurs
• Drains back through veins to heart

Closed circulation vertabrates

• Blood within vessels, pumped by heart

• Number of heart chambers main difference
• Circulation fast (Humans: ~5L blood in ~1 min)
• Exchange of materials very rapid
• Blood flow regulated
Respiratory systems
Respitory system uses: Muscular system (Diaphragm), Circulatory system, Skelatal system, Nervous system
(increased co2 in body means lower ph., the brain identifies this and makes you breathe)

Gas exchange

• O2 moves into the body. CO2 moves out of the body via diffusion of blood in the alveolus through capillary
• Adaptations:
o Very thin (1 cell thick)
o Moist
o Large SA
o Concentration gradient

Inhale Exhale
Diaphragm contracts Diaphragm relaxes
Ribs move up and out Ribs move down and in
Space increases Space decreases
Air pulled in Air pushed out

Gas exchange surfaces

• Simple diffusion
• Gills
o External
o Internal
• Lungs
• Tracheal exchange
Requirements for exchange: Moist, Thin, SA large
Gills

• Specialised organs for gas exchange in water

o Air ~20% O2
o Water ~1% dissolved O2
• Gills in a gill chamber covered by operculum
• Each gill made of filaments and lamellae, arranged in two rows on the gill arch
• Capillaries surround each gill

Fish breathing

• Unidirectional
• Mouth opens, gills close > water enters mouth
• Mouth closes, gills open > water pushed over gills
• Capillary network > SA for exchange

Counter current exchange

• Blood flows in the opposite direction to water flowing over gills

 • Maximise O2 exchanged by maximising time blood exposed to water
• Can reach ~90%

Bird lungs

• Require A LOT of energy for flight, so A LOT of O2

• Lungs small and static
• Posterior and anterior air sacs
• Air sacs expand/contract
• Unidirectional air flow
• Counter-current exchange to maximise O2 exchange

Snake Lungs

• Reduced left lung or absent

o Elongated
o Bottom is non-respiratory
• Exchange only
• No diaphragm, rib muscles

Tracheal exchange

• Spiracles (holes) > trachea (tubes) > tracheoles > air sacs > haemolymph (fluid)
• No need for specialised circulatory system
• Diffusion of O2 in and CO2 out
• Opening under abdomen in spiders and scorpions
• Muscles control the opening of the spiracles

Digestive system

Purpose: To obtain nutrients from food for biochemical processes (mainly cellular respiration)
Processes: Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Egestion and elimination
Types: Specialised and unspecialised
Specialised systems: Relates to diet and enviroment, Feeding behaviours, Digestive organs
▪ Monogastric
▪ Ruminant (foregut fermenter)
▪ Pseudo-ruminant
▪ Hindgut fermenter
▪ Avian

Unspecialised systems: Gatrovascular cavity

Mongastric (Specialised)

• One simple stomach

• pH ~1.5-2.5 kills bacteria and starts chemical digestion
• Adapted to eat highly digestible food (low fibre)
 • E.g. Cats, dogs, pigs, human
• Diet affects certain features (size of organs, speed of passage)

Not apart of gastrointestinal tracts but plays a role in digestive activities

ORGAN FUNCTION
Salivary glands Contains amylase; moistens and lubricates food for
swallowing
Liver Largest gland with 500+ functions; produces bile for fat
digestion
Gall bladder Stores bile from liver
Pancreas Produces enzymes including amylase, trypsin, peptidase,
lipase

Ingestion

• The process of obtaining and consuming food

• Feeding behaviour
• Six main types in animals

• Filter feeding :Passing water through specialised filtering organs

E.g. Baleen whales, sponges, clams, krill some sharks, flamingos, ducks
• Deposit feeding: Feeding on small specks of organic matter drifting by (aquatic)
E.g. Crabs, eels, snails, sea cucumbers and some fish (flounders, haddock, bass)
• Fluid feeding: Feeding on fluids from host e.g. blood (haemotophage), nectar (nectarivore) or plant sap suckers
E.g. Mosquito, vampire bat, hummingbird, honey possum, aphids, wood peckers
• Bulk feeding: Eating pieces of other organism (plant or animal) or swallowing them whole
E.g. Humans, lions, snakes, birds etc. (Most land animals
• Ram feeding Swimming over/through prey with mouth open. Also called lunge feeding
E.g. Whale sharks, tuna, manta ray
 • Suction feeding: Water (AND prey) drawn into mouth by rapidly expanding buccal cavity creating a pressure
gradient E.g. Most bony fish

Digestion

• Mechanical – the physical breaking down of food into smaller pieces

o Mouth, teeth and tongue
o Muscular stomach
• Chemical – complex molecules like proteins, fats, and carbohydrates are broken down into smaller pieces
that your body can use. It requires special proteins called enzymes.
•
o Break down complex molecules:

o What complex molecules are breaken down for

•
o Macromolecules are found in food, they maintain biochemical functions and keep us functioning
o Monomers are sma;; molecules that make up polymers.

Absorption

• Absorption – movement of nutrients, water and electrolytes from the SI and LI into blood stream
• Moist, thin walls, increase SA
• Villi and microvilli (SI) for simple carbs and amino acids
• Lacteal (lymph) for fatty acids and glycerol
Egestion

• Egestion – expulsion of undigested food material from the digestive tract via anus
• LI – colon and rectum
o Bacteria produces vitamins A and K
o Some salts, water absorbed
o Peristalsis moves faeces

Gastrovascular Cavity

• Digestion of food and transportation of nutrients

o Primitive animals
• Jellyfish, coral, sea anemone, flatworms
• Cavity has one opening to environment
o Food in, Waste out
• Digested nutrients diffused throughout body tissue

Carnivores

• Sharp incisors , Long sharp canines , Few molars ,Large powerful jaws
• Temporalis muscles
• Enlarged sagittal crest
• No salivary amylase, Large simple stomach, Can be 60-70% of GI tract , 10x amount of acid , SI short, efficient
absorption , 4% fat, No enzymes for cellulose , LI absorbs water only , Caecum useless

Herbivores
• Chisel-like incisors
• Some grow continuously
 • Many broad flat molars, Gap (diastema) between repositions food, Large lower jaw for grinding

Specialised systems
Ruminants
FOUR stomachs
• Also called foregut fermenters
• Rumen, reticulum, omasum
• Bacteria and protozoa
• Breaks down cellulose
• Regurgitation (chew cud)
• Abomasum (true stomach)
• Acid and enzymes
• Kills, liquefies and digests

• SI can be up to 27x body length

• Largely inefficient due to low quality food
• 50-60% energy
• E.g. Cows, sheep, goats, giraffe, kangaroo

Pseudo Ruminants
• THREE chambered stomach
• Bacteria to digest cellulose, Large caecum for further fermentation and digestion, Animals that eat a
large amount of roughage , E.g. Camel, llama, alpaca hippo, sloths
Hindgut Fermenters
• Monogastric herbivores BUT large caecum and colon after stomach and SI
• Bacteria in caecum digests cellulose
• Disadvantage – after absorption
• Overcome – some practice coprophagy
• E.g. Horse, rabbit, koala

Avian Digestion
• No teeth peck (physical)
• Crop stores and soaks food
• Proventriculus (stomach) adds enzymes and acid (chemical)
• Gizzard muscular and contains grit/stones to grind food (physical)
• SI and LI absorbs nutrients
• Cloaca (common vent) expels uric acid (food and urine mix)